Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

More women than ever are entering the labor force but the majority of top

management positions in almost all countries are primarily held by men. Female

managers tend to be concentrated in lower management positions and hold less

authority than men. This suggests that sex differences in career patterns must be at

work to account for the huge difference in the number of men versus women in top

management positions. Although women as a whole may place less emphasis on

career success than men, there are a considerable amount of women who strive for

top management positions and are unable to attain them; there are some invisible

barrier (a glass ceiling) which prevents women from attaining top management

positions (Margaret,1998).

Glass Ceiling is a discriminatory barrier to the advancement of women into

the upper positions of business, the professions, and government. After

discrimination by sex in employment was outlawed by the Civil Rights Act of 1964,

it was understood that women would not be seen in top jobs in substantial numbers

until many had achieved the necessary experience at intermediate levels. However,

the paucity of women in the highest positions decades later suggested that they faced

persisting barriers hence the perception of a "glass ceiling." Even in the absence of

an impenetrable barrier at some particular level, fewer promotional opportunities for

women than for men at each of many levels produced a scarcity of women at and

near the top (Davidson, J, Marilyn & Cooper L Cary, 1992).

This situation is referred to as a "ceiling" as there is a limitation blocking

upward advancement, and "glass" (transparent) because the limitation is not

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immediately apparent and is normally an unwritten and unofficial policy. This

invisible barrier continues to exist, even though there are no explicit obstacles

keeping minorities from acquiring advanced job positions. there are no

advertisements that specifically say “no minorities hired at this establishment”, nor

are there any formal orders that say “minorities are not qualified” (largely due to the

fact that Equal employment opportunity laws forbid this kind of discrimination, and

open admittance of it is career suicide) but they do lie beneath the surface. When a

company exercises said discrimination, they will usually attempt to use an indirect

justification. The "glass ceiling" is distinguished from formal barriers to

advancement, such as education or experience requirements. Mainly this invisible

barrier seems to exist in more of the developing countries, in whose businesses this

effect is highly "visible"(Davidson, J, Marilyn & Cooper L Cary, 1992).

The glass ceiling is defined as "those artificial barriers based on attitudinal

or organizational bias that prevents qualified individuals from advancing upward

into management level positions" (U. S. Department of Labor, 1991). Extensive

research revealed the existence of the glass ceiling in both the private and public

sectors (Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995)

However, this glass ceiling tends to cripple working women the most. This

barrier prevents large numbers of women, ethnic minorities, and sexual minorities

from obtaining and securing the most powerful, prestigious, and highest-grossing

jobs in the workforce. This barrier makes many women feel as they are not worthy

enough to have these high-ranking positions, but also they feel as if their bosses do

not take them seriously or actually see them as potential candidates (Morrison, M,

Ann, White P Randall & Velsor,Van Ellen).

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Types of Glass Ceiling Barriers

Different pay for comparable work, Sexual, ethnic, racial, religious

discrimination or harassment in the workplace Lack of family-friendly workplace

policies (or, on the flipside, pro-child/pro-family values that discriminate against

homosexuals, non-parents, or single parents) Exclusion from informal networks;

Stereotyping and preconceptions of women's roles and abilities; Failure of senior

leadership to assume accountability for women's advancement; Lack of role models;

Lack of mentoring .Requiring long hours for advancement, sometimes called the

“hour-glass ceiling”.

• Brass Ceiling - In the traditionally male-dominated fields of law

enforcement and military service, some people use the term “brass

ceiling” to describe the difficulty women have when they try to rise up

in the ranks. "The brass" denotes the decision-makers at the top of an

organization, especially in the military.

• Stained-Glass Ceiling- is a sociological phenomenon in religious

communities similar to the concept of the "glass ceiling." The concept

revolves around the apparent difficulty for women who seek to gain a

role within church leadership.

• Bamboo Ceiling -The exclusion of Asian-descendants from executive

and managerial roles on the basis of subjective factors such as "lack of

leadership potential" or "inferior communication ability"

attractiveness where the East Asian-descendants candidate has

superior objective credentials such as education in high-prestige

universities (in comparison to their white counterparts with only

lower-prestige university credentials).For example, research shows

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 that there are a decent number of partners at leading prestigious law

firms in the United States who did not attend top notch law schools.

However, you will seldom find an East Asian American partner of a

leading law firm who did not attend a "Top 16 Law School"

(according to the US News ranking).

• Concrete Ceiling -This is a term used to describe the type of barrier

minority woman encounter. Caucasian women may face the glass

ceiling in the workforce, but be able to break through it from time to

time; however, minority women’s glass ceiling tends to be more solid

and unyielding. This ‘concrete ceiling’ is due to minority women

facing both issues of sexism and racism which intensifies their

obstructions in advancing within the labor market.

• Expatriate Glass Ceiling -After breaking through the first level of the

glass ceiling, many women are beginning to face an additional barrier.

This is a term used to describe this second level of obstruction which

prevents women in managerial positions from receiving foreign

management assignments, projects, and experiences that is becoming

increasingly more important for promotion into the upper-level

managerial positions ( Insch,McIntyre, & Napier).

• Glass Closet -The exclusion of openly gay men and women from

certain jobs, especially in the media.

• Glass Elevator (or glass escalator) - Some believer there is a rapid

promotion of men over women, especially into management, in

female-dominated fields such as nursing. They say men in these fields

are promoted with ease they actually have to struggle not to advance

due to facing invisible pressures and expectations to move up from

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 where they currently are. This is based on traditional gender roles and

stereotypes that men are expected to be in the chief roles, while

women are to be in the subordinate positions. Therefore, in the fields

where men are less common, they receive differential treatment that

favors them to exert their authority and control in the workplace.

Others believe that men in female dominated professions are

discriminated against and treated worse than women, the way women

are treated in other professions.

• Glass cliff - A situation wherein someone has been promoted into a

risky, difficult job where the chances of failure are higher.

• Celluloid Ceiling, referring to the small number of women in top

positions in Hollywood (Lauzen ,2002)

• Sticky Floor - refers to women who are trapped in low-wage, low

mobility jobs in state and local government.

• Sticky Ladder - A term used to describe women's struggle to reach

the top of the corporate ladder. This term describes the theory that

women are not incapable of reaching the top; they just get "stuck" on

the middle rungs of the ladder.

Glass Floor - Many men have college degrees and would like to advance

further in our culture, but due to a lack of opportunities and an increasingly woman-

friendly workplace, including men in positions of power who would rather hire

attractive young women and women in positions of power who would rather work

with women, remain stuck in low-pay jobs with little chance of advancement,

including blue-collar jobs that do not require higher education and "temp work,"

which requires the work hours and stress of regular office employment, but with less

pay and no benefits.

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Sexism and Glass Ceiling Effects .The Gender Wage Gap

This gap is the difference in both the wages and earnings between males and

females who have equivalent job titles, training experience, education, and

professions. In most circumstances, women are paid less than men when all of these

factors are comparable. A comparison frequently cited is that women make 75.3

percents on the dollar to men, (which is derived from statistics maintained by the

United States Census Bureau from 2003), relating specifically to an across-the-board

comparison of year-round full-time workers.

Males not only have superior statuses than women between jobs, but also

within the jobs themselves. Women are concentrated into the lower-ranked and

lower-paid occupations within a given profession. If women are in management

positions, they are more likely to be in personnel than in marketing professions; the

averages salaries of each are $48,048 and $56,940 per year, respectively. Another

example occurs within the medical field. Female doctors are much more likely to be

heavily constricted in the family practice or pediatric specialties, which average

about $130,000 and $126,000 per year, respectively. However, men are more likely

to become surgeons and highly specialized medical practitioners, who tend to

average $240,000 or more per year.

This gender wage gap is present within all realms of the workforce, blue

collar, managerial, and professional occupations. Only 16% of the top executive

positions in America’s largest corporations and enterprises are held by women.

Additionally, the median weekly income of full-time working women is only 70.5%

of full-time working men. This statistic tends to hold true across all fields of work.

This gender imbalance in occupations occurs to some degree because women are

6
more likely than men to be newcomers in many fields; therefore, they lack the

primacy and the increased pay that comes with seniority.

It was found in a study conducted with 448 upper-level employees that

women were less likely to be promoted than males, and if they were promoted they

had stronger performance ratings than males (Lyness & Heilman ;2006) However,

performance ratings were more strongly connected to promotions for women than

men. This suggests that women had to be highly impressive to be considered eligible

for leadership roles, whereas this was not the case for men. In a number of

longitudinal studies (Cox & Harquail,1991; Corcoran, & Courant, 1993), that track

comparably qualified men and women, such as graduates of the same MBA program

or law school, it has been shown that over time there is degradation of the women's

compensation that cannot fully be explained by differences in qualifications, work

history, experience, or career interruptions.

Much of the empirical research on the male-female wage gap concludes that

the pay difference is largely attributable to the fact that women are less likely to be

found in higher paying jobs than men (Cain, 1986., Blau & Ferber, 1987). It has been

argued that there are glass ceilings within firms that prevent women from

advancement to higher job levels. Women having fewer opportunities for promotion

within the firm than men. Recent researches that look at the distribution of men and

women with regard to job levels conclude that women have to meet tougher

promotion criteria than men (Jones & Makepeace, 1996).

Another perspective on the gender wage gap (Judge & Livingston, 2008) the

relationship between gender, gender role orientation, and labor marker earnings.

Look, but focused more on the impact that the interaction between gender role

orientation (people’s beliefs about what occupations are considered suitable and
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appropriate for males and females) and gender has on earnings. The researchers

suggested that the gender wage gap cannot fully be explained through economic

factors, offering that underlying psychological components and attitudes account for

some of the difference. They found that while traditional gender roles were positively

connected to earnings, that gender significantly predicted the amount and direction of

this relationship. For instance, traditional gender role orientation was positively

related with earnings for males, providing them with strong earnings. Meanwhile,

traditional gender role orientation was slightly negatively associated with earnings

for females, providing them weaker earnings. This suggests that men who have

traditional male-female attitudes about working are rewarded in the workplace for

seeking to maintain the social order, while women were neither rewarded nor

punished. In general, the study indicated that even though gender role beliefs are

beginning to become less traditional for men and women, traditional gender role

orientation continues to intensify the gender wage gap.

Organizational sociology highlights the phenomenon of “presenteeism”,

whereby excessively long hours might emerge as part of the culture of the job but

might not actually be required for efficiency (Simpson, 1998). These can be used to

limit female access to these jobs. Furthermore covert cultural values can pervade a

particular organization, and may make women less inclined to apply for promotion.

(Kanter, 1977) . Gender differences in attitudes and behavior within an organization

arise because of differences in numbers and positions in the power structure. And it

arises because of social preferences for being surrounded by members of one's own

gender (Lipman & Blumen, 1976). That males in female dominated occupations

might be adversely affected has rarely been considered in the economics literature

(Riach & Rich; 2006). However the greater the sex-ratio in any group, the more

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likely is any minority newcomer to be perceived stereotypically (Booth & Leigh,

2008).

In several organizational outcomes, such as compensation, and many work

attitudes. Important differences were found, however, with women having less

authority, receiving fewer stock options, and having less international mobility than

men. Because physically and psychologically they are perceive lesser strong as

compare to men. It can also conclude that women are judged by their body image

and then task will assign to them. Women at the highest executive levels reported

more obstacles than lower level women. Because they suffer high stress level due to

their responsibilities and expectations.

One study was carried out on the Natural, Social Scientists and Engineers.

The phenomena were addressing that blacks and Asians have similar probabilities of

getting ahead or not. And minority females have same opportunities for management

like white female counterparts into management.

The double penalty thesis underscores the additive adverse effects of being a

minority and a woman on one’s career. Minorities and women are under-represented

in well-paying professions (Kanter, 1977). And the women would be most vulnerable

when they are in small numbers. Based on her notion of tokenism, being a member

of two disadvantaged groups might have a devastating effect on the careers of black

and Asian women in science and engineering. There is ample evidence of both racial

and gender discrimination in the labor market, (Tomaskovic & Devey, 1993, Zinn &

Dill, 1994, Kulis & Miller, 1988). Minority women may have more difficulties to

form important professional ties or to find role models. Therefore, the status of black

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and Asian women would contribute to their blocked mobility in science and

engineering.

However, the existence of a glass ceiling has been identified in such diverse

areas as law, social work, academia, science, medicine, advertising, investing,

personnel management, insurance, and nursing management, among others

(Bernstein, 1996; Hornig, 1997; & Walsh, 1995). A study by the American Bar

Association (Bernstein, 1996) revealed that "despite surging numbers of female

lawyers, bias against women remains entrenched in the legal profession and results

in steep inequities of pay, promotion, and opportunity".

The media commonly depicts the ideal woman body image as supermodel

thin, and women appear to be highly aware that others judge them in terms of this

ideal image (Cogan, 1996, Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997; & Stice, 1994). Being

overweight is highly stigmatizing to young women in the United States (Rodin,

Silberstein, & Moore, 1984). Although ideal body sizes and anti-fat attitudes vary

among different cultures and ethnic groups (Cogan, 1996; Crandall, &

Martinez,1996), in the general US population overweight women and girls

experience widespread social rejection and are the targets of prejudice (Crandall,

1995; Mille, 1990).

The high value Western cultures place on physical attractiveness,

preoccupation with one’s body image has increased dramatically through the last few

decades in work setting (Jackson, 2004). In turn, body image research has

specifically examined both the positive and negative effects that body image can

have on women. Although there have been significant advances in our understanding

10
of body image and its effect on women, many paths remain unexplored. For

example, how is our day-to-day life, including our choice of a career, affected by our

body image? Exploring these questions is vitally important. As more women enter

into the workforce and in business settings with increasing career opportunities,

examining the role that body image plays in this area may provide some insight into

which fields women will choose and why.

United States government statistics have shown that although women and

minorities have made impressive gains in employment during 1980s, they continue

to be underrepresented in positions of power and responsibility, especially at the

senior management and executive positions. This trend has also been observed in the

Information Systems (IS) field (Wilson, 1990). It has been reported that women and

blacks encounter a glass ceiling that prevents them from reaching the top levels of

positions (Johnson, 1990; Morrison and Glinow, 1990).

Glass Ceiling is Self-Imposed

The causes of the glass ceiling are varied. One suggestion is that the glass

ceiling is self-imposed by some women. For example, women may choose to work

fewer hours due to some reasons (i. e., age, education, socio-economic status and

marital status) because they want to spend time with their families. Women also

measure their success in the workplace differently than men. Men tend to measure

success by high salaries and important job titles and promotions and with boss

relationships. Whereas women place a higher value on their relationships with

colleagues and community service (Cohen & Kaner, 1995).

And Women are more likely to choose jobs based on factors other than pay,

for instance, health care and scheduling that can be managed with the duties of
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primary care of children for which women are still overwhelmingly responsible, and

thus they may be less likely to take jobs that require travel or relocation or jobs that

are hazardous. On average, women take more time off and work fewer hours, often

due to the unequal distribution of childcare labor, domestic labor, medical needs

specific to women, and other family issues that tend to fall to a woman's

responsibility per the gender roles assigned by society. The ending result of women’s

extensive obligation to attend to responsibilities of the home and children is that their

wages plummet. Family demands have a downward pull on women’s earnings as

they proceed throughout their life course. The earnings gap tends to widen

considerably when men and women are in their early to mid-thirties, the gap reaches

the widest point when men and women are in their fifties"(Davidson, J, Marilyn &

Cooper L Cary, 1992).

Women Surpassing the Glass Ceiling

Although there is a glass ceiling, many women recently have surpassed that

hurdle. When at the top management, many women feel like outsiders. Most of the

time they are the only female at that level and are surrounded by males. Many

women have faced sexual harassment, wage inequality, blocked movement and

gender stereotyped roles. Women are said to have different styles of leadership and

management once they break the barrier. They are generalized to be more nurturing

and caring in nature than men. Men are stereotypically, more “tough” and shrewd in

business, which is sometimes seen as positive traits. Women’s traditional role is in

the home, taking care of children, and keeping house. The stereotype of maternal

leadership stems from that. Some men in senior management that do not want to see

women climb the corporate ladder believe that they do not have the qualities to lead a

company. Many believe that making assumptions about the way women act in a

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leadership position perpetuates the stereotypes that cause the glass ceiling. There are

many reasons why women have been able to break the barrier. Some believe that

having women on an executive board is a positive thing .Women make 60% of all

purchases in the United States, it is common sense to want their opinion. The more

women that are accepted into management positions, the more will get promoted to

senior management and serve as role models for the younger .Younger men have also

been more accepting of female superiors. The perception of a woman’s role is

changing with the younger generation. But with this the concept of beauty is

increasing day by day. There are many companies which preferred beautiful and

attractive women for jobs and opportunities.

Many believe that men in female-dominated professions, such as education or

nursing, also, face a glass ceiling. Many, also, believe that these men are actually

treated worse than women are currently in male-dominated professions, but like

women were in those professions decades ago because open and obvious

discrimination and bad treatment of men has less chance of legal

Body Image

Research on body image has expanded in many areas, from redefining the

early over simplified ideas of body image, to incorporating additional factors that

help us to better understand body image. Early definitions of body image were very

basic and one dimensional, implying that body image was simply the picture that we

form of our body in our mind (Cash & Pruzinsky, 2004). This definition limited the

scope of research. However, current body image researchers now increasingly agree

that body image is a much more multi-dimensional concept For example, Cusack

13
(2000) defined body image as a multidimensional self attitude toward one’s body,

particularly its’ size, shape, and aesthetics.

This more complete definition has created an interdisciplinary approach to

researching body image. As a result of the increase in emphasis on body image as

well as the increase in the number of body image disturbances reported among

females, research on gender and body image has become extremely important (Cash,

Ancis & Strachan, 1997).

Body image is person’s inner perception of his or her physical appearance.

This perception may or may not correlate with objective reality. Each person holds

an image of perfect person in mind and evaluates his or her appearance against this

ideal.

Body image can be conceptualized as “a multidimensional construct that

represents how individuals’ think feel, and behave with regard to their own physical

attributes” (Muth & Cash, 1997).

Researchers have identified two conceptually distinct components of body

image. The first body image evaluates thoughts and beliefs about their physical

appearance. The second, body-image investment, refers to the behavior individual

perform to manage or enhance the way they look (Cash & Szymanski, 1995).

Body image is a complicated aspect of self-concept that concern an

individual’s perception and feeling about his/her body and physical appearance

(Cash & Pruzinsky, 2002).

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 It has been noticed that a person who is pleased with his/her appearance and

body shape he or she will evaluate his /her body image positively while on the other

hand a person who is dissatisfied with his or her body or appearance hold negative

body image. Negative body image can involve a distorted perception of size or

shape, as well as more global feelings of shame, awkwardness, and anxiety about the

body. People with negative body image tend to feel that their size or shape is a sign

of personal failure and they misperceive their personality, it is a very important

indicator of worth. Poor body image has been linked to diminished mental

performance, low self-esteem, anxiety, depression, sexual dysfunction, dieting and

eating disorders and some time it is a barrier in advancement of women. Because

poor body image effects in job selection, promotions, because women are some time

selected on the bases of their body image, or attraction. If they are more attractive

then they will get high chances of job, promotions and opportunities as compared to

those women who are less attractive or who are having over weight preoccupation,

self-classified weight problems.

Researches have given various conceptualizations of body image, few would

deny its importance and its link to well being. Some Research results and data

indicate that body image dissatisfaction, often called body image disturbance, which

has become more prevalent since the 1980s and has been associated with incidences

of depression (Denniston, Roth, & Gilroy, 1992), heightened anxiety, and lowered

self-esteem (Altabe &Thompson, 1993), as well as it is also related to the

development of maladaptive eating behaviors and dieting (Cooley & Toray, 2001).

15
 Female have been found to experience dissatisfaction with physical

appearance at much higher rate than male (Striegel & Morre & Franko, 2002). It

appears that body image dissatisfaction is more closely linked to appear related than

physical reality. People with dysfunctional beliefs and cognition about physical

appearance regardless of their body mass are at high risk of developing body image

disturbances (Butter & Cash, 1987). and these disturbances lead them discrimination

because if one’s physically dissatisfied he/she will be less socially accepted that is

main reason that less attractive female face biasness in hiring and promotions.

Many women desire to be thin and feel more dissatisfied with their bodies

than do men and this is the main reason of facing biasness in work setting. (Turner,

1997; Altabe & Thompson, 1993; Brenner & Cunningham, 1992; Davis & Cowes,

1991.

The process of socio-cultural comparison leads to a negative impact on

women's images of themselves and a negative body satisfaction (Heinberg 1995;

Heinberg & Thompson, 1992).

Apprehension over weight and appearance related issues often surfaces early

in females' development, and continues throughout the lifespan. Body dissatisfaction

and disordered eating patterns have been found to be an especially prevalent issue in

adolescent females. (Schwitzer, Bergholz, Dore & Salimi, 1998; Stice & Whitenton,

2002). Body image becomes a major issue as females go through puberty; girls in

mid adolescence frequently report being dissatisfied with weight, fearing further

weight gain, and being preoccupied with weight loss (Striegel, 2002). Frost and

Mckelive (2004) found that female students of all ages had low self esteem relating

16
to body image in comparison to their class-mates found that over 40% of 14-year-

olds reported wanting to lose weight. In addition, studies have also found that most

girls who express a desire to be thinner are within the normal weight range for

females of their age (Striege-Moore & Franko, 2002). And these problems reduce

their chances in the selection of practical life. (E.g. job, promotion and

opportunities).

In recent years, women's body sizes have grown larger (Spitzer, Henderson,

& Zivian, 1999), while societal standards of body shape have become much thinner.

This Discrepancy has made it increasingly difficult for most women to achieve the

current Socio-cultural "ideal" Such a standard of perfection is unrealistic and even

dangerous. Because today those women get more acceptances who are physically

beautiful and their beauty is their reason of selection for any post and for any job. At

other hand some women face discrimination because they perceive less beautiful.

And on some places low level jobs are associated with less attractive employees.

The basis of self-apperception (Sands & Wardle, 2003) is that women use to

construct their perceptions about their own physical appearance. And they prestige

the socially represented ideal body, the objective body, and the internalized ideal

body. The portrayals of women by important individuals in a person's life influence

the socially represented ideal body. And most important these socially represent able

women get more chances of jobs. And the do not face tough criteria of promotion

and selection as well. This reference point comes from what an individual believes is

expected by society with respect to physical appearance and beauty.

But comparison the objective body involves a person's own evaluation of

their body. A person's satisfaction and dissatisfaction with aspects of their physical

17
appearance are some time criteria of their selection and promotion which are

contained within the dimension of organization; individuals usually have some

opinion about their physical behavior. The internalized ideal body involves the level

at which an individual prestige the ideal image and aspires to achieve it. Some

women can be exposed to images of thin women and not internalize such standards

of appearance because they know that this image can give more benefits in

organization. In contrast, some women's internalized ideal is very similar to the

socially represented ideal, which makes them particularly vulnerable to the powerful

effects of the media (Sands & Wardle, 2003). In this case they get positive self

evaluation which gives them more opportunities in work setting and in jobs.

Now in the case if there is a large discrepancy between a person's internalized

ideal body and their objective body, a person's confidence in and satisfaction with

their appearance is often negatively affected (Sands & Wardle, 2003). And it will

increase the gap between what a person feels their physical appearance is, and what it

should be. Researchers have found that women who have an internalized ideal body

that closely resembles the socially represented ideal body are at a particularly high

risk to develop body image disturbance and disordered eating patterns and on other

hand they suffer organizational injustice in selection or promotion(Sands & Wardle,

2003).

The Socio-cultural Perspective on Physical Attractiveness

The socio-cultural perspective is an approach to understanding human

behavior that focuses on how cultural values influence individual values and

behavior. It encompasses a variety of theoretical approaches that share the premise

18
that cultural values are important in understanding how individuals are perceived by

others and how they perceive themselves. For example, if the cultural, values

attractiveness in members, then individuals will values attractiveness in themselves

and others. If the culture admonishes against the importance of attractiveness, as the

above cultural maxims suggest, then individuals will likewise consider it unimportant

in judging themselves and others.

Three theoretical approaches within the sociocultural perspective have been

used to conceptualize the role of physical attractiveness in everyday life; each is

described briefly, followed by a review of the empirical evidence. The sociocultural

perspective and research on body attractiveness is discussed, followed by a

consideration of the practical and research implications for understanding body

image.

Social Expectancy Theory

Social expectancy theory argues that cultural values influence perceptions of

and behavior toward others, which in turn influence the behavior of others, which in

turn influences the self- perceptions of others. This sequence of events, from the

perceiver’s perspective , is commonly known as the “self-fulfilling prophecy” or “

interpersonal expectancy effects “for example, if the perceivers believes that the

target(of perception) is lazy, then this expectations may lead to assigning fewer tasks

to the target. The target, whose behavior has been constrained by the perceiver’s

expectations (i.e., the target is now performing fewer tasks), may, in time, internalize

a self-view as “lazy”. Thus the perceiver expectations become the target’s self-

perceptions. This outcome, from the target’s perspective, is commonly known as “the

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looking-glass self”, which refers to those aspects of the self-concept that are

primarily reflections of how others view the target.

Social expectancy theory offers the following hypotheses regarding the

effects of physical attractiveness:

1. There is consensual agreement within cultures about who is attractive and

who is not (i. e., beauty is not the idiosyncratic eye of the beholder) but

variability among cultures.

2. There are consensual expectations within cultures about attractive and

unattractive others (i. e., a physical attractiveness stereotypes) but variability

among cultures.

3. People behave differently toward attractive and unattractive others (i. e., an

expectancy-behavior link).

4. People differential behavior toward attractive and unattractive others results

in differences in how they respond.

5. These behavioral differences results in differences in the self-concepts (e. g.,

self-esteem, personal characteristics) of attractive and unattractive others.

Research on physical attractiveness has focused primarily on the first two

hypotheses of social expectancy theory. Only a handful of studies have examined

cultural differences, which constitute the core predictions of the sociocultural

perspective. Moreover, although there is a plethora of research on how cultural

institutions (e.g., mass media, diet and beauty industries) communicate the value of

attractiveness, there is very little research on why attractiveness is valued, or why

20
some faces or body characteristics are considered attractive ad others are not. Even

the sociocultural perspective is relatively silent on these issues.

Implicit Personality Theory

Implicit personality theory focuses on the knowledge structures that people

use to make sense of their social world-this is , to understand and predicts the

behavior of others. Implicit theories are conceptualized as cognitive structures that

consist of personal attributes ( e.g., personality traits) and inferential relations that

specify the degree to which attributes are related. For example, the attribute

“intellectual” might be expected to covary more strongly with the attribute

“studious” than with the attribute “nervous.”

Implicit personality theory provides a framework for understanding the

physical attractiveness stereotypes. The category label physically attractive is

presumed to be linked to a variety of attributes ( e.g., social competences ) , the

number and the nature of which depend on the culture. Cultural information is

transmitted through direct observations of attractiveness ( e.g., via the media) ,. The

theory does not address why different cultures associate different attributes with

attractiveness.

Status Generalization Theory

Status generalization theory evolved from sociological theories that addressed

how external status characteristics influence social interaction and outcomes in

informal, task-oriented groups. According to the theory, external status

characteristics are used to generate expectation states regarding performance ( i.e. ., “

21
spread of relevance”), with or without prior association between these characteristics

and performance ( i. e., “ the burden of proof “ assumption) , and with or without

conscious awareness.

Status generalization theory views physical attractiveness as a “diffuse” status

characteristics because it discriminates among individuals and establishes

performance expectancies “without limit” – that is, without regard to the actual

relevance of attractiveness of performance. From the status generalizations

perspective, physical attractiveness should be associated with a wide range of

desirable attributes in both perceptions of others and self- perceptions.

Like social expectancy theory and implicit personality theory, status

generalization theory predicts that people hold more positive expectations for

attractive than unattractive others. All three theories predict that people behave more

favorably toward attractive than unattractive others, and that more favorable

treatment results in more favorable self- concepts for attractive people.

Importance of First Impression / Impression Formation.

The process of forming impressions of others is not only used for others, but

we also pay a lot of heed to how and what kind of an impression we would generate

on others. It must be an experience for every one of how they sometimes, quietly

ponder of what imprint they would and are leaving on people. With the passage of

time, as we mature, we spend a lot of effort and energy to sound good, look good,

behave well and be good. This implies to the notion that we generally want to

generate a good and positive impression on others, especially if the meeting is for the

22
first time.

First impressions are considered to be very important everyone. And almost

everyone wants to make a good first impression. First impression is the last

impression. Almost all of us have been hearing this phrase since times unknown. It is

usually believed that first impression is everlasting. Research tells us that this is true

to some extent. When we receive some information that goes against our initially

formed impressions, we have a marked tendency to overlook that or we rationalized

and reason it away (Corsini, 1999; Murphy, Hofacker, & Mizerski, 2006).

When we are forming impression of others, there are a lot of factors that are

playing their part in this process. These include many factors on part of the one being

perceived i.e., the target or stimulus and the one who is categorizing the information

into impression i.e., the self. Many characters are considered important during

impression formation, most of which are thought to be coming from the target. These

may include the style of speaking, language accents, dressing up, the content of

speech, tone and loudness of voice, body language, eye contact, physical

attractiveness, ethnic background etc. the list may go on and on and the factors may

have a differential values for different people and each one of us may place a high or

low premium on any of these or many others factors accordingly. And when one

person is judge he/she will be judge by all of above areas. Especially women get

chances of hiring on the bases of these areas’s beauty.

Much research has been done to study the impacts of many such and others

related factors on impression formation. Research has shown that a very important

factor that plays a vital role in affecting our impression formation is the physical

attractiveness. Many researches show that people high in physical attractiveness

23
elicit more favorable impressions than people low in physical attractiveness ( e.g.

Berschied & Walster, 1972; Hatfield & Sprecher; Patzer; Sorell & Nowack, as citied

in Miyake & Zuckerman, 1993).Especially in hiring when one beautiful face passes

suddenly interviewer make schema that he/she will be intelligent and must be

selected.

It has extensively been acknowledge that physical appearance influences

person impression formation. Physical attractiveness has a significant impact on

every aspect of interpersonal relationships, despites the common use of phrases that

beauty is only skin deep and that one should not judge the book by its cover (Singh,

2006). We know how much valued a ‘pretty’ face is. Physically attractive women are

admired more, paid a lot of money to be models, glamorized as movie actresses, and

blamed enough for being greatly responsible for widespread body dissatisfaction and

eating disorders in young women (singh, 2006).

The Problem of ‘Hiring Pretty’.

According to Dudhat and Denning (2003) many studies have supported the

idea that physical attractiveness of an individual influences the inferences other make

about them. The tendency reveals itself frequently, whether in jury judgments or in

voter preferences for political candidates. According to them, an online survey on

website viewwzone.com (as cited in Dudhat & Denning, 2003) revealed that

attractive people are 2 to 5 times more likely to get hired, earn about 12 to 16 percent

more, and are 2 to 7 times more likely to date and make friends. Another online

survey on viewzone.com showed that attractive people are also more likely to attain

an elected office. A famous TV show ‘Dateline NBC’ has reported (as cited in

24
Dudhat & Denning, 2003), that people show a preferences for pretty people when

seeking medical attention, change for the bus or even simple directions.

According to Duhdat and Denning (2003), within the context of the world of

work, physical attractiveness has been shown to have an influence over who gets

hired, performance appraisal, salary determinations, and promotions. To evaluate the

generality of this research to people of different cultures, Dudhat and Denning

conducted a study in 2003 to examine this trend in two very different cultures,

namely the US and the India. The results of the data showed that Indian students

were more likely to have physical attractiveness stereotypes when making decisions

on what salary to offer the applicant, none the less, it did not affect ratings of

qualifications or likelihood of hiring. Surprisingly, the American sample showed no

significant indication of these stereotypes.

Although the bias toward hiring attractive people is persistent, there are

many reasons to resist the impulse. Many steps are taken in the West to curb this

issue, because there is always a risk that a very qualified person who is rejected

could file a grievance against the company. To put a control on this measure, many

regulatory organizations in the USA have testers who go in to the business

community posing as job candidates. These testers present similar resumes yet are

very different in physical appearance. They are on the guard against the beauty bias

in hiring (Dudhat & Denning, 2003).

Factors of Body Dissatisfaction

25
 So many factors have been explored to explain the prevalence of body image

dissatisfaction among women. These include the socio-cultural standard for thinness,

the discrepancy between one's real and ideal body, and appearance-related teasing

self-evaluation. The most prominent factor is the socio-cultural standard of thinness

for women, a standard that is portrayed as not only desirable but attainable by all

women. Historically, women have attempted to modify their bodies to fit the

prevailing conception of beauty and to increase organizational acceptability

(Ehrenreich & English, 1978; Mazur, 1986). And this practice is still in use in spite

of the fact that for the past 20 to 30 years the prevailing role model for women has

been getting thinner (Silverstein, Peterson, & Perdue, 1986; Wiseman, Gray,

Mosimann, & Ahren, 1992).

The attractiveness stereotype "beauty is good" (Dion, Breached &

Walster, 1972) operates strongly for women, and not surprisingly, because beauty is

a thing which is more acceptable in organization setting. And some time body image

has a greater influence on women's perceived image with relationship to organization

and self-esteem (Lerner & Sorely, 1981).

One reason or factor influencing body image dissatisfaction is the

discrepancy between perceptions of an ideal figure and one's actual figure

(Thompson, 1990). According to self-ideal discrepancy theory, individuals tend to

compare their own appearance with an ideal, either in the form of one's own ideal or

an ideal other. Greater discrepancy between the real and ideal leads to body image

discontent. (Cash & Szymanski, 1995). And some time whose women who are more

attractive they become a reason or barrier for those women who are less attractive.

26
That is why women desire to be thinner and attractive (Grilo, Wilfley, Brownell, &

Rodin, 1994).

Body Image Concern and Gender Differences

It has been observed that for women, being beautiful is important for social

success. This may be especially true working women where people are rapidly

assessed for physical attractiveness (Phipher, 1994). Although the idealized standard

for feminine beauty demands that women be thin (Cash & Grenn, 1986 & Garner,

Garfinkle, Schwartz, & Thompson, 1980), men typically have been exempt from this

standard (Adame & Frank, 1990). However, cultural pressure for men to conform a

thin and a muscular ideal has intensified since the 1970s (Lien, Pope, & Gray, 2001),

and men are increasingly dissatisfied with their bodies (Cash, Winstead, &

Janda, 1986) and want to lose weight or increase muscle tone (Mcabe &

Ricciardelli, 2004).This represents that some time culture demands lead the

individual to follow some prestigious rules in the society .And not only women but

men also conscious about their body image due to rejection fear.

Historically there have been sex differences in body image. In two large

national surveys, women have reported greater body dissatisfaction than have men

(Cash & Henry, 1997; Garner, 1997). Across all ages, women have reported being

more concerned with body weight and appearance (Pliner, Chaiken, & Flett, 1990).

Moreover women report experiencing more negative feelings when they are attentive

to their bodies than do men (Franzoi, Kessenich, & Sugrue, 1989), they have a

greater discrepancy between their ideal and actual body figures (Fallon &

Rozin, 1985), and they tend to perceive themselves as large as or as heavier than they

actually are (Cash & Grenn,1986). And sometime their own positive body image
27
evaluation gives them chances to get high salaries, high prestige and high authority.

Adame and Frank (1990) found that among normal weight women (women who are

neither medically underweight nor over weight), 61% perceived themselves to be

overweight. And this was the main reason of their rejection in social setting. In

contrast men, men regardless of their actual weight, usually report more positive

body image than do women (Demarest & Langer, 1996). Women tend to feel over

weight much more than men (Tiggemann, 1992), and men appear to be less obsessed

with weight and becoming fat; therefore, pathogenic values related to eating and

body size is lower among men (Akan, 1993)

Frost and Mckelive (2004) found that female students of all ages had low self

esteem relating to body image in comparison to their class-mates. They do also found

that female students on average desired to lose weight and they tend to have more

concerns regarding being over-weight than male. Because they know their

overweight will be barrier in their career and promotion.

One of the most important factors related to body image is Obesity which can

have severe psychological consequences (Friedman & Brownell, 1995). It is

sometimes argued that the life dissatisfaction, socially abilities, and body image

distress produced by obesity are beneficial in that they motivate people to lose

weight. It is more likely that these form barriers to emotion regulation that, for both

biological and psychological reasons, lead to increased eating. It is also possible that

these consequences, perhaps through their impact on serious disorders such as

depression, form one link between obesity and chronic disease. And the most

important society relates stereotypes with obese individual. That is why women feel

28
threat from obesity, because later on obesity will make hurdle in their work

promotions and for high authority.

The Social Reality of Obesity

Social factors are better understood. Negative messages about being

overweight are relentless. This reflects a strong anti-fat bias that is evident in the

media, institutions such as schools and business, and everyday discourse. This bias

results in stigma and discrimination (Puhl & Brownell, 2001). As one example, an

analysis of overweight and non-overweight characters in popular television programs

shows that the overweight characters are more often the object of jokes, less likely to

be portrayed as leaders and in romantic relationships, and more often shown as

eating out of control (Greenberg, Eastin, Hofshire, Lachlan, & Brownell, 2003).

When people encounter an individual belonging to a stigmatized group, they

search for the cause of the stigma. If the stigmatized trait is thought to be under

personal control, blame is assigned, bias seems reasonable, and discrimination is

justified. In the case of obesity, individuals have a highly stigmatized condition and

are thought to be responsible for it. Personality explanations then arise; obese people

are thought to be weak willed, lazy, sloppy, incompetent, emotionally unstable, and

even defective as people. That is why they face many serious issues on work setting.

For example higher authority does not give them high demanding task, supervisor

avoids giving them extra work or decisions. At the end hand they receive fewer

opportunities for promotion or get higher grades in their jobs because of their less

mobility.

29
 The Body Image States Scale (BISS; Cash, 2002) was constructed to assess

the momentary evaluative and affective aspects of body image. The six-item BISS

measures current body image experiences: (1) overall physical appearance

dissatisfaction/satisfaction; (2) body size and shape dissatisfaction/satisfaction;

(3) weight dissatisfaction / satisfaction; (4) feelings of physical unattractiveness /

attractiveness; (5) feelings about one’s looks compared to how one usually feels;

(6) appearance evaluation compared to how the average person looks. The initial

validation study on the BISS showed that individuals with greater trait body image

dissatisfaction, greater overweight preoccupation, and more dysfunctional

appearance investment also had less favorable body image states. Across contexts,

body image states were less favorable among women.

Empirical evidence has accumulated to suggest that individual differences in

Appearance-RS are associated with excessive and disruptive body image concerns.

In particular, research has shown that American college students with relatively high

versus low Appearance-RS are more likely to negatively interpret and avoid social

situations that highlight their physical appearance (Park, 2007; Park & Pinkus, 2009).

More specifically, it has been shown that women have inaccurate perceptions

of what men find attractive in women. Specifically, women believe that men find

very thin women attractive, but men report finding less thin women most attractive

(Lamb, Jackson, Cassiday, & Priest, 1993).

30
 ..

Rationale of the Study

Pakistan is a traditional society where tenacious beliefs and mythology is the

governing elite. In Pakistan, traditional conservative mindsets always worked as a

fence in women’ selection for and promotion to high ranks. Pakistan is a male

dominating society where women suffer many from of discrimination at mass level.

Irrespective of the current changes in the corporate sector due to the establishment of

multinational organizations in Pakistan, women were historically discouraged in

high-ranked jobs. In this regard, the present study is a fact findings effort which aims

to discover the relation between body image and glass ceiling effects in the

employees of government and private organizations. As the glass ceiling effect is

restively a new phenomenon and there is not much work done in Pakistan on these

phenomena. So this study basically is directed to explore the orientation how body

image perception will predict glass ceiling effect at organization

As Pakistan is purely patriarchy society and there exists a biased attitude

towards females for employment and then for their higher posts. The basic

motivation behind this study is to explore underline and hidden phenomena that how

female employees working in different organizations perceived their body image and

how they relate to glass ceiling effect. And also to explore that women who are not

confident just because of their body image will be a direct victim of glass ceiling

effect from different organizations cultures. Glass ceiling is affected by a verity of

factors in organizations. (i. e., organizational type, management level, organizational

31
structure, and nature of the job and gender of supervisor) on the most important

factors is body image. This study aims to explore that body image and glass ceiling

effect, and present study cover that how the body image of female employees is

affected by the organizational factor (i. e., organizational type, management level,

organizational structure, and nature of the job and gender of supervisor).

It has been observed that beauty values a lot in today’s world, globalization

decreased the distances and media merged the different cultures together. Beauty and

beauty standers made people more conscious about the appearance and towards their

own body image we consciously or unconsciously do comparison with the standard

of the beauty valued in the society. This may be especially true on organizational

selection criteria where women are rapidly assessed for physical attractiveness while

hiring and promotion (Pipher, Thompos, & Cash, 1994).

While in our country there is less focus on the body image issues may due the

reason that in collectivistic cultures people are assumed to have traits those culture

value, such as loyalty and integrity. However as with the growing trends in business

world, there are so many multinational organizations which have good establishment

in our country. And making good use of their resources. But they are also using

women in their organizations as a progressing tool. And they offer women mostly

job of secretary, receptionist, etc. Although foreign companies have shown large

investment in corporate sector but they also follow stereotypical behavior of our

society. And they also showed biased attitude towards women progress.

There are 48 banks in Pakistan which are working. But there is only one CEO

of First Women Bank is female (State Bank of Pakistan, 2010). This is a clear cut

example of our prejudice society. Here some personal factors also hit on the way of

32
women’s progress. Attractions, thin or slim physical posture of the female and the

body image also considered valuable and the women who positively met these

attribution criteria they gain much chances of progress but the women who are less

attractive and whose body image is not satisfactory they will face biased attitude of

society.

33
 Chapter-II

METHOD

Objective

The study focused on the following objectives.

1. To examine the role of body image in the prediction of glass ceiling effect in

organizations.

2. To investigate the relationship between the subscales of body image and

glass-ceiling effect.

3. To explore the role of various organizational factors (i. e., organizational

type, management level, organizational structure, and nature of the job and gender of

supervisor) in glass-ceiling effect in media organizations.

4. To examine the role of various demographic variables (i. e., age, education,

socio-economic status and marital status) in body image among female employees.

Hypotheses

In present study, body image as a predictor of glass ceiling effect following

hypotheses was formulated:

34
1. Glass ceiling will negatively predict Appearance evaluation, appearance

orientation and body area satisfaction among female employees.

2. Glass ceiling will positively predict Overweight preoccupation, and self-

classified weight among female employees.

Operational Definition of Variables

Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Scale

MBSRQ-AS

Body image was measured through scores on Multidimensional Body-Self

Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Scale (MASRQ-AS), which is accessed in

terms of scores on its sub-scales: appearance evaluation, appearance orientation,

body areas satisfaction scale, over weight preoccupation, and self-classified weight.

Percentile ranks were computed on Multidimensional Body-Self Relation

Questionnaire-Appearance Scale (MASRQ-AS) to determine cut –off score. On

sub-scales appearance evaluation and body areas satisfaction scale, the score below

50th percentile indicate negative body image. The score above 50th percentile

indicated positive body image. On sub-scale of overweight preoccupation, the score

below 50th percentile indicate positive body image. The score above 50th percentile

indicated negative body image. The score corresponding to 50th percentile was taken

as a cut-off score.

Glass Ceiling

Glass Ceiling, in terms of the scores of respondents on indigenously

developed by (Hameed, 2005). Glass Ceiling Scale consists of factorially derived

two subscales including: (1) Gender Stereotype, (2) Gender Discrimination. High

35
scores on the scale represent high glass ceiling effect and low scores on the scale

represent low glass ceiling effect.

Instruments

Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Scale

Multidimensional Body-self Relation Questionnaire Appearance Scale

(MBSRQ-AS) developed by (Thomas .F .Cash 2000), assesses self attitudinal aspects

of the body image construct. The scale consists of 34 statements, which are sub-

divided in 5 sub-scales. The scales yields separate scores on the 5 sub-scales .it

contains an unequal number of statements from each of the following areas

pertaining to body image: Appearance evaluation (3, 5, 9, 12, 15, 18, 19),

Appearance Orientation (1, 2, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 20, 21) Body area

satisfaction scale (26, 31, 33, 34), over weight preoccupation (4,8,22,23), Self

classified weight(24,25)

The MBSRQ-AS is a 5-point Likert type scale. From item 1-22, statements

are scored on a rating scale ranging from ‘’definitely disagree’’ to ‘‘definitely

agree’’. A score of 1 is given to ‘’ definitely disagree’’ and a score of 5 is given to’

definitely agree’’. For item 23, the statement is scored on rating from ‘‘never’ to

‘‘very often’’. From item 24 to 25, statements are scored on rating scale ranging

from “very underweight” to “very overweight”. A score of 1 is given to very “very

underweight” and a score of 5 is given to “overweight”. For items 26 and 34,

statements are scored on rating scale ranging from “very dissatisfied” to “very

satisfied”.

It consists of 28 positive and 6 negative items. The scoring is reversed for the

negative items. A high score on Appearance evaluation scale indicates feeling of

36
physical attractiveness and satisfaction with one’s look. Where as a low scores

reflects feeling of unattractiveness and a general unhappiness with their appearance.

High scorers on appearance orientation scale place more important on how

they look, and engage in widespread grooming behavior. Low scorers are apathetic

about their appearance; their look is not particularly important and they do not spend

much effort to “look good”.

High scorers on (MBSRQ-AS) are generally satisfied with discrete aspects of

their appearance. Low scorers are unhappy with the size or appearance of several

areas of their body. High score on Overweight preoccupation scale reflect high fat

anxiety, weight vigilance, dieting and eating restrains. High scorers on Self-classified

weight indicate that one’s perceive one’s weight as an underweight.

Glass Ceiling

The present study will measure Glass Ceiling, in terms of the scores of

respondents on indigenously developed by (Hameed, 2005). Glass Ceiling Scale

consists of factorially derived two subscales including: (1) Gender Stereotype, (2)

Gender Discrimination, and Glass Ceiling Scale consist on 30 items arranged on a

five point Likert scale. The possible scores range of Glass Ceiling Scale is 30 to 150,

with 96 as a cut off scores (50th Percentile).

Gender Stereotype

“Gender Stereotype (GS) allows for compartmentalization of jobs on the

bases of gender and are based upon the biased attitude towards women employees

and their potentials, hindering their upward mobility in the organization. Glass

Ceiling can create positive or negative identification of social groups” (Betz, 1993).

In the present study GC will be measured with the help of Gender Stereotype

37
subscale of Glass Ceiling. There are 22 items in this dimension. Scores range of this

sub scale is 22 to 110 with 61 as a cut off scores of GC subscale. High scores on GC

will show high sensitivity towards Gender Stereotype in Glass Ceiling and vise

verse.

Gender Discrimination

Gender Discrimination is defined as any distinction, exclusion, restriction or

preference based on gender, which has the purpose of effect of nullifying or

impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise of human rights and freedoms in all

spheres of society under equal terms. Gender discrimination persists, and includes

not hiring women who are qualified for a position, pushing female workers along

different career paths than male workers, using different pay scales for men and

women, and advancing men and women on different rates (Reskin & Padavic, 1994).

There are 8 items in this dimension which are clustered in the final Glass Ceiling

Scale as items no: 6, 12, 13, 19, 31, 33, 35, and 40. Scores range of this subscale is 8

to 40 with 232 as a cut off scores of Gender Discrimination subscale.

Sample

Sample of the present study will be consisted of 200 women (100 from media

and cellular companies where women’s attractiveness and physical appearance are

considered key determinant factors for selection and promotions of women and 100

women employees from public sector organizations including teaching and ministries

working under Govt. of Pakistan (ministry of social welfare ,ministry of women

development).Participant’s age range will be 20 to 40.Participants education level

will be 14 years or above. Other demographics will include socio economic status of

women, marital status and gender of their supervisors at work place.

38
Procedure

The female employees were personally contacted and the booklets

comprising of written instructions, Multidimensional Body-self Relation

Questionnaire Appearance Scale for Glass Ceiling Effect were distributed among

them. Before handling over the booklets, the female employees were briefed

regarding the nature and objectives of the study and the confidentiality of their

responses were ensured. The respondents were asked to go through the booklet and

fill in the scales according to the instructions written at the top of each scale. While

receiving the filled in booklets, it was ensured that all the items were responded in an

appropriate way. The respondents for apprized for their cooperation and support in

the study.

39
 Appendix -A

Demographic Information Sheet

National Institute of Psychology .Centre of Excellence, Quaid-i-Azam

University, and Islamabad is a research oriented Institute which conducts research on
educational, organizational and social issues. The basic objectives of this research is
to see the impact of body image on Glass Ceiling, (an attitudinal and organizational
biasness that prevent women to reach in executive positions) effect.

This study is purely for research purpose and all the given information will be
kept confidential.

Thank you for your participation and co-operation.

Name of Organization : ________________

Gender : ________________
Age : ________________
Education : ________________
Experience : ________________
Marital Status : ________________
Gender of Supervisor : ________________
Monthly Income : ________________
Nature of Job : ________________
Number of Children : ________________

40
 Read the following statements carefully and check the option that is more
appropriate according to your opinion.

1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Uncertain / not sure / don’t know,

4 = Agree, 5 = strongly Agree.

Here is one example if you strongly disagree with the statement, put click on 1.
It’s not the responsibility of men to do the office job.

Sr. #. Statements SD D N A SA
1. Women with equivalent education are given
more job opportunities as compared to men.
2. Men are not dominant in top management
positions as compared to women.
3. Women with equivalent education are given
more salary as compared to men.
4. Most of the organizations prefer hiring those
women employees who have lesser family
responsibilities (e. g., child rearing).
5. Women employees receive more benefits in
their jobs compared to men employee.
6. Many women employee are stuck in low-
management jobs with little or no opportunity
for career advancement.
7. Many women employees are not promoted due
to gender bias.
8. Within an organization, women with equivalent
experience are given more chances of promotion
as compared to men.
9. It is very easier for women to reach the top
management in the organization as compared to
men.
10. Women are more committed to their career as
compared to men.
Sr.#. Statements SD D N A SA
11. Women with equivalent education are given
more chances of promotion as compared to men
12. Women employees give priority to their
41
 household and family responsibilities compared
to men.
13. Most of the women employees do not need jobs
for economic reasons.
14. Most of the women are hired just to fulfill the
quota of the organization.
15. Compared to men, women employees have more
training opportunities within an organization.
16. Work and family conflict is easier to manage for
women employees compared to the men
employees.
17. Most of the women do not acquire top
management position due to the require job
skills and knowledge.
18. More women are promoted in high position in
public sector than private sector.
19. Generally women receive lesser salary packages
compared to the men for doing comparable
work.
20. Women are not suitable for technical
professions.
21. Women get easily in private sector as compared
to public sector.
22. Gender discrimination prevents women in their
career advancement.
23. Men employees generally receive lesser training
opportunities leading to their job enlargement.
24. High achieving men in an organization have
lesser family responsibilities barriers I their job.

42
Sr.#. Statements SD D N A SA
25. Women should be permitted to work in flexible
job locations (e.g., home office).
26. Women acquire more prestigious jobs than the
men.
27. Most of the women are promoted only to fulfill
the policies of an organization.
28. In work setting, women appear more motivated
than men.
29. Women with equivalent experience in an
organization are given more pay compared to
men.
30. Job promotions are more for women employees
compared to men employees.

43
 Appendix -B
THE MBSRQ-AS

INSTRUCTIONS-PLEASE READ CAREFULLY

The following pages contain a series of statements about how people might
think, feel, or behave about their body image. You are asked to indicate the extent to
which each statement pertains to you personally.

Your answer to items in the questionnaire is anonymous, so please do not

write your name on the materials. In order to complete the questionnaire, read each
statement carefully and decide how much it pertains to you personally. Using the
scale like the one below, indicate your answer by entering it to the left of the number
of the statement.

EXAMPLE:
---------------- I am usually in a good mood.
In the blank space, enter an if you definitely disagree with the statement:
Enter a 2 if you mostly disagree
Enter a 3 if you neither agree nor disagree
Enter a 4 if you mostly agree
Enter a 5 if you definitely agree with the statement.

There are no wrong answers. Just give the answer that is most accurate for
you. Remember, your responses are confidential, so please be completely honest and
answer all items.
1 2 3 4 5
Definitely Neither Agree
Mostly Disagree Mostly Agree Definitely Agree
Disagree Nor Disagree

______ 1. Before going out in public, I always notice how I look.

______ 2. I am careful to buy clothes that will make me look my best.
______ 3. My body is sexually appealing.
______ 4. I constantly worry about being or becoming fat.
______ 5. I like my looks just the way they are.
1 2 3 4 5
44
 Definitely Neither Agree
Mostly Disagree Mostly Agree Definitely Agree
Disagree Nor Disagree

____ 6. I check my appearance in a mirror whenever I can.

______ 7. Before going out, I usually spend a lot of time getting ready.
______ 8. I am very conscious of even small changes in my weight.
______ 9. Most people would consider me good-looking.
______ 10. It is important that I always look good.
______ 11. I use very few grooming products.
______ 12. I like the way I look without my clothes on.
______ 13. I am self-conscious if my grooming isn't right.
______ 14. I usually wear whatever is handy without caring how it looks.
______ 15. I like the way my clothes fit me.
______ 16. I don't care what people think about my appearance.
______ 17. I take special care with my hair grooming.
______ 18. I dislike my physique.
______ 19. I am physically unattractive.
______ 20. I never think about my appearance.
______ 21. I am always trying to improve my physical appearance.
______ 22. I am on a weight-loss diet.

For the remainder of the items use the response scale given with the item, and
enter your answer in the space beside the item.

______ 23. I have tried to lose weight by fasting or going on crash diets.

1. Never
2. Rarely
3. Sometimes
4. Often
5. Very Often

______ 24. I think I am:

1. Very Underweight
2. Somewhat Underweight
3. Normal Weight
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4. Somewhat Overweight
5. Very Overweight
______ 25. From looking at me, most other people would think I am:

1. Very Underweight
2. Somewhat Underweight
3. Normal Weight
4. Somewhat Overweight
5. Very Overweight

26-34. Use this 1 to 5 scale to indicate how dissatisfied or satisfied you are with each
of the following areas or aspects of your body:

1 2 3 4 5
Mostly Neither Satisfied
Very Dissatisfied Mostly Satisfied Very Satisfied
Dissatisfied Nor Dissatisfied

______ 26. Face (facial features, complexion)

______ 27. Hair (color, thickness, texture)
______ 28. Lower torso (buttocks, hips, thighs, legs)
______ 29. Mid torso (waist, stomach)
______ 30. Upper torso (chest or breasts, shoulders, arms)
______ 31. Muscle tone
______ 32. Weight
______ 33. Height
______ 34. Overall appearance

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