Research Methods cont.

Tuesday, September 25, 2018 1:58 PM

Theories
• Common use =/= scientific use
• Used to organize and explain a variety of facts, descriptions and
observations
• Generate new knowledge
• Parsimonious
• Good theory will be falsifiable
○ Will facilitate further research

Pseudoscience
• Relies on authority figure
• Emphasis on scientific-sounding jargon
○ No physical evidence
• Not falsifiable
• Poor or no methodology or anecdotal evidence
• Not peer reviewed
• Ignores conflicts with known or existing evidence
• Vague claims
• Reinforces status quo or a worldview
• Doesn't facilitate further research

Goals of Psychological Research

• Describe and predict behavior
• Determine causes of behaviors
• Influence / control behavior to an extent (manipulation)

Types of Research
• Basic research
○ Aims to study the fundamentals, fills in the gaps of knowledge
○ Not always directly applicable to the real world, or useful
immediately
• Applied research
○ Research that seeks to answer a question in the real world or to solve
a problem

Variables
 immediately
• Applied research
○ Research that seeks to answer a question in the real world or to solve
a problem

Variables
• Conceptual variable has to be operationalized, in turn becomes a
measured variable
• 4 general categories of variables
1. Mediating Variables (Independent Variables)
2. Response Variables (Dependent Variables)
3. Situational Variables
4. Participant Variables
• In one non-experimental method (correlation research), there are 2 or
more dependent variables
• Variables on a graph can have 4 different behaviors
○ Positive, negative, curvilinear or none
• In an experimental method, random assignment helps to show that from
the independent variable, it affects a change in the dependent variable
○ Issues with correlation could be the third-variable problem

Causality
• Covariation of cause and effect
• Temporal precedence
• No more plausible alternative explanations

Standard Regression Equation

• Standard Deviation tells you how wide the normal curve is

 • Standard Deviation tells you how wide the normal curve is
○ How much variance is in your data
• Standard error: how far the sample mean is from the population mean

Construct Validity
• Very critical
• Construct validity shows that the dependent variable truly measures the
conceptual variables
○ We operationalize our conceptual variables (not measurable until
operationalize)
○ Are our variables really appropriate to the test / concept we are
trying to test
○ E.g., extent to which a test measures intelligence is a question of
construct validity
• E.g., forced swim task
○ Use an animal model for depression
○ Longer the animal swims for, less likely they are depressed
§ How much effort they put in to try and stay alive
§ Factors that this doesn't take into effect: health of animal, if
you give up you won't have to thrash around as long
§ If the test keeps reoccurring, it's a learning experience for the
animal
• How do we go about checking construct validity? A few validate tests:
1. Face validity
○ Intuition
○ At face value (first appearance), is the measured variable related to
the construct
○ The degree to which a test or assessment is subjectively viewed as
covering the concept it's trying to measure
§ Refers to the transparency or relevance of the test
○ Weakest of the checks for construct validity
2. Content validity
○ Do your measured variables capture all the different aspects of the
conceptual variable?
- Check somatic activity, areas of the brain, heart rate
○ Trying to capture the full spectrum that are conceptualized
○ Refers to how well a test measures the behavior that it's intended to
measure
3. Concurrent and convergent validity
○ When you are measuring something but there are many different
approaches to measure it
 ○ Trying to capture the full spectrum that are conceptualized
○ Refers to how well a test measures the behavior that it's intended to
measure
3. Concurrent and convergent validity
○ When you are measuring something but there are many different
approaches to measure it
○ Does your dependent variable correlate with other variables that are
supposed to measure the same construct?
○ Concurrent validity focuses on the test to predict outcomes on
another test or the outcome of a variable
○ Convergent validity is the observation of strong correlations
between two tests that are assumed to measure the same construct
4. Discriminant validity (divergent validity)
○ Dependent variable is uncorrelated with unrelated variables
○ No correlation (should be a straight line when looking on a graph)
○ Tests whether concepts / measurements that are not supposed to be
related are actually unrelated
5. Predictive validity
○ Do your dependent variables predict some future behavior that's
related to the construct in testing
○ The extent to which a score on a scale / test predicts the scores on a
criterion measure

Types of Validity
• Internal validity
○ Can we trust the causal relationship between cause and effect
○ To determine whether or not a causal conclusion is warranted
○ Did we miss any confounding variables? How is the quality of the
study?
• External validity
○ Validity of generalized inferences in scientific research
- How the research is applicable to the world
○ Based on experiments as experimental validity
○ Do our results generalize to other populations and settings

Animal Models for Research

• We use animals for research because:
○ Best option we have to provide us with valuable information we
otherwise cannot obtain
○ Have a better understanding of basic mechanisms, genetics, etc.
○ No viable alternatives
○ High predictive value
- Moderate in many instances, high in some instances
○ High a number of protections in place (e.g., CCAC, ACC)

Human Research
 ○ No viable alternatives
○ High predictive value
- Moderate in many instances, high in some instances
○ High a number of protections in place (e.g., CCAC, ACC)

Human Research
• Ethical considerations must be made
○ Federally mandated committees review human research proposals
○ Informed consent
- Can't be penalized or punished if you decide to leave a study
• Must also consider the potential long-term effects

Issues in Biopsychology
• Continuity and stages
○ Continuous vs. discrete
○ Some parts of the life are discrete stages vs. a continuous growth
(i.e., puberty)
• Stability and change
○ Stable vs. labile
○ We assume there is a stability in personality, behaviors
○ Also very susceptible to changes (memory)
• Nature and nurture
○ Poorly understood
○ Not looking which is better, but looking at the interaction between
nature and nurture
○ Heritability estimate
- Describes variance not correlation
- Shows how much of this variance is described by genetic
differences
- "heritability estimate for IQ is 0.5"
→ 50% of variance in IQ is explained by differences in
genes
- "heritability estimate for arms is 0% genetic"
→ All the noise in data can be explained by variances in our
environment
→ None of the variance can be explained by differences in
genes