2nd IEEE International Conference on Power and Energy (PECon 08), December 1-3, 2008, Johor Baharu, Malaysia
Tuning of Control Loops for Grid Connected
Voltage Source Converters
Jon Are Suul, Marta Molinas, Lars Norum, Tore Undeland
Department of Electric Power Engineering
Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Trondheim, Norway
jon.are.suul@elkraft.ntnu.no
Abstract—Traditional tuning techniques like Modulus
Optimum or Symmetrical Optimum can be applied to
the design of control loops for many power electronic
applications. When directly implemented in digital
control systems, this will lead to reduced stability
margins since the sampling effects are not taken into
account for the controller design. This paper is
investigating a method for obtaining discrete time
equivalents to the traditional tuning techniques and
shows the application of the obtained criteria to the
control loops of a grid connected voltage source
converter. A bilinear transform from the discrete time
z-domain to a virtual frequency w-domain is utilized
to obtain the discrete time tuning criteria. By this,
similar derivations as for obtaining the traditional
continuous time criteria can be carried out to obtain
equivalent analytical criteria that are valid for design
of discrete time controllers. The results are applied to
both continuous time and discrete time controllers of
the presented example, to discuss the influence of the
sampling effects on the controller performance.
Keyword; Voltage Source Converter; vector control,
digital control, bilinear transformation, Modulus Optimum,
Symmetrical Optimum
I. INTRODUCTION
With the developments and advances in power
electronics, the application of Voltage Source Converters
(VSC) has been expanding over the years. The possible
applications span from motor drives to power system
applications like interface of distributed generation units,
dedicated converters for reactive power control, active
filters, DC-transmission systems and as active rectifier
interface of loads to provide additional controllability and
possibility for reversible power flow. Vector control has
been one of the basic schemes for enabling good dynamic
performance and decoupled control of reactive and active
current components in VSC’s. Therefore, this type of
control structure can be found in many types of
applications where VSC are used as inverters for motor
drives and for grid connected operation. [1]-[5].
Vector oriented control of grid connected VSCs is often
based on a cascaded control structure with inner loop
current controllers and outer loop controllers for DC-
voltage and AC-grid voltage or reactive power. For most
applications, simple PI-controllers are considered suitable
1-4244-2405-4/08/$20.00 ©2008 IEEE
for the different control loops. The selection of PI-
controller parameters is therefore one of the main factors
influencing stability and dynamic performance of the
converter control system. Continuous time approximations
to obtain an s-domain representation of the controller open
loop transfer function, and tuning techniques like Modulus
Optimum (MO) and Symmetrical Optimum (SO), have
traditionally been used to select the PI-controller
parameters of vector control structures. This has been a
well established approach for control of electric motor
drives, as described in [6] and [7], that is equally
applicable for grid connected VSCs [4], [8]-[12].
Power electronic control systems are usually
implemented by use of microprocessor units and will then
inherently rely on digital control techniques. This implies
that measurements and output signals have a finite
sampling time that will influence the dynamic behavior
and stability margins of the controllers. Digital
implementation of PI-controllers by using parameters
obtained from analysis in the continuous time domain will
lead to reduced phase margin and general degradation of
the performance compared to an analogue
implementation. This influence can be significant if the
sampling time of the control system is low and there are
small time constants in the controlled system. 6he
simplicity of frequency response techniques for
determination of stability margins is lost if the design of
the controller in done in the discrete time z-domain. The
design procedure will get more complex, and the approach
used for deriving tuning rules like MO and SO can not be
applied. For practical implementation, trial and error has
been a common way of determining controller parameters,
with the obvious drawback of not having any basis for
stability consideration and being a time consuming
process for systems with high level of complexity.
One way to enable the analysis of control stability for
discrete systems is the introduction of a bilinear
transformation from the discrete time z-domain into a
virtual frequency w-domain as described by [13], [14].
The transformation is given by (1), and this expression
can be substituted for z in the pulse transfer function of
the continuous time system proceeded by a Zero Order
Hold (ZOH) element [14]. By this transformation, the area
inside the unit circle in the z-domain is mapped into the
left half plane of the w-domain, and techniques for
analysis of continuous time systems will be applicable for
sampled, discrete time system [13], [14].
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 2nd IEEE International Conference on Power and Energy (PECon 08), December 1-3, 2008, Johor Baharu, Malaysia
Tsamp
1+ w assumed to be a constant inductance Lf with internal
2 (1)
z=
Tsamp
1− w frame is oriented with the d-axis aligned with the grid
2 voltage vector and the q-axis leading the d-axis by 90°,
Representing the transfer functions of a continuous time
system controlled by a discrete time controller in the w-
domain, criteria for designing digital controllers can be
derived in a similar way as for continuous time models
[15]. By making the same optimization as in the
continuous time domain, discrete time equivalents to
traditional tuning rules like Modulus Optimum and
Symmetrical Optimum can be obtained for digital PI-
controllers. The controller parameters are found as a
function of the system parameters and the sampling period
of the digital control system. When the sampling period is
approaching zero the controller parameters obtained from
this method will be equal to the values obtained from the
tuning rules in the continuous time domain [15].
Applying the method of controller design based on
analysis in the w-domain, this paper presents a simple way
for systematic tuning of digital PI-controller parameters
and investigates the application to the control loops of a
grid connected VSC. The parameters and the
corresponding controller performance obtained from
applying the MO and SO methods in the continuous time
domain and in the discrete time domain are compared and
discussed. The described method is shown to provide
simple calculation of PI-controller parameters that will
result in good performance and predefined stability
margins for the different control loops. A similar method
is presented in [16]limited to the case of MO, but no
investigation of such approach has been previously
described for application to VSCs.
II. MODEL OF GRID CONNECTED VOLTAGE SOURCE
CONVERTERS
The model used as the basis for investigations in this
paper is a three-phase grid connected VSC with a voltage
oriented vector control structure implemented in the
synchronously rotating dq-reference frame. Balanced
three-phase conditions are assumed, and only control of
positive sequence currents is considered. The investigated
configuration with a voltage source converter connected to
the grid through an inductive filter and the corresponding
Lf
conv
vabc ,ref
vα ,β ,ref
Vdc vd ,ref vq ,ref
Vdc ,ref id ,ref
ωL
iq ,ref
Figure 1 Grid connected voltage source converter with inductive
grid filter controlled by voltage oriented vector control
vector control system, is shown in Fig. 1. The grid filter is
resistance of Rf. The synchronously rotating reference
using an amplitude invariant Park transformation. The
reference angle of the grid voltage that is used to
transform the measured three-phase variables into the
rotating reference frame is obtained by a Phase Locked
Loop (PLL) [8]. The converter is assumed to be connected
to a stiff grid, so any couplings between the dynamics of
the PLL and the rest of the control system are considered
to be negligible.
A. System equations
For the system in Fig. 1, the basic equations needed to
investigate the current control loop can be found by
transforming the voltage balance of the filter inductor into
the synchronous reference frame. The resulting voltage
balance in the synchronously rotating dq-reference frame
is given by (2) [4]. Neglecting the influence of switching
ripple, the voltages Vd,conv, Vq,conv can be considered as
instantaneous average values of the output voltage from
the PWM. As can be seen from this equation, the d- and q-
axis are coupled by the stationary frequency induced term
of the inductive voltage drop. By adding feed-forward
terms as given by (3) to the d- and q-axis voltage
references used for the PWM modulation of the converter,
the system is approximately reduced to simple fist order
differential equations [4], [5]. Since the d-axis of the
control system is aligned after the grid voltage vector, the
q-axis component of the grid voltage will be 0 in steady
state, and can be neglected in (3).
did
L = − R f id + ω L f iq − Vd ,conv + Vd , grid
dt (2)
diq
L = − R f iq − ω L f id − Vq ,conv + Vq , grid
dt
Vd , ff = Vd , grid − ω L f iq
(3)
Vq , ff = Vq , grid + ω L f id
The current balance of the DC-link capacitor is
approximately given by (4), and this equation shows how
the active current in the grid side of the converter and the
DC-link current are coupled by the ratio between the d-
axis voltage and the DC-link voltage. It should also be
noted that if the DC-link voltage is controlled by
modulating the d-axis current of the converter, the load
va ,b ia ,b
current on the DC-link will appear as a disturbance to the
control system.
dV 3 Vd (4)
C ⋅ dc = ⋅ ⋅ Id − I L
vα ,β iα ,β dt 2 Vdc
B. Transfer Functions
vd id iq Assuming that the feed-forward terms of (3) are
cancelling the corresponding terms in (2), the remaining
ωL parts of the voltage balance over the filter inductor are
first order differential equations. These equations can be
expressed by simple first order transfer functions as given
by (5). Since the parameters are assumed to be the same in
the d- and q-axis, the transfer functions for the two
currents will be the same.
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 2nd IEEE International Conference on Power and Energy (PECon 08), December 1-3, 2008, Johor Baharu, Malaysia

I (s) 1
hRL ( s ) = = (5) TABLE I. VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTER PARAMETERS
VC , PI ( s ) R f ⋅ (1 + TRL ⋅ s )
Rated power Pn = 50 kW
By referring the variables to per unit quantities, Rated voltage Vn,LL = 400 VRMS
including a filter in the current measurement and using a Rated frequency fn = 50 Hz
small signal model for the PWM-operation of the Switching frequency fsw = 2 kHz
converter, the transfer function for the current control loop Sampling fsamp = 2 kHz,
will be given by (6). If the current controller is assumed to Tsamp = 0.5 ms
be decoupled from the DC-link voltage in the modulation
Grid filter lf = 10%, rf = 0.5%,
algorithm, and the PWM is represented by a simple fist
order rational approximation, the transfer function can be TRL = 64 ms
approximated by (7).The time constant Tsum,cc as given by DC-link capacitor C = 3000 μF, cpu = 12%
(8) is then representing a first order approximation to the TC = 25 ms
effects of filtering and time delay in the system. Per unit system 2
T
Vb = Vn ,LL
udc − s sw 3
hcc ( s ) = ⋅e 2 (6)
rf ⋅ (1 + TRL ⋅ s ) ⋅ (1 + T filt ⋅ s ) Ib = 2 ⋅ Vn , LL
Vb , DC = 2Vb
1
hcc ( s ) ≈ (7) 3
rf ⋅ (1 + TRL ⋅ s ) ⋅ (1 + Tsum ,cc ⋅ s ) Ib , DC = ⋅ Ib
4
Tsw (8) from (11) is also shown in the same figure. It can be
Tsum,cc = T filt +
2 clearly seen how the phase response of the current control
loop is influenced by the sampling, and that this is
By linearization, and by representing the closed loop significantly reducing the phase margin of the system.
current controller as a first order approximation, the
transfer function for the DC-link voltage can be found as For analysing the system in discrete time, the PWM of
given by (9). If the converter is operated at nominal grid the converter is assumed to have the function of a zero
voltage and 1 pu DC-link voltage, the gain constant K order hold [15], [18]. Then, the pulse transfer function of
from the linearization of (4) will be K = 1. The time the system in the z-domain can be found from (7). The
constant Tsum,DC is given by (10), where Teq,cc is resulting expression in the z-domain can be further
representing a first order approximation to the closed loop transformed into the w-domain by substituting (1) for z. A
current controller. discrete time PI-controller can be transformed to the w-
domain in the same way, and for the PI-controller based
K 1
hDC ( s ) ≈ ⋅ (9) on trapezoidal integration, the resulting transfer function
( sum, DC ) C ⋅ s
1 + T ⋅ s T in the w-domain has the same form as that of a PI-
controllers in the continuous time domain. The resulting
Tsum , DC = Teq ,cc + T filt , DC (10) open loop transfer function for the current controller is
given by (12) [13], [19]. The denominator of this system
III. TUNING OF PI-CONTROLLERS has the same form as the continuous time transfer
function, and by making similar derivations as for MO in
For investigating the influence of the tuning of the control the continuous time domain, controller parameters for the
loops for a grid connected VSC, the specifications given discrete time MO can be obtained as given by (13) [15],
in TABLE I is used as a starting point. [19]. The results can be simplified to the same expressions
A. Tuning of current controller
In the transfer function from (7), the time constant of Bode Diagram
Gm = Inf dB (at Inf rad/sec) , Pm = 65.5 deg (at 1.81e+003 rad/sec)
the filter inductor can be assumed to be dominating. With 50

this form of the transfer function, suitable PI-controller

parameters can be calculated by the MO method. This
Magnitude (dB)

0
method is based on keeping the magnitude of the closed
loop transfer function equal to 1 for as wide frequency
range as possible. The same result is obtained by using the -50

zero of the PI-controller for cancelling the dominating Continuous time controller tuned by MO

pole of the system, and selecting a gain such that the -100
Discrete time controller tuned by continuous MO

damping of the closed loop will be equal to 1/2 [11], -90

[12]. The resulting controller parameters will then be

given by (11). -135
Phase (deg)

rT (11)
Ti ,cc = TRL K p ,cc = f RL -180
2Tsum ,cc
-225
A Bode plot showing the phase and gain margin for a 10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4 5
10
continuous time control system with parameters of the PI- Frequency (rad/sec)
controller given by (11) is shown in Fig. 2. The frequency Figure 2 Bode diagram of current control loop with continuous
response of a digital PI-controller based on trapezoidal current controller and with digital controller tuned by continuous
integration and implemented with the parameters found time MO

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 2nd IEEE International Conference on Power and Energy (PECon 08), December 1-3, 2008, Johor Baharu, Malaysia

Step Response
Bode Diagram 1.4
Gm = 15.4 dB (at 3.66e+003 rad/sec) , Pm = 62.8 deg (at 956 rad/sec) Continuous time controller tuned by MO
50 Discrete time controller tuned by continuous MO
1.2 Discrete time controller tuned by discrete time MO
Magnitude (dB)

0
1

-50
0.8

Amplitude
Continuous time controller tuned by MO
Discrete time controller tuned by discrete time MO
-100 0.6
-90

0.4
Phase (deg)

-135

0.2
-180

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
-225
1 2 3 4 5 Time (sec)
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Figure 4 Step responses of the closed loop current controller for
Figure 3 Bode diagram of current control loop with continuous continuous and discrete time implementation
current controller and with digital current controller tuned by
discrete time MO approximation to the closed current control loop can be
found by (14) [19]. In case of a digital current controller, a
if an explicit time delay is treated like in [15] as when the continuous time approximation of the closed loop
delay effects of the system are included in the time dynamics is needed to establish the open loop transfer
constant Tsum,cc before the system is transformed into the function, since the DC-link capacitor is a physical
w-domain. It can be seen that the obtained parameters are continuous time system For the digital current controller
functions of the sampling time and that the expressions in tuned by the discrete time MO, a suitable first order
(13) will reduce to (11) when the sampling time is continuous time approximation of the closed loop can be
approaching zero. given by (15) [15]
§ Tsamp · § · 1 1
hcc ( s ) ≈
T T (14)
¨1 − ⋅ w ¸ ⋅ ¨¨ 1 + RL sum ,cc ⋅ ( γ sum ,cc − γ RL ) ⋅ w ¸¸ (12) =
1 + Ti ,cc ⋅ w © 2 ¹ © TRL − Tsum ,cc ¹ 1 + Teq ,cc s 1 + 2Tsum ,cc s
h0 ( w) = K p ⋅ ⋅
Ti ,cc ⋅ w rf (1 + γ RL ⋅ TRL ⋅ w ) ⋅ (1 + γ sum ,cc ⋅ Tsum ,cc ⋅ w)
 
  

1 1 (15)
hcc , w ( s ) ≈
Digital PI-controller Continuous time system proceeded by ZOH

§T ·Tsamp =
γk = ⋅ coth ¨ samp ¸ 1 + Teq ,cc s § T ·
2Tk © 2Tk ¹ 1 + 2 ¨ Tsum ,cc + samp ¸ s
© 2 ¹
Tsamp Tsamp Using the time constant from (14), and simplifying the
Ti ,cc , w = γ RL ⋅ TRL ≈ (1 − ) ⋅ TRL = TRL −
2TRL 2 system so that the transfer function can be expressed by
(13) (9), a PI-controller for the DC-link voltage control loop
§ T ·
rf ¨ TRL − samp ¸ can be tuned by the SO method. This method is suitable
K p ,cc , w = © 2 ¹ for a system with a pure integrator, and can be derived in a
§ Tsamp · similar way to MO by keeping the magnitude of the
2 ¨ Tsum,cc + ¸
© 2 ¹ closed loop transfer function to 1 for as wide frequency
range as possible The resulting parameters of the PI-
A Bode diagram comparing the frequency response of controller are given by (16), but a symmetrical tuning for
the continuous time current controller with a discrete time maximising the phase margin of the open loop transfer
controller using parameters obtained from (13) is shown function can also be found as given by (17) [7], [11],
in Fig. 3. This figure illustrates how the gain of the [12].Using this alternative form of the SO, the controller
controller and by that the bandwidth of the system is parameters can be specified from a required damping of
reduced to restore a reasonable phase margin with the the poles in the closed loop transfer function as given by
digital current controller. (18), and it is easily seen that the traditional SO from (16)
A figure comparing the step-responses of the three is corresponding to a damping of D = 0.5 [7].
described cases is shown in Fig. 4. It is clearly seen that 1
the reduced phase margin in the case of applying the Ti , DC = 4Tsum , DC K p , DC = (16)
continuous time MO to a digital controller is resulting in a 2 K ⋅ Tsum , DC
large overshoot in current. By using the discrete time MO,
1 (17)
a slower response with overshoot comparable to the Ti , DC = a 2Tsum, DC K p , DC =
continuous case, is obtained. a ⋅ K ⋅ Tsum , DC
B. Tuning of DC-link voltage controller a = 2D + 1 (18)
A first order approximation to the dynamics of the A Bode plot showing the frequency response of the
closed loop current controller is needed for simple design DC-link voltage control loop of a continuous system is
of the outer loop DC-link voltage controller giving the d- shown in Fig. 5 for tuning by SO with two different
axis current reference. When a continuous time current damping factors. The frequency responses of digital
controller is tuned by the MO technique, a first order controllers implemented with the same sets of parameters

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 2nd IEEE International Conference on Power and Energy (PECon 08), December 1-3, 2008, Johor Baharu, Malaysia

Bode Diagram Bode Diagram

Gm = Inf dB (at Inf rad/sec) , Pm = 53.8 deg (at 638 rad/sec) Gm = 20.7 dB (at 2.48e+003 rad/sec) , Pm = 47.1 deg (at 422 rad/sec)
100 100
Continuous time, tuning by SO w ith D = 0.5 Continuous time, tuning by SO w ith D = 0.5
Continuous time, tuning by SO w ith D = 1 Diskrete time, tuning by SO w ith D = 0.5
50 Diskrete time, tuning by SO w ith D = 0.5 50 Diskrete time, tuning by discrete time SO w ith D = 0.5
Magnitude (dB)

Magnitude (dB)
Discrete time, tuning by SO w ith D =1
0 0

-50 -50

-100 -100
-90 -90
Phase (deg)

-135

Phase (deg)
-135

-180 -180

-225 -225
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec) Frequency (rad/sec)

Figure 5 Bode diagrams of DC-link voltage control loop for two Figure 6 Bode diagrams of DC-link voltage control loop with
different tunings of continuous controller and discrete time continuous controller tuned by SO and discrete time controller
controllers tuned by the same parameters tuned by the same parameters and with tuning by discrete time SO
are also shown in the same figure, and it is clearly seen asymptotic Bode-plot is also shown in the same figure to
how the phase margin of the voltage control loop is illustrate that in this virtual frequency domain, the discrete
reduced because of the sampling. time system is linear and can be analysed in the same way
By using the same approach as described for the current as a continuous time system in the frequency domain.
controller, the transfer function for the DC-link voltage The considerations from (17) and (18) for keeping a
control loop can be transformed into the w-domain, and symmetrical tuning with maximum phase margin but with
the resulting open loop transfer function including a a specified damping can also be applied to the discrete
discrete time PI-controller is given by (19) [13], [19]. The controller. This will imply to introduce the factor a in (20)
controller parameters that can be obtained for the discrete in the same way as for the continuous case, and will result
time equivalent to SO are given by (20) [15]. in a symmetrical tuning in the w-domain.
Representation of an explicit time delay in the process can Step-responses of the closed loop transfer function of
also in this case be simplified to the same expressions as the DC-link voltage controller with different tunings of the
given by (20) when the delay is included as a first order discrete time PI-controller are shown in Fig. 8. The figure
approximation in the time constant Tsum,DC [15], [19]. clearly shows that tuning the discrete time controller by
§ Tsamp , DC · use of the continuous time SO from (16) results in high
¨1 −
1 + Ti ⋅ w K ©
(
⋅ w ¸ ⋅ 1 + ( γ sum , DC − 1) ⋅ Tsum , DC ⋅ w ) (19)
overshoot and oscillatory response because of the low
h0 ( w) = K p
2 ¹
Ti ⋅ w TC w ⋅ (1 + γ sum, DC ⋅ Tsum , DC ⋅ w) phase margin. By utilizing the discrete time equivalent to
 
  

Digital PI-controller Continuous time system proceeded by ZOH SO, the response can be made to correspond more closely
to the applied design criteria.
§ T ·
Ti , DC , w = 4 ⋅ ¨ Tsum , DC + samp , DC ¸ The final selection of the tuning criteria for the DC-link
© 2 ¹ (20) voltage controller, and other control loops with similar
TC open loop transfer functions, can be based on
K p , DC ,w =
T
2 ⋅ K ⋅ (Tsum , DC + samp , DC ) Bode Diagram
Gm = 20.6 dB (at 2.78e+003 rad/sec) , Pm = 46.6 deg (at 423 rad/sec)
2 60

A Bode diagram with the frequency response of the 40

digital DC-link controller tuned by discrete time SO
Magnitude (dB)

20
together with a continuous time controller and a discrete 0
time controller tuned by (16) is shown in Fig. 6. It can be
-20
seen from the curves how the integral time constant is
slightly increased while the gain is reduced according to -40

(20), to obtain a controller with acceptable phase margin. -60

-90
In this case, the phase margin of the discrete time
controller is slightly increased compared to the continuous -135
Phase (deg)

controller, and the crossover frequency is not exactly at

the maximum phase. This can however be explained from -180

Fig 7 with the frequency response of the DC-link voltage -225

control loop in the virtual frequency w-domain, where it is
seen that the tuning by (20) is resulting in maximum phase -270
1 2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10 10
margin at the crossover frequency. The figure is also Frequency (rad/sec)
showing how the w-transformation is modifying the
frequency scale such that the Nyquist frequency is Figure 7 Bode diagram with the discrete time DC-link voltage
controller, including the asymptotic response, in the virtual
corresponding to infinite frequency in the w-domain. The frequency w-domain

801
 2nd IEEE International Conference on Power and Energy (PECon 08), December 1-3, 2008, Johor Baharu, Malaysia
1.8
Step Response
Diskrete time, tuning by SO w ith D = 0.5
Diskrete time, tuning by SO w ith D = 1
1.6
Diskrete time, tuning by discrete time SO w ith D = 0.5
Diskrete time, tuning by discrete time SO w ith D = 1
1.4
1.2
1
Amplitude
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
Time (sec)
Figure 8 Step response of discrete time DC-link voltage controller
with different sets of parameters
requirements for dynamic performance, damping or phase
margin, taking the influence of the sampling into account.
If the controller is a part of a cascaded structure also the
bandwidth of the closed loop transfer function should be
checked to avoid unintended interaction between different
control loops.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
A possible approach for obtaining discrete time
equivalents to traditional tuning techniques like Modulus
Optimum and Symmetrical Optimum has been
investigated and applied to the control loops of a vector
controlled grid connected voltage source converter. By
use of a bilinear transformation from the discrete time z-
domain to the virtual frequency w-domain, the transfer
functions of the system has been brought to a form where
analytical criteria for designing discrete time PI-
controllers can be obtained. The described approach is
general and can be applied to any digital control system
that can be represented by similar transfer functions. The
influence of sampling effect on the control performance of
the presented example has been illustrated and discussed,
and it has been shown how the stability margins of the
controllers are reduced when the sampling effects are not
accounted for in the design of the controllers. It has also
been shown how the presented approach is resulting in
modified controller parameters that are accounting for this
effect.
The obtained analytical criteria results in simple
expressions that depends on the sampling time of the
control system and can easily be used to design PI-
controllers when the parameters of the system and the
sampling time is known. When the sampling time is
approaching zero, the expressions for the controller
parameters are reduced to the expressions of the
traditional Modulus Optimum and Symmetrical Optimum.
The results can easily be applied to detailed simulation
models and laboratory experiments, and can serve as a
good starting point for manual tuning in case of parameter
deviations and nonlinearities. Because of the simplicity,
the results should also be relevant for implementation in
adaptive control schemes and in self tuning systems with
parameter identification of the process to be controlled.
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