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elements for healthy growth .Nitrogen ,phosphorus and potassium and the big
three among them and are most vital .Calcium, magnesium and sulfur are the little
three which are essential but needed in smaller amounts .Several others needed in
traces are : iron ,manganese ,copper zinc boron and iodine.
Growing plants obtain most of these nutrients from the soil. Since the soil does not
contain an inexhaustible supply of these elements. We must add these nutrients to
the soil in the form of manures or fertilizers. Different types of manures are:
(i) It must provide the necessary constituents required for the plant growth.
(ii) Slightly basic soil (pH~7 to 8) is a must for the proper growth of plants.
A god fertilizer should, therefore, be basic and should not produce
acidity.
(iii) It must be soluble in soil moisture and get assimilated by plants.
(iv) It should not produce extra heat which may burn the plants.
(v) Its physical form should be such that it gets easily ad uniformly distribute
in the soil and keeps the soil loose. It should not be gummy and compact.
(vi) It must be stable so that the nutrient element present in it is available to
the plants over a long period. It should not be easily leached away from
the soil.
1. According to efficiency
1. straight fertilizers
2. auxiliary substances
2. According to origin
1. mineral fertilizers
2. manure
3. According to phase
1. solid fertilizers
2. liquid fertilizers
Staight fertilizers are substances that contain one or more plant nutrients, typically in
large amounts, either mineral or in organic form. They provide plants with macro- or
micronutrients, including mineral fertilizers and manure.
Auxiliary substances contain plant nutrients in larger quantities, thus not supply
nutrients to plants, but allow improving nutrition by editing environment or affecting
the metabolism of plants so that the plants can utilize larger quantities of nutrients to
yield formation.
Devided into:
Livestock manure are fertilizers which are characterized by a large volume, are
produced in agricultural production and are divided into:
1. Stable
1. farmyard manure,
2. manure
3. slurry
4. dung water
2. Other
1. compost
2. green fertilization
3. straw for fertilization
4. other organic matter
Liquid Fertilizers can again be straight or compound, are produced as clear solutions
or suspensions and may be subdivided into inorganic fertilizers liquid - pressure-free,
high and low pressure.
Mineral and organic substances used as a source of nitrogen nutrition for plants. Th
ey aredivided into organic fertilizers (manure, peat, compost) containing other nutr
ients besidesnitrogen; manufactured mineral fertilizers; and green fertilizers (lupin
e, serradella).
Nitrogenous fertilizers were used in very ancient times. Manure was extensively us
ed inancient Rus’. Green fertilization has long been known in the irrigated agricult
ure of Middle Asia.Mineral fertilizers came into use much later. The first was sodi
um nitrate, obtained since themiddle of the 19th century from natural deposits in C
hile (South America); its consumption in1900 was about 300,000 tons (converted i
nto nitrogen). In the next years industry began toproduce ammonium sulfate, calciu
m cyanamide, and calcium nitrate.
By 1913 world production of nitrogenous fertilizers was almost 700,000 tons (conv
erted tonitrogen). Synthesizing ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen
on an industrialscale (1914–
1918) made a sharp boost in world production of nitrogenous fertilizers possible;pr
oduction rose in 1966 to 19,200,000 tons (converted to nitrogen), including 6,400,0
00 in theUnited States, 1,449,000 in the Federal Republic of Germany, 1,082,000 i
n France, 462,000 inPoland, and 343,000 in the German Democratic Republic.
Russia produced 3,000 tons (converted to nitrogen) in 1913. A large nitrogenous fe
rtilizerindustry came into being during the first five-
year plan. Agriculture was supplied withnitrogenous fertilizers (converted to nitrog
en) as follows: 2,000 tons in 1928, 199,000 tons in1940, 75,000 tons in 1945, 307,
000 tons in 1950, 1,003,000 tons in 1960, 2,712,000 tons in1965, 3,188,000 tons in
1966, 3,753,000 tons in 1967, and 4,177,000 tons in 1968. Mineralnitrogenous fert
ilizers may contain nitrogen in ammonia (NH3), ammonium nitrate (NH3 andNO3),
nitrate (NO3), and amide (NH2) forms.
Ammonia fertilizers Ammonia fertilizers include ammonium sulfate, ammonium c
hloride,ammonium bicarbonate, and liquid nitrogenous fertilizers. Ammonium sulf
ate and ammoniumchloride are most effective on base-
saturated soils (chernozems, calcareous serozems,chestnut) which can neutralize th
eir acidifying effect. Systematic fertilization with ammoniumsulfate or ammonium
chloride increases soil acidity, which can be corrected by liming.Ammonia nitroge
n is less susceptible to leaching than nitrate nitrogen; thus, ammoniafertilizers can
be added in the fall, before planting. They are less suitable for surface (assuppleme
ntary feeding for winter crops) and local (in rows or by cluster sowing) application.
Excessive chlorine in ammonium chloride has an adverse effect on the size and qua
lity of theyield of many crops, including potatoes, flax, oil
producing plants, tobacco, and grapes.Ammonium bicarbonate, still produced only
in limited quantities for experimental purposes, hasan alkaline reaction, but it unde
rgoes nitrification in soil. Among the ammonia forms, liquidfertilizers—
liquid anhydrous ammonia, aqua ammonia, and ammoniates—
are the mostimportant.
Ammonium nitrate fertilizers Ammonium nitrate fertilizers include ammonium nit
rate andammonium nitrosulfate (leuna saltpeter, ammonium sulfate-
nitrate). Ammonium nitrate isproduced chiefly in pellet form; it acidifies the soil sl
ightly. Ammonium nitrosulfate has acomparatively high acidifying capacity.
Nitrate fertilizers Nitrate fertilizers include sodium nitrate (Chilean saltpeter), calci
um nitrate(lime saltpeter, Norwegian saltpeter), and potassium nitrate. Sodium nitr
ate is physiologicallyalkaline and is therefore best applied to acid soils, especially
when sugar beets, wheat, barley,and other acid-
sensitive crops are grown. Calcium nitrate is put up in pellets usually admixedwith
ammonium nitrate; it, too, alkalizes the soil. Potassium nitrate contains potassium a
s wellas nitrogen and is a source of nitrogen-
potassium nutrition for plants. It is applied to chlorine-
sensitive crops. All the nitrate forms of nitrogen are not absorbed by the soil. In reg
ions withexcess moisture, nitrate fertilizers are leached out of light soils with weak
water-
retentioncapacity. It is best, therefore, to use ammonia fertilizers as the main fertili
zers.
Amide fertilizers Amide fertilizers include urea (carbamide), calcium cyanamide, a
nd urea-
formaldehyde. Urea is the most valuable. In soil it readily changes into ammonium
carbonate; itfirst slightly alkalizes the soil and then weakly acidifies it. It is recom
mended that urea beadded early. It is also used as a protein supplement for ruminan
ts. Calcium cyanamide is ableto reduce soil acidity.
Table 1. Properties of the main mineral nitrogenous fertilizers
Chemi Averagenitro Fertilizerm Drillabilityafter stora Tende Hygr
calfor gencontent(i ass byvolum ge ncyto oscop
3
mula npercent) e(kg/m ) cake icity
Ammoni (NH1)2 20.5–21.5 800 good (withmoistureco slight very
umsulfat S04 ntentslightveryweakno weak
e..... morethan 2%)
Ammoni NH2C 26.0 600 satisfactory moder slight
umchlori L at
de . . .
Anhydro NH3 82.3 620 — — —
usammo
nia ...
Aquaam NH3 + 20.0 910 — — —
monia.... H2O
....
Ammonium nitrate
granulat NH1 N 34.7–35.0 820 good slight very
ed.......... O3 stron
g
crystalli NH1N 34.7–35.0 840 poor strong very
ne .......... O3 stron
g
Sodiumn NaNO 16.0 1,100–1,400 satisfactory slight mode
itrate...... 3 rate
..
Calcium Ca(N 17.0 900–1,100 satisfactory strong very
nitrate.... O3)2• 2 stron
.. H20 g
Urea
granulat (NH2)2 46.0 650 good does n very
ed.......... CO otcake weak
crystalli (NH2)2 46.0 650 poor slight very
ne .......... CO weak
If applied in the fall, it is effective on mellow neutral soils rich in organic matter. It
is unsuitablefor local application. Calcium cyanamide is also used as a defoliant to
remove leaves fromcotton before it is harvested. Urea-
formaldehyde fertilizers are not leached out of the soil andare especially effective i
n regions of excess moisture and irrigated agriculture. The use of largeamounts pro
vide crops with enough nitrogen to last several years. The characteristics ofmineral
nitrogenous fertilizers are given in the table.
Nitrogenous fertilizers are an effective means of increasing crop productivity, espe
cially in thenonchernozem zone, humid regions of the forest steppe, and the zone o
f irrigated agriculturewhere the soils do not contain enough nitrogen. The fertilizati
on rates vary with soil conditions,biological characteristics of the crops, and availa
ble supply of manure or other organicfertilizers. The approximate rates of nitrogen
ous fertilizers (in kg per ha converted intonitrogen) are 40–
60 for winter grains sown after an occupied fallow and 30–
40 after a cleanfallow; 40–60 for spring grains; 60–
120 for silage corn and for grain in the nonchernozem zoneand northern part of the
forest-steppe zone, 45–60 on rich chernozems of the forest steppe,and 120–
150 in irrigated regions; 45–
60 for sugar beets on chernozems of the forest steppe,80–
120 on gray forest soils, podzolized chernozems of the forest steppe, and in thenon
chernozem zone, and 100–150 in irrigated regions; 120–140 for cotton; 40–
60 for fiber flax;45–90 for hemp; 45–90 for potatoes; 90–120 for cabbage; 60–
90 for tomatoes and cucumbers;60–100 for fruits and berries.
Smaller amounts are applied to soils richer in natural nitrogen or when manure or o
thernitrogen-
containing organic fertilizers are used at the same time. If nitrogenous fertilizers ar
e inample supply, the rates can be increased in humid regions; this generally increa
ses the yieldand improves the quality of the crops. For example, good nitrogen nutr
ition favors theformation of gluten in wheat grain and increases the protein content
of fodder crops.
Nitrogenous fertilizers are used as the base fertilizer and as supplementary feeding.
They areadded to winter crops which were sown after a clean fallow only as early
spring supplements (30-
40 kg of nitrogen per ha) on semithawed soil (on the ground’s ice “crust”). In all zo
nes ofthe USSR, it is useful to add nitrogenous fertilizers at the full rates to spring
crops beforesowing and, if the crops are to be irrigated, in stages before irrigation.
Cotton is fertilized threetimes: before sowing, at the start of budding, and at the sta
rt of flowering (one-third of the rateat a time).
Phosphatic fertilisers:
The nutrient phosphorus present in phosphate fertilizers are usually expressed in
terms of phosphoric anhydride or simply as phosphorus pentaoxide, P 2O5. The
availability of phosphorus in which it is present. The amount of phosphorus
available to the plants depends upon the extent to which the fertilizer supplies
HPO4----or H2PO4 –ions. According to the solubilities, the phosphatic fertilizers are
divided in following groups.
a. Water soluble phosphatic fertilizers: These fertilizers contain phosphorus in
available form in neutral soils, which can be readily absorbed by young
plants. In acid, soils and free iron, aluminium hydroxy phosphates but in
alkaline and calcareous soils, water soluble phosphorous is converted into
insoluble calcium phosphate. The common examples of these fertilizers are:
(d) Other phosphatic fertilizers: Following are the other phosphatic fertilisers.
MATCH INDUTRY
Early matches
A note in the text Cho Keng Lu, written in 1366, describes a sulfur match, small
sticks of pinewood impregnated with sulfur, used in China by "impoverished court
ladies" in AD 577 during the conquest of Northern Qi. During the Five Dynasties
and Ten Kingdoms (AD 907–960), a book called the Records of the Unworldly and
the Strange written by Chinese author Tao Gu in about 950 stated:
If there occurs an emergency at night it may take some time to make a light to light
a lamp. But an ingenious man devised the system of impregnating little sticks of
pinewood with sulfur and storing them ready for use. At the slightest touch of fire
they burst into flame. One gets a little flame like an ear of corn. This marvellous
thing was formerly called a "light-bringing slave", but afterwards when it became
an article of commerce its name was changed to 'fire inch-stick'.
Another text, Wu Lin Chiu Shih, dated from 1270 AD, lists sulphur matches as
something that was sold in the markets of Hangzhou, around the time of Marco
Polo's visit. The matches were known as fa chu or tshui erh.
Chemical matches
The London matchgirls strike of 1888 campaigned against the use of white
phosphorus in match making, which led to bone disorders such as phossy jaw.
Those involved in the manufacture of the new phosphorus matches were afflicted
with phossy jaw and other bone disorders, and there was enough white phosphorus
in one pack to kill a person. Deaths and suicides from eating the heads of matches
became frequent. The earliest report of phosphorus necrosis was made in 1845 by
Lorinser in Vienna, and a New York surgeon published a pamphlet with notes on
nine cases.
The conditions of working class women at the Bryant & May factories led to
the London matchgirls strike of 1888. The strike was focused on the severe health
complications of working with white phosphorus, such as phossy jaw. Social
activist Annie Besant published an article in her halfpenny weekly paper The
Link on 23 June 1888. A strike fund was set up and some newspapers collected
donations from readers. The women and girls also solicited contributions.
Members of the Fabian Society, including George Bernard Shaw, Sidney Webb,
and Graham Wallas, were involved in the distribution of the cash collected. The
strike and negative publicity led to changes being made to limit the health effects
of the inhalation of white phosphorus.
Attempts were made to reduce the ill-effects on workers through the introduction
of inspections and regulations. Anton Schrötter von Kristelli discovered in 1850
that heating white phosphorus at 250 °C in an inert atmosphere produced a red
allotropic form, which did not fume in contact with air. It was suggested that this
would make a suitable substitute in match manufacture although it was slightly
more expensive. Two French chemists, Henri Savene and Emile David Cahen,
proved in 1898 that the addition of phosphorus sesquisulfide meant that the
substance was not poisonous, that it could be used in a "strike-anywhere" match,
and that the match heads were not explosive.