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INTRODUCTION
PRODUCTION OF VAM 1
1.1 Introduction:
Vinyl acetate is a colorless, flammable liquid that also has a characteristic smell that can quickly
become irritating. This monomer is used principally in the production of polyvinyl acetate (PVAc)
and other vinyl acetate copolymers. Polyvinyl acetate is a precursor of polyvinylic alcohol and
polyvinyl acetate resins (PVA). Vinyl acetate is also copolymerized as a minor raw material for
vinyl chloride and ethylene to form commercial
Polymers and acrylic fibers.
Vinyl acetate is completely soluble in organic liquids but not in water. At 20 degree centigrade a
saturated solution of the monomer in water can contain between 2-2.4% of vinyl acetate, while a
saturated water solution in vinyl acetate contains 1% of water. At 50 degree centigrade the
solubility of the monomer in water increases in 0.1% in regards to 20 degree centigrade, while the
solubility of water in vinyl acetate doubles at 50 degree centigrade. The most important reaction
of vinyl acetate is the polymerization by free radicals which is fast and exothermic. The speed of
hydrolysis of the vinyl acetate is 1,000 times greater than its saturated analogous in a alkaline
medium, and it was researched that its speed of hydrolysis is significantly lower at a pH of 4.4.
Properties Values
Molecular weight 86.09
Vinyl ester content ≥ 99.9%
Distillation range (101.3 kPa) 72 – 73 °C
Freezing point − 93 °C
Water Max. 400 ppm
Acid content (acetic acid) Max 50 ppm
Acetaldehyde Max 100 ppm
Inhibitor content 3 – 5 ppm
Liquid viscosity at 20 °C 0.41 Cp
Solubility VAM - water/water - VAM at 0.9%/2.3%
25 °C
Solubility in organic solvents Complete
Upper/lower explosion limit vapor in air at 2.6/13.4% vol.
20 °C
PRODUCTION OF VAM 2
1.3 Applications:
The vinyl acetate monomer (VAM) is large scale commodity chemical mostly used in
manufacturing polyvinyl acetate, the basic ingredient in water soluble acrylic paints. Other
applications are coatings for textile and paper industries, laminated safety glass, packaging,
automotive fuel tanks and acrylic fibers. The worldwide production of vinyl acetate was about 5
million tons per year in 2005[2], with rapid growth in the emerging markets. Higher efficiency can
be achieved by upstream integration with the production of low cost acetic acid, as well as by
downstream integration with the manufacturing of polyvinyl acetate and polyvinyl alcohol.
• Plastics
• Films
• Lacquers
• Laminating adhesives
• Inks
• Elastomers
• Adhesives
• Paper coating
• Finishing and impregnation materials
• Water based emulsion paints
• Floor tiling
• Safety Glasses
• Building construction
• Acrylic fibers
• Glue
• Cosmetics and personal care products
• Textile finishing and non-woven products
PRODUCTION OF VAM 3
CHAPTER 02
PROCESS SELECTION
PRODUCTION OF VAM 4
2.1 Manufacturing Routes:
Three main routes for vinyl acetate manufacturing are employed today, as follows:
The operating conditions are gas phase at 170 – 250 °C and Zn catalyst impregnated on charcoal.
Per - pass acetylene conversion is 60 – 70% with a selectivity of 93% acetylene and 99% acetic
acid [3]. High acetylene cost and safety problems make this process less competitive today.
In the second step the intermediate decomposes at 120 °C with acid catalyst:
Note that this process may rely completely on renewable raw materials.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 5
2.3 Selection of the Process:
We have selected the vinyl acetate monomer production from Acetic acid, ethylene and oxygen
because selectivity may reach 94 % by ethylene and 98 to 99 % by acetic acid. [4]
PRODUCTION OF VAM 6
CHAPTER 03
CAPACITY SELECTION
PRODUCTION OF VAM 7
3.1 Capacity Selection:
• The worldwide production capacity of vinyl acetate monomer (VAM) was estimated at
6,154,000 tonnes/annum in 2007, with most capacity concentrated in the United States
(1,585,000 all in Texas), China (1,261,000), Japan (725,000) and Taiwan (650,000). The
average list price for 2008 was $1600/tonne[4].
• The market for vinyl acetate monomer (VAM) is driven by high demand for adhesives
from end-user industries such as construction, auto-motives and furniture. Moreover, the
global vinyl acetate monomer market is driven by increasing demand for VAM copolymers
from paints and coatings industry. Vinyl acetate monomer (VAM) is one of the key
polymers used in manufacture of adhesives and emulsions. Increasing demand for
ethylene-vinyl acetate and ethylene-vinyl alcohol from solar PV cells and the food
packaging industry respectively are likely to provide better opportunities for the vinyl
acetate monomer (VAM) market over the forecast period. However, highly volatility of
raw material prices, limited technology and over production in the market is anticipated to
hinder the growth of the market in near future.
• With over 40% share in total demand, Asia Pacific dominated the demand for vinyl acetate
monomer in 2013[4]. The region is projected to demonstrate latent growth for the vinyl
acetate monomer (VAM) market during the forecast period. In terms of market share, Asia
Pacific was followed by Europe and North America, both of which are projected to exhibit
relatively slower growth numbers for the vinyl acetate monomer market during the forecast
period. The demand for vinyl acetate monomer is increasing slightly in North America
region due to an increasing demand from the adhesives and packaging industries. Rest of
the World is anticipated to witness stable demand for vinyl acetate monomer between 2014
and 2020[4].
PRODUCTION OF VAM 8
• In Pakistan there is no company which is producing VAM. So, we have decided to
produce Vinyl acetate monomer with the capacity of 34 ktonnes per annum.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 9
CHAPTER 04
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
PRODUCTION OF VAM 10
11
4.1 Process Flow Diagram:
PRODUCTION OF VAM
Figure 4.1 Process Flow Diagram for Production of VAM
4.2 Process Description:
The process is centered on the reaction between ethylene, oxygen and acetic acid in order to
produce vinyl acetate and water. There is a second unwanted reaction in the process based on the
ethylene oxidization to produce water and carbon dioxide. The gaseous effluents from the reactor
are cooled trying to have a partial condensation of the stream. Next, the gas is separated from the
liquids in a phase separator. The gas is washed with acetic acid from a recycle stream. This helps
to recover the vinyl acetate in the absorber. Afterwards, there is a process to eliminate the CO2
from the gas phase and recycle it back in to the reactor the Ethylene is necessary.
The liquids that come out from the separator and the acetic acid used in the washing process enter
an azeotropic distillation tower. In this part of the process, the main objective is to separate the
acetic acid (bottoms) form the water and vinyl acetate mixture (distillate). The distillate enters to
a decantation process in which its organic product (mainly vinyl acetate) divides into a reflux
stream that heads back to the distillation column and another stream that enters a separation train
process where the proper concentration level of vinyl acetate is achieved to comply with the
wanted specifications. The aqueous stream from the decanter is discarded.
A portion of the bottoms stream from the distillation column (mainly acetic acid) is used in the
washing process in the absorber, while the other portion of the bottom stream is mixed with pure
acetic acid from the feed streams to later on enter to an evaporation process. The gaseous acetic
acid obtained is mixed with the recycle gas, oxygen and ethylene to form the feed to the reactor.
The reaction that produces the vinyl acetate takes place in a P.B.R. reactor where a gaseous mixture
of ethylene, acetic acid, and air (with small presence of CO2 and water from the recycle streams)
are fed to the reactor. To obtain an annual production of in thousands of tons of vinyl acetate, with
a molar composition of 0.5 of ethylene, 0.07 of oxygen and 0.15 acetic acid have to be fed. An
excess of ethylene over acetic acid (3:1) must be guaranteed. The concentration of oxygen must
be kept below 8 % molar because at higher concentrations it breaches the explosive limit of the
mixture.
Two key safety constraints exist in the process.First, the oxygen composition must not exceed 8
mol %anywhere in the gas recycle loop to remain outside the explosivity envelope of ethylene[5].
Continuous and reliable O2 analyzers will be installed in the process at the inlet of the reactor to
monitor oxygen composition. Second, the pressure in the gas recycle loop and distillation column
cannot exceed 140 psia because of the mechanical construction limit of the process vessels.
Pressure measurements are readily available and will be installed at appropriate locations.
Exceeding either the oxygen concentration or pressure limits will shut down the process via
interlocks.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 12
Several other operational constraints must also be satisfied during process operation. The peak
reactor temperature along the length of the tube must remain below 200 oC, otherwise mechanical
damage occurs to the catalyst requiring shutdown. Liquid levels in the vaporizer, separator,
absorber base, distillation column base, and decanter must operate within the limits of 10 to 90%.
The vessel volumes listed have been proposed for the working liquid inventories between the level
taps. Reactor inlet temperature must exceed 130 oC to prevent condensation of liquid in the reactor.
The hot side exit temperature from the feed effluent heat exchanger (FEHE) must remain above
130oC to avoid condensation in the exchanger, which has been designed to handle only vapor-
phase flow.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 13
CHAPTER 05
MATERIAL AND ENERGY
BALANCE
PRODUCTION OF VAM 14
Material and Energy Balance
5.1 Assumptions
• Capacity:4353kg/hr
• Days of operation:330
• Basis: 1 hour operation
• Tref = 30 oC
• Steady state condition
• min = mout
• Ein = Eout
5.1 Over All Mass Balance
5912kg 5912kg
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5.1.1 Section 1
PRODUCTION OF VAM 16
5.1.2 Section 2
PRODUCTION OF VAM 17
5.1.3 Section 3
40 oC 40 oC 54 oC 42 oC 45 oC 45 oC 45 oC
PRODUCTION OF VAM 18
5.2 Reactor
PRODUCTION OF VAM 19
5.2.2 Energy balance
Equation for energy balance is:
dQ/dt = ∆𝐻1 - ∆𝐻2 + Q - ∆𝐻𝑟
Q = ∆𝐻2 − ∆𝐻1 + ∆𝐻𝑟
T
Tref = 150oC ∆H2 = Cp dT = ∫T 2 (A + BT + CT 2 + DT 3 )dT
ref
So, ∆𝐻1 = 0
∆𝐻2 = 5.9×104 kJ/kmol
∆𝐻𝑟= ∑(𝑛𝑖 ∆𝐻𝑓 )𝑝 − ∑(𝑛𝑖 ∆𝐻𝑓 )𝑟
PRODUCTION OF VAM 20
5.2 FEHE Energy Balance
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 81℃
Qh = -1.23×107 kJ/hr
Assuming no heat losses
Qh = Qc
Cp = 4.18 kJ/kg.K
∆T = 15 K
Mass flow rate of water = Qh/(Cp. ∆T)
= 1.9×105 kg/hr
PRODUCTION OF VAM 21
5.4 Flash Drum
𝑍𝐾
𝑖 𝑖
where v = vapor fraction 𝑦𝑖 = 1+𝑉(𝐾
𝑖−1)
PRODUCTION OF VAM 22
5.5 Compressor Energy Balance
Tin = 40℃ Pin = 592 kPa
Tout = 80℃ Pout= 882 kPa
Compression Ratio = 1.5
Compressor Work = m*(∆𝐻)
Where ∆𝐻 = H2 – H1
W = 1.7×106 kJ/hr
Actual Work = W/efficiency = 1.7∗ 106 /0.75 = 2.26×106 kJ/hr
Power required = Actual Work/efficiency = (2.26×106 )/0.85
= 2.6×106 kJ/hr
= 738 kW
5.6 Absorber
PRODUCTION OF VAM 23
5.6.1 Absorber Material Balance
RECOVERY [6]
VAM = 99.9%
Acid = 98%
Table 5.7 Material Balance of Absorber
PRODUCTION OF VAM 24
5.7 Distillation Column
PRODUCTION OF VAM 25
5.7.2 Distillation Column Energy Balance
Condenser
Saturated vapor at T=97ºC
Condenser outlet T=40ºC
So, latent and sensitive heat is involved.
Q=4.74×106 kJ/hr
Utility flow
Mass of water=Q/(Cp*dt)
Where Cp=4.18kJ/kg.K
dT = 15ºC
Mass flow rate of water=75645.13kg/hr
Reboiler
Overall energy balance on distillation column
HF +QR= HD + HW + Qc
HF=3397691.15kJ/hr
HD=132108.4kJ/hr
HW=1747707 kJ/hr
QC=4742950 kJ/hr
QR=3.2×106 kJ/hr
PRODUCTION OF VAM 26
5.8 Vaporizer Energy Balance
𝑇
Q = 𝑛𝑖 (∫𝑇 2(𝐴𝑖 + 𝐵𝑖 𝑇 + 𝐶𝑖 𝑇 2 + 𝐷𝑖 𝑇 3 )𝑑𝑇) + 𝑛𝑖 𝜆𝑖
1
PRODUCTION OF VAM 27
CHAPTER 06
EQUIPMENT DESIGN
PRODUCTION OF VAM 28
6.1 REACTOR DESIGN
PRODUCTION OF VAM 29
Reactor
6.1.1 Reactor Design
Reactor is the heart of a chemical process. Reactor is the equipment where the main chemical
reaction takes place. Following the reactor are the preliminary treatment and raw material
preparation steps whereas followed by the reactor are product enrichment and purification steps.
The main objective in this chapter is to determine what type and size of the reactor and mode of
operation would be the best to get the desired yield and purity of Vinyl Acetate Monomer.
For the same production, the size of batch reactor is much larger as compared to a continuous
reactor. As the annual production capacity of the plant has been selected to be 34 k-tons per annum,
continuous mode of operation is selected for the reactor.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 30
6.1.4 Type of Flow
On the basis of interaction of the reagents in the reactor, the reactors are classified as:
• Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)
• Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)
A CSTR is equipped with an impeller. One or more reagents, which may be solid or fluid are fed
into the reactor. The impeller agitates the reaction mixture at a set RPM to ensure homogeneous
mixing throughout. Contrary to CSTR, the reactants move in tubes without any axial mixing in a
PFR. The tubing is divided into small segments, each segment termed as a plug. A brief
comparison of PFR and CSTR is shown below: [7]
Table 6.2 Comparison of CSTR & PFR
PRODUCTION OF VAM 31
6.1.5 Reaction Phase
Since, the production of Vinyl Acetate Monomer is a gas phase reaction, CSTR cannot be used.
To choose the appropriate reactor, PFR is studied further. Before going into the detail of reactor,
the reaction characteristics should be known i.e. whether the reaction is catalytic or non-catalytic.
And if the reaction is catalytic, it is homogeneous or heterogeneous.
Literature survey reveals that production of VAM from ethylene is a gas phase and takes place in
the presence of Palladium-gold catalyst. Catalyst properties would be discussed in detail later on
in this chapter. Catalysis can be of two types;
• Homogeneous catalysis
• Heterogeneous catalysis
6.1.6 Catalyst Bed
Industrially, there are two practices by which heterogeneous catalysis is carried out. The catalyst
bed can either be packed bed or fluidized bed. Reactors in which the solid catalyst particles remain
static at their position relative to other particles are the fixed bed particles. Whereas the reactors in
which the particles are suspended in the fluid, solely due to upward pressure of fluid are termed as
fluidized bed reactors.
Table 6.3 Comparison of Fixed Bed Reactor& Fluidized Bed Reactor [7]
Keeping in view all the selection parameters, discussed above, the reactor selected for the
production of VAM from ethylene is fixed bed, heterogeneous catalytic plug flow reactor. The
major plus points of the selected reactor can be summarized as follows;
PRODUCTION OF VAM 32
6.1.7 Design Parameters
• Volume of catalyst
• Number of tubes
• Shell diameter
• Shell side heat transfer coefficient
• Tube side heat transfer coefficient
• Shell area
• Tube area
PRODUCTION OF VAM 33
6.1.12 Design Steps
The general design steps for the design of multi-tubular packed bed plug flow reactor are as
follows:
𝑊 𝑥 dxA
= ∫0 𝐴
𝐹𝐴0 −rA
𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡 = 𝑊/𝜌𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘
6. Calculate total number of tubes, total surface area for heat transfer and bundle diameter
𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑𝑜 (𝑁𝑇/𝑘1)1/𝑛
4/𝛱 𝑁𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 𝑃𝑡 2
𝐷𝑖 = √
0.99
1/𝑈=1/ℎ𝑖 + 1/ℎ𝑜
PRODUCTION OF VAM 34
11. Calculate Tube side pressure drop using following equation.
fGt^2 ∗L n
Δ𝑃 =
5.22 ∗ 10^10 ∗ Dp sφs
12. Calculate shell side pressure drop using the following equation
f Gs2 Ds (N+1)
Δ𝑃 =
5.22 ∗ 10^10 ∗De ∗s∅s
STEP 1
XA rVa 1/ -rVA
0 0.0028 358
0.1 0.0023 437
0.15 0.002 488
0.2 0.0018 547
0.25 0.0016 619
0.3 0.0014 707
0.35 0.0012 815
0.40 0.0010 910
PRODUCTION OF VAM 35
Graph between XA and 1/ -rVA
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
STEP 2
𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡 = 𝑊 / 𝜌𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘
STEP 3
𝜋
Volume of Reactor = VR = D2 L
4
Let,
L/D=3
Diameter of Reactor = 1.59 m
PRODUCTION OF VAM 36
Length of Reactor = 4.78 m
STEP 4
To calculate the length of the tubes, we will consider the reactor as a heat exchanger.
Selected Pipe Size
ID = 0.0312”
OD = 0.0315”
14 BWG
Length = 4 m
Square Pitch = Ps = 0.0437
Tube diameter is selected such that ratio of tube diameter to particle diameter should be greater
than 10. [7]
Dt / Dp = 11 > 10
STEP 5
STEP 6
Calculate total number of tubes and total surface area for heat transfer
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 = 𝑁𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 / 𝑉𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
PRODUCTION OF VAM 37
STEP 7
𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑𝑜 (𝑁𝑇/𝑘1)1/𝑛
Db = bundle diameter
do = tube OD = 0.0315 m
Nt = number of tube = 1133 tubes
K1 and n are constants from table
STEP 8
STEP 9
ΔT LM = 121.6 K
Q = m*Cp* ΔT LM
Q = 2.78 * 10 6 kJ / hr
PRODUCTION OF VAM 38
STEP 10
(di Gi)
Re. No = = 23587.2
µ
𝑁𝑢 # = 45
PRODUCTION OF VAM 39
ℎ𝑖=𝑁𝑢 𝑘/𝐷
hi = 42 W/m2.K
hio = hi * (ID/OD) = 41.6 W/m2.K
as = 0.315 m2
Mass velocity = Gs = W/as = 4.92 kg/m2.s
(de Gs)
Re. No =
µ
4( 𝑃𝑡 2 −0.25𝜋𝐷𝑒 2 )
De =
𝜋𝐷𝑒
De = 0.033 m
Re # = 169.3
Pr # = 6.6 * 10 -03
hs = 458.13 W/m2.K
PRODUCTION OF VAM 40
c) Dirt factor.
𝑈𝑐−𝑈𝑜
Rd = = 0.0735
𝑈𝑐∗𝑈𝑜
STEP 11
𝑓∗𝐺𝑡 2 ∗𝐿𝑛
ΔPt =
5.22∗1010 ∗𝐷𝑡∗𝑆∗𝜑𝑠
STEP 12
𝑓∗𝐺𝑡 2 ∗(𝑁+1)𝐷𝑠
ΔPs =
5.22∗1010 ∗𝐷𝑒∗𝑆∗𝜑𝑠
Design Temperature
Design Pressure
Operating Pressure = 811 kPa
Design Pressure = 1.1 * 811 = 892.1 kPa
PRODUCTION OF VAM 41
6.1.14 Specification Sheet
Identification
Item Reactor
Item Number R-1
Type Multi-tubular fixed bed Reactor
Function
Production of Vinyl acetate
Design Specification
Operating Temperature 423 K
Operating Pressure 811 kPa
Design Temperature 465.3 K
Design Pressure 892.1 kPa
Diameter of Reactor 1.59 m
Length of Reactor 4.78 m
Volume of Reactor 9.5 m3
Length of Tube 4m
Diameter of Tube 0.0315 m
Thickness of Tube 0.003 m
Overall heat transfer Coefficient 10.3 W/m2.K
Pressure drop tube side 0.0035 kPa
Pressure drop shell side 0.245 kPa
Catalyst Palladium-Gold
Catalyst shape Spherical
Number of Tubes 1133
PRODUCTION OF VAM 42
6.2 SHELL AND TUBE
HEAT EXCHANGER
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Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
6.2.1 Heat Exchanger
Heat exchanger is an operating device used to exchange heat between two fluids. Fluids may be
liquid, gases and vapors. The most commonly used is the shell and tube heat exchanger. It is used
as condenser, reboiler etc. and in petroleum industry and can be used for high temperature
scenarios.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 44
6.2.3 Thermal Design Considerations
The flowrates, terminal temperatures and properties of both hot and cold fluids are basic inputs
of heat exchanger’s thermal design. Thermal design consists of calculation of
• Heat transfer area
• No. of tubes
• Tube length and dia.
• Tube layout
• No. of passes
• Heat exchanger type
• Tube pitch
• No. of baffles
• Type and size of baffle
• Shell and tube side pressure drop etc.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 45
6.2.5.2 Tube Count:
It is the no. of tubes that can be placed in a shell. It depends on
• Shell ID
• Tube OD
• Tube pitch
• No. of passes
• Tube layout
• Type of heat exchanger and
• Design pressure
6.2.6 Baffles
They increase fluid velocity to obtain high HT coefficient by diverting fluid flow across tube
bundle. The distance between two adjacent baffles is called baffle spacing and it is 0.2-1 of shell
inside diameter. Baffle spacers hold baffles in their position. High HT coefficient is achieved if
baffle spacing is small. 15-45 % baffle cuts are commonly used. High HT coefficient with
reasonable pressure drop is achieved with 20-25 % baffle cut. The % cut for segmental baffle refers
to the cut away height from its diameter.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 46
6.2.7 Fouling Considerations
Most process fluids cause fouling of HT surface. It reduces relative HT rate due to lower K
value. It also increases cost of
• Construction due to oversizing
• Additional energy due to poor performance
• Maintenance and cleaning
Usually, a secondary exchanger is available for uninterrupted service. This effect is considered in
design in terms of shell and tube side fouling resistance.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 47
Energy Balance
√𝑅2 + 1 ln(1 − 𝑆)
1−𝑅𝑆
FT =
(𝑅−1)ln{2−𝑆(𝑅+1− √(𝑅2 +1) ) }
2−𝑆(𝑅+1+ √(𝑅2+1) )
= 0.977
Where R = 0.72222, S = .3130
FT = 0.977
LMTDcorr = FT * LMTD = 81.9703°C
PRODUCTION OF VAM 48
Determining The Heat Transfer Area (‘A’):
The assumed value of overall heat transfer coefficient (Ua) of 30 Wm-2°C-1 is assumed to initiate
the design calculation for the heat exchanger. The approximate range of overall heat transfer
coefficient depending on the hot and cold fluid can be found out from text books.
A = Q/Ua * LMTDcorr = 158.1422m2
PRODUCTION OF VAM 49
Heat Transfer Coefficient
Tube Side
Mean temperature = (45 + 81)/2 = 63°C
Tube cross-sectional area = πdi2/4 = 201mm2
Tubes per pass = 522/2 = 261
Total flow area = 261*201*106 = 0.0525m2
Mass velocity = Gc = mc/total flow area = 6.8714/0.0525 = 130.884kgm-2s-1
Linear velocity = v = Gc/ρ = 130.884/6.10 = 21.4564ms-1
Prandtl no. = 0.85 (for gases, 0.7 to 1)
Thermal conductivity = k = 0.05 (for gases, 0.006 to .01)
Re = ρdiv/µ = 40981 jh = 3.3*10-3
PRODUCTION OF VAM 50
Shell Side
Baffle spacing = Ib = 0.2 to 1(shell dia.)
Area of cross flow AS for hypothetical row at shell equator is
AS = (PT – do) Ds*Ib/ PT = 0.0197m2
Mass velocity = Gh = mh/As = 9.7614/0.0197 = 495.502 kgm-2s-1
Velocity = u = Gh/ρ = 495.502/23.5 = 21.0852m s-1
Equivalent Diameter
De = 4(PT*0.87 PT/2 – 1/2πdo2/4)/(πdo/2)
De = 0.0142m = 14.2mm
Mean temperature = (160+134)/2 = 147°C
Prandtl no. = 0.85 (for gases, 0.7 to 1)
Thermal conductivity = k = 0.053 (for gases, 0.006 to .01)
Re = ρdeu/µ = 77320 jh = 2.3*10^-3
hs*de/kh = jh*Re*Pr0.33*(µ/ µw)0.14 µ/ µw = 1.781
hs = 761.087 Wm-2°C-1
PRODUCTION OF VAM 51
Figure 6.3 Re vs Heat Transfer factor[10]
Pressure Drop
Tube Side
ΔPt = Np(8*jh*(L/di) (µ/ µw) + 2.5) ρv2
ΔPt = 58.792kPa = 4psi
Shell Side
ΔPs = 8* jh*(ds/de) (L/Ib) ρu2/2
ΔPs = 165kPa = 11.235psi
Which is almost acceptable
Typical pressure drops are 30-60 kPa (5-8 psi) on the tub side and 20-30 kPa (3-5 psi) on the
shell side and may reach 10 psi.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 52
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
PRODUCTION OF VAM 53
6.6.10 Specification Sheet
IDENTIFICATION
Item Heat Exchanger
Item number HX-1
Type Shell and Tube HX
DESIGN SPECIFICATION
Length of Tube 4.88m
Outside Tube Diameter 0.02m
Baffle Spacing 0.1404m
No. of Tubes 522
Inside Shell Diameter 0.702m
Shell Passes 1
Tube Passes 2
Pitch 0.025m
Tube Pressure Drop 58.792kPa
Shell Pressure Drop 165kPa
BWG 16
Surface Area 158.1422m2
Tube Heat Transfer Coefficient 4005.54W/m2K
Shell Heat Transfer Coefficient 761.09 W/m2K
PRODUCTION OF VAM 54
6.3 DESIGN OF FLASH
VESSEL
PRODUCTION OF VAM 55
Flash Vessel
6.3.1 Vapor-Liquid Separator
6.3.2 Basic Objectives & Principles
• The primary job of the gas liquid separators is to separate vapor and liquid, but they may
also serve as liquid surge drums.
• The basic design principle of a vapor liquid separator is to provide a sufficiently low gas
velocity so that liquid and vapor will separate.
• The separation of the mixture is actually done due to the actions of gravity and impaction
and also on density.
• Knockout drums.
• Vertical gas liquid separator.
• Horizontal gas liquid separator.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 56
6.3.6 Horizontal Gas Liquid Separator
If L/D is greater than 5 then we use Horizontal Gas Liquid Separator [11]. Designing of this
separator is same as vertical gas liq. Separators except increase Kv by 25%, and the minimum area
of gas flow should be at least 20% of total cross-sectional area of the separator. In this mist
eliminator can be used internally or externally.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 57
6.3.9 Vane Type Mist Eliminators
Vane eliminators consists of closely spaced plates mist strikes on adjacent vane there they held
by surface force
.
Figure 6.7 Vane Type Mist Eliminator
PRODUCTION OF VAM 58
This graph is used for the calculation of Kv.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 59
Table 6.15 Mass Fractions
WL ρV
Separation Factor = K = √
WV ρL
27029 7.61
K= √
8112 992.25
K = 0.29
x = ln(0.29)
x = −1.23
K V = exp(A + Bx + Cx 2 + Dx 3 + Ex 4 + Fx 5 )
A = −1.942 , B = −0.814 , C = −0.197
D = −0.0125 , E = 0.00038 , F = 0.000259
Kv = 0.32
PRODUCTION OF VAM 60
6.3.12.2 Maximum Vapor Velocity
ρL− ρv 0.5
Uvap.max = 0.305K V ( )
ρV
Uvap.max = 1.1m/s
8112×1
QL =
3600×992.25
QL = 2.27×10−3 m3 /s
29027×1
QV =
3600×7.61
QV = 1.05m3 /s
4A
D=√ = 1.105m
3.14
An increment of 6 inch.
D = 1.13m
VL = 0.544m3
0.544 (1.132 )4
Liquid Height = , A= = 1m2
A 3.14
HL = 0.54m
PRODUCTION OF VAM 61
6.3.12.6 𝐇𝐕 Calculation
ρmix = (0.23×992.25) + (0.769×7.61)
ρmix = 234.07kg/m3
100
(Umax. )nozzle= = 6.53ft/s
√ρmin
L 3.87
=
D 1.13
L L
= 3.43 3≤ ≤5
D D
6.3.12.9 Calculation of Wall Thickness
t s = α. D + t ′ c
1
t′c = inches
8
t ′ c = 0.0317m
P
αs =
2×ϵs (S) − 1.2P
S = Max. Allowable Stress = 137800kPa [8]
ϵ = Welding Efficiency = 1 [12]
P = 592kPa
αs = 0.00215
t s = (0.00215×1.13) + 0.00317
t s = 0.0056m = 5.66mm
PRODUCTION OF VAM 62
t s = 5.66mm
4Qmix
Dnozzle = √
π×60√ρmix
Dnozzle = 0.4m
PRODUCTION OF VAM 63
6.3.13 SPECIFICATION SHEET
IDENTIFICATION
Item Flash Vessel
Item number F-1
Type Vertical Flash Vessel
FUNCTION
Gas Liquid Separation
DESIGN SPECIFICATION
Operating Temperature 400C
Operating Pressure 592kPa
Vessel Diameter 1.13m
Hold Up 0.54m
Vessel Height 3.36m
Material Carbon Steel
Wall Thickness 5.6mm
Allowable Stress 137800kPa
Nozzle Diameter 0.4m
PRODUCTION OF VAM 64
6.4 ABSORBER DESIGN
PRODUCTION OF VAM 65
Absorber
6.4.1 Absorption
Absorption is a physical or chemical phenomenon or a process in which atoms, molecules or ions
and some bulk phase-gas, liquid or solid material and since molecules taken up by the volume not
by the surface as in adsorption.
In gas absorption, a soluble vapors or gas is absorbed in the solvent from its mixture with gas
mixture. The 'purpose of such gas scrubbing operations may be any of the following;
• For Separation of component having the economic value.
• As a stage in the preparation of some compound.
• For removing of undesired component (pollution).
Solvent
Liquid applied to remove the solute from a gas stream.
Solute
Components to be removed from an entering stream
PRODUCTION OF VAM 66
Physical Absorption
In physical absorption mass transfer take place, purely by diffusion and physical absorption
is governed by the physical equilibrium. Physical absorption is easy to handle and it has no heating
effects.
Chemical Absorption
In this type of absorption as soon as a component encounters the absorbing liquid a chemical
reaction take place. Then by reducing the concentration of component in the liquid phase, which
enhances the rate of diffusion.
In our process, the vinyl acetate Is absorbing into acetic acid solution the case under study is
physical absorption.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 67
• The liquid hold-up is appreciably lower in a packed column than a plate column. This
can be important when the inventory of toxic or flammable liquids needs to be kept as
small as possible for safety reasons.
• Packed columns are more suitable for handling foaming systems.
• The pressure drops per equilibrium stage (HETP) can be lower for packing than plates;
and packing should be considered for vacuum columns.
• Packing should always be considered for small diameter columns.
6.4.6 Packing
The packing is the most important component of the system. The packing provides sufficient area
for intimate contact between phases. The efficiency of the packing with respect to both HTU and
flow capacity determines to a significance extent the overall size of the tower. The economics of
the installation is therefore tied up with packing choice.
The packings are divided into those types which are dumped at random into the tower and these
which must be stacked by hand. Dumped packing consists of unit 1/4 to 2 inches in major
dimension and are used roost in the smaller columns [14]. The units in stacked packing are 2 to
about 8 inches in size, they are used only in the larger towers.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 68
6.4.7 Selection of Tray Column
• Plate column can be designed with more assurance than packed columns. There is always
some doubt that good liquid distribution can be maintained throughout a packed column
under all operating condition, particularly in large columns that lead to selection of plate.
• Presser drop per equilibrium stage (HETP) can be lower for packing than plates and and
packing should be considered for vacuum columns. As pressure is high in plate column is
selected.
• Plate should always be considered for large diameter columns say greater than 0.6m, where
plates would be easy to install and less expensive
• Plate columns are more suitable for handling non-forming systems as the systems is non-
foaming therefore plate column is selected [15].
From the above consideration, tray column is selected as the absorber, because in our case the
pressure is not very low.
Raising the total pressure of the column may increase the efficiency of the separation because
increasing the pressure decreases the liquid flow rate and increases the concentration of the gas.
The temperature of entering liquid effect absorption in that it effects the flow rate of liquid required
for the separation with a given number of stages. Increasing the temperature of the entering solvent
increases the liquid flow rate required.
Inlet gases of the absorber with high humidity at a high temperature effect the capability of the gas
to consume latent heat hindering the absorption process. Therefore, dehumidification of the inlet
gas should be considered for absorbers with large heat effects. The ratio of the liquid to gas stream
rates in that if the ratio is too low, the solute builds in the upper portion of the column causing a
higher temperature profile in the top of the column. As a result, internal cooling maybe necessary
for lower liquid to gas ratios so we are using a cooler to decrease the temperature and enhancing
the absorption process.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 69
6.4.9 Selection of Solvent
The ideal absorbent should have:
• have a high solubility for the solute
• have a low volatility to reduce loss of absorbent
• have a low viscosity to provide a low pressure drop
• be non-toxic
• Easily available and not expensive.
An organic solvent, vinyl acetate, is preferred because they are chemically stable. During mass
transfer in the absorption column small quantities of solvent are lost, and the energy consumption
is low because water evaporation is not required and the production of the by-product is also low.
Objective
To remove vinyl acetate
Equipment
Tray column
Operating Conditions
Inlet flow rate of the gas = 27029 kg/hr
Operating temperature = 353K
Operating pressure = 885kPa
Inlet flow rate of vinyl acetate = 26.54 kgmol/hr
Inlet flow rate of vinyl acetate=.025kgmol/hr
PRODUCTION OF VAM 70
Specifications:
K=Pi/Xi *P=.036(equilibrium constant)
Ai=(L/V) *K=1.26(Absorption factor)
Minimum(Lo/VN+1) for C4H6O2
(Lo/VN+1) = KiEai=.0356
Operating (L0/VN+1)0=.049
Operating absorption factor
(Aio)=(L0/VN+1) (1/Ki)
=1.36
For optimum design
1.2 < Aio < 2.0 [15]
As the value in the range so, our design is optimum
Diameter evaluation:
Vsf=Csb(α/20)0.2/ (ρL- ρg)/ ρg)0.5
Vsf : net vapor velocity at flooding velocity m/s
α: Surface tension
ρg: density of gas
ρL: density of liquid
Csb:souder and brown factor at flood conditions m/s
Csb is obtained after specifying a reasonable tray spacing. Standard tray spacing for large
diameter column area is 0.4 or 0.6m
Tray spacing of 0.45m is selected
PRODUCTION OF VAM 71
Vsf= 0.635 m/s
VN=0.7(Vsf)=0.539m/s
An=mv/VN=11.93m2
An: is the net column area
VN: actual vapor velocity
Ac=85% of An
An/0.85=11.93/0.85=14.04m2
D=(4Ac/3.14)0.5=4.8m
Where Ac is cross sectional area of the column and D is diameter of column
PRODUCTION OF VAM 72
Height evaluation:
Hact=(Nact-1) Hs+dH
=10.8
Hact=Actual column height
Hs=Plate spacing (selected as 0.45m)
dH= additional height required for column operation
dH=3*Hs=1.35m
PRODUCTION OF VAM 73
Pressure drop calculations
The ratio of hole to perforated area
An/Ap=0.9(dn/Ip)2
Ip(hole pitch): between 2.5-4 times dn.
Ap=6.40m2
AN/Ap*100=10
Pitch thickness of 3mm is selected
hd=51(ub/a)2 ρv/ρL
hd=pressure drop per stage
hr=12.5*103/ρL
h=residual head=13.09mm of liquid
hf=hd+(hw+hwo)+hr
Actual plate drop=hf
hf=80.57mm of liquid
dP=for one tray=0.009*ht*ρ
=0.75kPa
Pressure drop for column=N*dP
=16.6kPa
PRODUCTION OF VAM 74
6.4.11 Specification sheet
IDENTIFICATION
Item Plate absorber
Type Plate column
No of items 1
FUNCTION
Removal of vinyl acetate from gas mixture
COLUMN DESING SPECIFICATION
Operating temperature 353K
Operating pressure 885kPa
Design temperature 361K
Design pressure 920kPa
Number of actual stages 22
Net area of column 11.9m2
Column diameter 4.8m
Height of column 10.8m
Total pressure drop 16.6kPa
%flooding 80%
Contacting device Trays
Tray type Sieve type
Column cross sectional area 14m2
Material of construction Stainless steel
PRODUCTION OF VAM 75
6.5 DISTILLATION
COLUMN DESIGN
PRODUCTION OF VAM 76
Distillation
In an industry, in order to gain purified product distillation columns are used. Distillation column
is a mass transfer equipment in which on the basis of relative volatility components of mixture are
separated. There are two major sections, stripping and rectification section. Lighter components
will be obtained at the upper end and heavy products will be obtained from bottom.
In engineering terms, distillation columns have to be designed with a larger range in capacity than
any other types of processing equipment, with single columns 0.3–10 m in diameter and 3–75 m
in height [15]. Designers are required to achieve the desired product quality at minimum cost and
also to provide constant purity of product even though there may be variations in feed composition.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 77
Further benefits of tray column over packed column are following:
• Plate columns have ability to handle wide variety of liquid flow rates as compared to
packed column.
• If liquid flow rate is lower than vapor flow rate then tray columns are preferred because
this situation can cause dispersion. And dispersion can be easily handled in tray column.
• For dirty fluids when cleaning is required, man holes can be provided for this purpose
in tray column. While in packed column removal of packing is needed to be done for
this purpose.
• To handle non-foaming systems, plate columns are generally used.
• For high height columns, weight of plate column is less as compared to packed column.
• Design data for plate column is swell established and easily available.
• If there are temperature variations, then plate columns are best to used.
• For larger diameters, plate columns are used.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 78
6.5.6.1 Basic Deta For Design of Distillation Column
PRODUCTION OF VAM 79
6.5.6.1.1 Nature of Feed
By bubble T calculation
TB = 98Oc which is greater than feed temperature Tf = 42.5 oC
So, feed is subcooled liquid at Tf = 42.5 and Pf = 26.7 psia
where 𝛼𝐴𝐵 is the average relative volatility of the light key (VAM) with respect to the heavy
key (acetic acid), and XLK and XHK. are the light and heavy key composition. The relative
volatility is taken as the geometric mean of the values at the column top and bottom
temperatures.
=4.20
0.45 0.91
𝑙𝑜𝑔 [(0.02) (0.0004) ]
𝐷 𝐵
𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑙𝑜𝑔(4.20)
𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 8 (𝑟𝑒𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑑)
PRODUCTION OF VAM 80
Now from Underwood equitation
𝑛
𝛼𝑖 𝑋𝐹𝑖
∑ =1−𝑞
𝛼𝑖 − 𝜃
𝑖=1
𝜃 = 2.75
Bu using equation of minimum reflux ratio
𝑛
𝛼𝑖 𝑋𝐷𝑖
∑ = 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 1
𝛼𝑖 − 𝜃
𝑖=1
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.59
PRODUCTION OF VAM 81
18
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 =
0.65
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 27
The Kirk bride method is used to determine the ratio of trays above and below the feed point.
2
𝑁𝐷 𝐵 𝑥𝐻.𝐾 (𝑥𝐿.𝑘 )𝐵
log = 0.206 log [( ) ( ) ( ) ]
𝑁𝐵 𝐷 𝑥𝐿.𝐾 𝐹 (𝑥𝐻.𝐾 )𝐷
Where
ND = number of stages above the feed, including any partial condenser,
NB = number of stages below the feed, including the reboiler,
B = molar flow bottom product,
D = molar flow top product,
Xf,HK = concentration of the heavy key in the feed,
Xf,LK = concentration of the light key in the feed,
Xd,HK = concentration of the heavy key in the top product,
Xb,LH = concentration of the light key if in the bottom product.
2
𝑁𝐷 122 0.5 (0.0004)𝐵
log = 0.206 log [( )( ) ( ) ]
𝑁𝐵 111 0.21 𝐹 (0.02)𝐷
𝑁𝐷
= 0.2433
𝑁𝐵
NB +ND = 27
Simultaneously solving both equation, we get
ND = 6 and NB = 21
PRODUCTION OF VAM 82
6.5.6.7 Calculation of Column Diameter
Basic calculations are
Table 6.19 Distillation Data
Flow Parameter
Liquid vapor factor
𝐿𝑁 𝜌𝑉 0.5
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = ( )( )
𝑉𝑁 𝜌𝐿
FLV = 0.02
Capacity Parameter
Tray spacing = 0.6 m
From figure 15.5 we get Csb =0.06
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝜎 = 20
𝐶𝑚
Flooding velocity
𝜎 0.2 𝜌𝐿− 𝜌𝑉 0.5
𝑉𝑛𝑓 = 𝐶𝑠𝑏 ( ) ( )
20 𝜌𝑉
Vnf = 0.22 m/s
Assume 80% of flooding, then actual vapor velocity
Vn=0.80(Vnf)
Vn = 0.17 m/s
Net area used
𝑚̇ 𝑣
𝐴𝑛 =
𝑉𝑛
𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒×𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Volumetric flow rate of vapor = 𝑚𝑣 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦×3600
ṁ v
An = = 1.362m2
Vn
PRODUCTION OF VAM 83
Assume the down comer occupies 17% of cross sectional area of column(AC)
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐴𝑑 + 𝐴𝑛
𝐴𝑐 = 0.17(𝐴𝑐 ) + 𝐴𝑛
𝐴𝑛
𝐴𝑐 = = 2.243 𝑚2
0.83
So the dia of the column is
4×𝐴𝑐
𝐷𝑐 = √ = 1.69 𝑚
𝜋
In order to find liquid arrangement, first we find the maximum volumetric liquid flow rate.
Maximum liquid flow rate is at the bottom of the column that is Lm
𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒×𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Volumetric flow rate of liquid = 𝑞𝐿 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦×3600
=0.0055m3/s
from figure, cross flow single pass plate is selected
PRODUCTION OF VAM 84
6.5.6.9 Provisional Plate Design
Weir Length
𝐴𝑑 0.381
= = 0.17
𝐴𝑐 2.243
From figure 11.31 (Coulson & Richardson vol 6)
𝑙𝑤
= 0.82
𝐷𝑐
lw = 0.82 × 1.69 = 1.38 m
Take weir length, hw = 40 mm
Hole diameter, dh = 3mm
Plate thickness = 3mm
The lower limit of the operating range occurs when liquid leakage through the plate holes become
excessive. This is known as the weep point. The vapour velocity at the weep point is the minimum
value for stable operation
[K 2 − 0.9(25.4 − dh )]
Uh =
√ρv
Uhmin = minimum vapour velocity through the holes (based on the hole area), m/s,
dh = hole diameter, mm,
K2 = a constant, dependent on the depth of clear liquid on the plate, obtained
from Figure 11.30
to find out value of constant K2, we should find the height of the liquid crest over the weir
PRODUCTION OF VAM 85
2
Lw 3
how = 750 [ ]
ρL lw
Lw = weir length, m = 1.38 m
Lw = liquid flow-rate, kg/s. = 5kg/s
At maximum flow rate,
2
5 3
how = 750 [920×1.38] = 18.76mm
ℎ𝑤 + ℎ𝑜𝑤 = 40 + 14.79
= 54.14 𝑚𝑚 Figure 6.12
PRODUCTION OF VAM 86
6.5.6.11 Plate Pressure Drop
The pressure drop over the plates is an important design consideration. There are two main sources
of pressure loss: that due to vapour flow through the holes (an orifice loss), and that due to the
static head of liquid on the plate.
Uh 2 ρV
hd = 51 ( )
C0 ρL
13.35 2 2.08
hd = 51 ( ) = 32mm
0.81 920
Residual Head
12.5×1000
hr =
ρL
12.5×1000
hr = = 13.6 mm
920
PRODUCTION OF VAM 87
Total pressure drop is
ht = hd + hw + how + hr
ht = 32 + 54.24 + 14
ht = 100 mm
9.81×ht ×ρl
∆Pt =
1000
9.81×100×920
∆Pt = = 903 pa
1000
∆Pt = 0.13 psia
Downcomer liquid back-up is caused by pressure drop over the plate and resistance to flow in
downcomer itself,
ℎ𝑏 = ℎ𝑑𝑐 + (ℎ𝑤 + ℎ𝑜𝑤 ) + ℎ𝑡
where hb = downcomer back-up, measured from plate surface, mm,
hdc = head loss in the downcomer, mm.
𝐿𝑤𝑑 2
ℎ𝑑𝑐 = 166 [ ]
𝜌𝐿 𝐴𝑚
Lwd = liquid flow rate in downcomer, kg/s,
Am = the clearance area under the downcomer
ℎ𝑎𝑝 = ℎ𝑤 − (5 𝑡𝑜 10 𝑚𝑚)
ℎ𝑎𝑝 = 40 − 10 = 30 𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝑎𝑝 = ℎ𝑎𝑝 𝑙𝑤
PRODUCTION OF VAM 88
ℎ𝑏 = 2.9 + 54.14 + 100 = 157 𝑚𝑚
ℎ𝑏 = 0.157 𝑚
As,
𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
ℎ𝑏 <
2
0.6 + 0.04
ℎ𝑏 <
2
0.157 < 0.32
So, tray spacing is acceptable
Sufficient residence time must be allowed in the downcomer for the entrained vapour to
disengage from the liquid stream; to prevent heavily "aerated" liquid being carried under
the downcomer.
A time of at least 3 seconds is recommended.
The downcomer residence time is given by:
Ad hbc ρL 0.3814×0.157×920
tr = =
Lwd 5
t r = 11 sec
That is greater than 3 secs, so it is satisfactory.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 89
6.5.6.14 Check Entrainment
Hc = (Nactual − 1)HS + ∆H
∆H = 1 − 1.5% of total height for liquid hold up
= 0.5
tray thickness = 3mm
total tray thickness = 0.003×27 = 0.08m
Ht = (26×0.6) + 0.5 + 0.08
= 16m
L
= 9.4 < 20
D
Its value should be preferable less than 20
PRODUCTION OF VAM 90
6.5.7 Specification Sheet
Identification
Item Distillation column
Type Plate column
No. of items 1
Function
Separation of acetic acid from vinyl acetate and water
Column design data
Operating temperature 373 K
Operating pressure 101.325 kpa
Design temperature 410 K
Design pressure 111 kpa
Actual no. of stages 27
Net area of column 1.362 m2
Column diameter 1.69 m
Height of column 16 m
Total pressure drop 1.3 kpa
%flooding 80%
Entrainment 3%
Tray type Sieve tray
Plate thickness 3 mm
Reflux ratio 0.81
Hole diameter 3 mm
Number of holes 1428
Column cross-sectional area 2.243 m2
Weir height 40 mm
Weir length 1.38 m
Tray spacing 0.6 m
Material of construction Stainless steel
PRODUCTION OF VAM 91
CHAPTER 07
INSTRUMENTATION AND
CONTROL
PRODUCTION OF VAM 92
Instrumentation and Control
Instrumentation is provided to monitor the key process variables during plant operation. They may
be incorporated in automatic control loops or used for the manual monitoring of the process
operation. They may also be part of an automatic computer data logging system. Instruments
monitoring critical process variables will be fitted with automatic alarms to alert the operators to
critical and hazardous situations. It is desirable that the process variable to be monitored can be
measured directly; often, however, this is impractical and some dependent variable that is easier to
measure is monitored in its place.
7.3 Controllers
Based upon the parameters that can be controlled, there are mainly four types of controllers;
These are used to control feed rate into a process unit. Orifice plates are by far the most type of
flow rate sensor. Normally, orifice plates are designed to give pressure drops in the range of 20 to
200inch of water [18]. Venture tubes and turbine meters are also used.
Thermocouples are the most commonly used temperature sensing devices. The two dissimilar
wires produce a produces voltage difference when they are subjected to temperature difference.
Bourdon tubes, bellows, and diaphragms are used to sense pressure and differential pressure. For
example, in a mechanical system the process pressure force is balanced by the movement of a
spring. The spring position can be related to process pressure.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 93
7.3.4 Level Controllers
Liquid levels are detected in a variety of ways. The three most common are:
• Following the position of a float, that is lighter them the fluid.
• Measuring the apparent weight of a heavy cylinder as it buoyed up more or less by the
liquid (these are called displacement meters).
• Measuring the difference in static pressure between two fixed elevations, one in the vapour
above the liquid and the other under the liquid surface. The differential pressure between
the two level taps is directly related to the liquid level in the vessel.
For instrumentation and control of different sections and equipment of plants, following control
loops are most often used.
PRODUCTION OF VAM 94
7.5.4 Control loop of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
PRODUCTION OF VAM 95
CHAPTER 08
HAZOP ANALYSIS
PRODUCTION OF VAM 96
HAZOP Analysis
It is important to evaluate and identify the problems and hazards that cause the process parameters
to deviate from intended design. For this purpose a detailed hazard analysis is done under a multi-
disciplinary team. The more formalized hazard assessment technique is HAZOP.
HAZOP is a structured and systematic technique to assess and evaluate potential hazards in a
chemical process and identifying the operability problems that may lead to risk to personnel or
equipment, or prevent efficient operation. HAZOP is based on a theory that assumes risk events
are caused by deviations from design conditions.
HAZOP studies have been used with great success within chemical and the petroleum industry to
obtain safer, more efficient and more reliable plants. It’s a well-known and well documented study
and is used as a part of Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA). A HAZOP analysis provides a full
review of a process system and systematically questions every part of it to establish how deviations
from design intensions might arise.
8.2.1 Definition
8.2.2 Preparation
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8.2.3 Examination
System:
The location at which the process parameters are investigated for deviations For example, heat
exchanger, reactor, pump, compressor, valve or pipelines.
Intension:
The intension defines how the system is intended to operate in the absence of deviations.
Deviations:
It’s a way in which process conditions deviate from the design intentions which are discovered by
applying the guide words.
Causes:
These are the reasons why deviations might occur. These causes can be hardware failure, human
errors or external disruption.
Consequences:
These are the results of the deviations. Consequences may comprise both process hazards and
operability problems.
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Guide Words
These are the simple words applied on process parameters used to identify possible deviations.
HAZOP Analysis
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8.5 HAZOP of Acetic Acid Tank
Table 8.2 HAZOP of Acid Tank
TO FLARE
RV-1 Nitrogen
V-7
PIC
A-1 PV
-1
FROM LIA-1
DISTILLATION Acetic acid
COLUMN storage Tank T-1
FICA-1
V-1 PI-1
V-7
P-1
FV-1
V-4
V-3
Structural formula:
O
CH
H2C O CH3
Purity
Purity: 99.8 % w/w
Impurities: ≥ 0.03 - 0.1 % w/w water
≥ 0.005 - 0.01 % w/w acetic acid
≥ 0.005 - 0.02 % w/w acetaldehyde
Additives: Hydroquinone/hydroquinone mono methyl ether for stabilization
0.00015 - 0.002 % w/w [20]
The only valid test i.e. RCC, 2003 showed mild irritation effects on skin of rabbits that don’t need
classified. Its eye irritation potential seems to be mild as found by eye irritation tests with rabbits.
So, it does not need any classification about eye irritation. Severe irritation was found by testing
on rats in respiratory tract.
Skin sensitization study results (Buehler Test) on animals showed mild effects on commercial
grade. Local Lymph Nodes Assay (LLNA) showed no significant positive stimulation responses
at concentrations of 5% - 100% [20]. Overall, the results of both studies indicated that vinyl acetate
has mild skin effects.
Clear evidence for carcinogenic effect of vinyl acetate is there. The carcinogenic potential is by
inhalation and oral route of exposure. Its exposure also produces tumors at first contact along
exposure routes. The tumor responses are due to site-specific enzymatic activities.