Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 28

Introduction

Mitosis is used for almost all of your body’s cell division needs. It adds new cells during development and replaces old and worn-out cells throughout your life. The goal of
mitosis is to produce daughter cells that are genetically identical to their mothers, with not a single chromosome more or less.
Meiosis, on the other hand, is used for just one purpose in the human body: the production of gametes—sex cells, or sperm and eggs. Its goal is to make daughter cells with
exactly half as many chromosomes as the starting cell.
To put that another way, meiosis in humans is a division process that takes us from a diploid cell—one with two sets of chromosomes—to haploid cells—ones with a single set of
chromosomes. In humans, the haploid cells made in meiosis are sperm and eggs. When a sperm and an egg join in fertilization, the two haploid sets of chromosomes form a
complete diploid set: a new genome.
Phases of meiosis
In many ways, meiosis is a lot like mitosis. The cell goes through similar stages and uses similar strategies to organize and separate chromosomes. In meiosis, however, the cell
has a more complex task. It still needs to separate sister chromatids (the two halves of a duplicated chromosome), as in mitosis. But it must also separate homologous
chromosomes, the similar but nonidentical chromosome pairs an organism receives from its two parents.
These goals are accomplished in meiosis using a two-step division process. Homologue pairs separate during a first round of cell division, called meiosis I. Sister chromatids
separate during a second round, called meiosis II.
Since cell division occurs twice during meiosis, one starting cell can produce four gametes (eggs or sperm). In each round of division, cells go through four stages: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Meiosis I
Before entering meiosis I, a cell must first go through interphase. As in mitosis, the cell grows during G_11start subscript, 1, end subscript phase, copies all of its chromosomes
during S phase, and prepares for division during G_22start subscript, 2, end subscript phase.
During prophase I, differences from mitosis begin to appear. As in mitosis, the chromosomes begin to condense, but in meiosis I, they also pair up. Each chromosome carefully
aligns with its homologue partner so that the two match up at corresponding positions along their full length.
For instance, in the image below, the letters A, B, and C represent genes found at particular spots on the chromosome, with capital and lowercase letters for different forms, or
alleles, of each gene. The DNA is broken at the same spot on each homologue—here, between genes B and C—and reconnected in a criss-cross pattern so that the homologues
exchange part of their DNA.

Image of crossing over. Two homologous chromosomes carry different versions of three genes. One has the A, B, and C versions, while the other has the a, b, and c versions. A
crossover event in which two chromatids—one from each homologue—exchange fragments swaps the C and c genes. Now, each homologue has two dissimilar chromatids.
One has A, B, C on one chromatid and A, B, c on the other chromatid.
The other homologue has a, b, c on one chromatid and a, b, C on the other chromatid.

This process, in which homologous chromosomes trade parts, is called crossing over. It's helped along by a protein structure called the synaptonemal complex that holds the
homologues together. The chromosomes would actually be positioned one on top of the other—as in the image below—throughout crossing over; they're only shown side-by-
side in the image above so that it's easier to see the exchange of genetic material.
The Process of Meiosis: Figure 2
The Process of Meiosis: Figure 1
(Process of figure 1 explanation)

Image of two homologous chromosomes, positioned one on top of the other and held together by the synaptonemal complex.
Image credit: based on "The process of meiosis: Figure 1" by OpenStax College, Biology, CC BY 3.0
You can see crossovers under a microscope as chiasmata, cross-shaped structures where homologues are linked together. Chiasmata keep the homologues connected to each other after the
synaptonemal complex breaks down, so each homologous pair needs at least one. It's common for multiple crossovers (up to 252525!) to take place for each homologue pair ^11start
superscript, 1, end superscript.
The spots where crossovers happen are more or less random, leading to the formation of new, "remixed" chromosomes with unique combinations of alleles.
After crossing over, the spindle begins to capture chromosomes and move them towards the center of the cell (metaphase plate). This may seem familiar from mitosis, but there is a twist. Each
chromosome attaches to microtubules from just one pole of the spindle, and the two homologues of a pair bind to microtubules from opposite poles. So, during metaphase I, homologue pairs—
not individual chromosomes up at the metaphase plate for separation.
The phases of meiosis I.
When the homologous pairs line up at the metaphase plate, the orientation of each pair is random. For instance, in the diagram above, the pink
version of the big chromosome and the purple version of the little chromosome happen to be positioned towards the same pole and go into the
same cell. But the orientation could have equally well been flipped, so that both purple chromosomes went into the cell together. This allows
for the formation of gametes with different sets of homologues.

In anaphase I, the homologues are pulled apart and move apart to opposite ends of the cell. The sister chromatids of each chromosome,
however, remain attached to one another and don't come apart.

Finally, in telophase I, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the cell. In some organisms, the nuclear membrane re-forms and the
chromosomes decondense, although in others, this step is skipped—since cells will soon go through another round of division, meiosis
II^{2,3}2,3start superscript, 2, comma, 3, end superscript. Cytokinesis usually occurs at the same time as telophase I, forming two haploid
daughter cells.
Diagram showing the relationship between chromosome configuration at meiosis I and homologue segregation to gametes. The diagram depicts
a simplified case in which an organism only has 2n = 4 chromosomes. In this case, four different types of gametes may be produced, depending
on whether the maternal homologues are positioned on the same side or on opposite sides of the metaphase plate.
Diagram showing the relationship between chromosome configuration at meiosis I and homologue segregation to gametes. The diagram depicts a simplified case in which an organism only has
2n = 4 chromosomes. In this case, four different types of gametes may be produced, depending on whether the maternal homologues are positioned on the same side or on opposite sides of
the metaphase plate.
In anaphase I, the homologues are pulled apart and move apart to opposite ends of the cell. The sister chromatids of each chromosome, however, remain attached to one another and don't
come apart.
Finally, in telophase I, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the cell. In some organisms, the nuclear membrane re-forms and the chromosomes decondense, although in others, this step
is skipped—since cells will soon go through another round of division, meiosis II^{2,3}2,3start superscript, 2, comma, 3, end superscript. Cytokinesis usually occurs at the same time as telophase
I, forming two haploid daughter cells.
Meiosis II
Cells move from meiosis I to meiosis II without copying their DNA. Meiosis II is a shorter and simpler process than meiosis I, and you may find it helpful to think of meiosis II as “mitosis for
haploid cells."
The cells that enter meiosis II are the ones made in meiosis I. These cells are haploid—have just one chromosome from each homologue pair—but their chromosomes still consist of two sister
chromatids. In meiosis II, the sister chromatids separate, making haploid cells with non-duplicated chromosomes.
Phases of meiosis II
Prophase II: Starting cells are the haploid cells made in meiosis I. Chromosomes condense.
Metaphase II: Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate.
Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate to opposite ends of the cell.
Telophase II: Newly forming gametes are haploid, and each chromosome now has just one chromatid.
During prophase II, chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope breaks down, if needed. The centrosomes move apart, the spindle forms between them, and the spindle microtubules
begin to capture chromosomes.
[When did the centrosomes duplicate?]
^3start superscript, 3, end superscript
^5start superscript, 5, end superscript
The two sister chromatids of each chromosome are captured by microtubules from opposite spindle poles. In metaphase II, the chromosomes line up individually along the metaphase plate.
In anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate and are pulled towards opposite poles of the cell.
In telophase II, nuclear membranes form around each set of chromosomes, and the chromosomes decondense. Cytokinesis splits the chromosome sets into new cells, forming the final products
of meiosis: four haploid cells in which each chromosome has just one chromatid. In humans, the products of meiosis are sperm or egg cells.
[Does meiosis always produce four gametes?]
^2start superscript, 2, end superscript
How meiosis "mixes and matches" genes
The gametes produced in meiosis are all haploid, but they're not genetically identical. For example, take a look the meiosis II diagram above, which shows the products of meiosis for a cell
with 2n = 42n=42, n, equals, 4 chromosomes. Each gamete has a unique "sample" of the genetic material present in the starting cell.
As it turns out, there are many more potential gamete types than just the four shown in the diagram, even for a cell with with only four chromosomes. The two main reason we can get many
genetically different gametes are:
Crossing over. The points where homologues cross over and exchange genetic material are chosen more or less at random, and they will be different in each cell that goes through meiosis. If
meiosis happens many times, as in humans, crossovers will happen at many different points.
Random orientation of homologue pairs. The random orientation of homologue pairs in metaphase I allows for the production of gametes with many different assortments of homologous
chromosomes.
In a human cell, the random orientation of homologue pairs alone allows for over 888 \text{million}millionm, i, l, l, i, o, n different types of possible gametes^77start superscript, 7, end
superscript. When we layer crossing over on top of this, the number of genetically different gametes that you—or any other person—can make is effectively infinite.
[How do you get that number?]
2323
2^2 = 42, start superscript, 2, end superscript, equals, 423232^{23}=8,2, start superscript, 23, end superscript, equals, 8, comma388,388, comma608608
Diagram showing the relationship between chromosome configuration at meiosis I and homologue segregation to gametes. The diagram depicts a simplified case in which an organism only has
2n = 4 chromosomes. In this case, four different types of gametes may be produced, depending on whether the maternal homologues are positioned on the same side or on opposite sides of
the metaphase plate.
Check out the video on variation in a species to learn how genetic diversity generated by meiosis (and fertilization) is important in evolution and helps populations survive.

PHASES OF MEIOSIS

Name of
Description
Phase

Homologous chromosomes pair up and form


1. Prophase I
tetrad

Spindle fibers move homologous


2. Anaphase I
chromosomes to opposite sides

Nuclear membrane reforms, cytoplasm


3. Telophase II
divides, 4 daughter cells formed

4. Metaphase Chromosomes line up along equator, not in


II homologous pairs

5. Prophase I Crossing-over occurs

6. Anaphase II Chromatids separate

7. Metaphase I Homologs line up alone equator

Cytoplasm divides, 2 daughter cells are


8. Telophase I
formed

Phases of Meiosis
Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I
Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II, New Daughter Cells

Meiosis Stages
Meiosis occurs in eukaryotic organisms that reproduce sexually. This includes plants and animals. Meiosis is a two-part cell division process that produces sex cells with one half the number
of chromosomes as the parent cell. There are two stages or phases of meiosis: meiosis I and meiosis II. At the end of the meiotic process, four daughter cells are produced. Before a
dividing cell enters meiosis, it undergoes a period of growth called interphase.

Meiosis | Back to Top


Sexual reproduction occurs only in eukaryotes. During the formation of gametes, the number of chromosomes is reduced by half, and returned to the full amount when the two gametesfuse
during fertilization

Phases of Meiosis | Back to Top


Two successive nuclear divisions occur, Meiosis I (Reduction) and Meiosis II (Division). Meiosis produces 4 haploid cells. Mitosis produces 2 diploid cells. The old name for meiosis was reduction/
division. Meiosis I reduces the ploidy level from 2n to n (reduction) while Meiosis II divides the remaining set of chromosomes in a mitosis-like process (division). Most of the differences
between the processes occur during Meiosis I.

The above image is from http://www.biology.uc.edu/vgenetic/meiosis/


Prophase I | Back to Top
Prophase I has a unique event -- the pairing (by an as yet undiscovered mechanism) of homologous chromosomes. Synapsis is the process of linking of the replicated homologous chromosomes. The
resulting chromosome is termed a tetrad, being composed of two chromatids from each chromosome, forming a thick (4-strand) structure. Crossing-over may occur at this point. During crossing-over
chromatids break and may be reattached to a different homologous chromosome.
The alleles on this tetrad:
ABCDEFG
ABCDEFG
abcdefg
abcdefg
will produce the following chromosomes if there is a crossing-over event between the 2nd and 3rd chromosomes from the top:
ABCDEFG
ABcdefg
abCDEFG
abcdefg
Thus, instead of producing only two types of chromosome (all capital or all lower case), four different chromosomes are produced. This doubles the variability of gamete genotypes. The
occurrence of a crossing-over is indicated by a special structure, a chiasma (plural chiasmata) since the recombined inner alleles will align more with others of the same type (e.g. a with a, B with
B). Near the end of Prophase I, the homologous chromosomes begin to separate slightly, although they remain attached at chiasmata.
Crossing-over between homologous chromosomes produces chromosomes with new associations of genes and alleles. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by
Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Events of Prophase I (save for synapsis and crossing over) are similar to those in Prophase of mitosis: chromatin condenses into chromosomes, the nucleolus dissolves, nuclear membrane is
disassembled, and the spindle apparatus forms.
Major events in Prophase I. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Metaphase I | Back to Top
Metaphase I is when tetrads line-up along the equator of the spindle. Spindle fibers attach to the centromere region of each homologous chromosome pair. Other metaphase events as in
mitosis.
Anaphase I | Back to Top
Anaphase I is when the tetrads separate, and are drawn to opposite poles by the spindle fibers. The centromeres in Anaphase I remain intact.

Events in prophase and metaphse I. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with
permission.
Telophase I | Back to Top
Telophase I is similar to Telophase of mitosis, except that only one set of (replicated) chromosomes is in each "cell". Depending on species, new nuclear envelopes may or may not form. Some
animal cells may have division of the centrioles during this phase.
The events of Telophase I. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Prophase II | Back to Top
During Prophase II, nuclear envelopes (if they formed during Telophase I) dissolve, and spindle fibers reform. All else is as in Prophase of mitosis. Indeed Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis.
The events of Prophase II. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Metaphase II | Back to Top
Metaphase II is similar to mitosis, with spindles moving chromosomes into equatorial area and attaching to the opposite sides of the centromeres in the kinetochore region.
Anaphase II | Back to Top
During Anaphase II, the centromeres split and the former chromatids (now chromosomes) are segregated into opposite sides of the cell.
The events of Metaphase II and Anaphase II. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used
with permission.
Telophase II | Back to Top
Telophase II is identical to Telophase of mitosis. Cytokinesis separates the cells.
The events of Telophase II. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis | Back to Top
Mitosis maintains ploidy level, while meiosis reduces it. Meiosis may be considered a reduction phase followed by a slightly altered mitosis. Meiosis occurs in a relative few cells of a
multicellular organism, while mitosis is more common.
Comparison of the events in Mitosis and Meiosis. Images from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com),
used with permission.
Gametogenesis | Back to Top
Gametogenesis is the process of forming gametes (by definition haploid, n) from diploid cells of the germ line. Spermatogenesis is the process of forming sperm cells by meiosis (in animals, by mitosis
in plants) in specialized organs known as gonads (in males these are termed testes). After division the cells undergo differentiation to become sperm cells. Oogenesisis the process of forming
an ovum (egg) by meiosis (in animals, by mitosis in the gametophyte in plants) in specialized gonads known as ovaries. Whereas in spermatogenesis all 4 meiotic products develop into gametes,
oogenesis places most of the cytoplasm into the large egg. The other cells, the polar bodies, do not develop. This all the cytoplasm and organelles go into the egg. Human males produce
200,000,000 sperm per day, while the female produces one egg (usually) each menstrual cycle.
Gametogenesis. Images from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Spermatogenesis
Sperm production begins at puberty at continues throughout life, with several hundred million sperm being produced each day. Once sperm form they move into the epididymis, where they
mature and are stored.

Human Sperm (SEM x5,785). This image is copyright Dennis Kunkel at www.DennisKunkel.com, used with permission.
Oogenesis
The ovary contains many follicles composed of a developing egg surrounded by an outer layer of follicle cells. Each egg begins oogenesis as a primary oocyte. At birth each female carries a lifetime
supply of developing oocytes, each of which is in Prophase I. A developing egg (secondary oocyte) is released each month from puberty until menopause, a total of 400-500 eggs.

Вам также может понравиться