Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Theoretical background
Chapter 0
Contacts 10
EC3 - EN 1993 12
EC3 – EN Code check 12
Consulted articles 12
Material properties 14
Imperfections 14
Plastic Hinges 14
Initial Shape 14
Classification 17
Section properties 21
Section Checks 21
Stability Checks 27
Linear Moment 32
Point Loading 32
Line Loading 32
Determination of distance zg 35
Determination of distance zj 36
Diaphragms 37
Built-in beams 41
Yielding 45
Local buckling 46
Global buckling 46
-2-
Moments on columns in simple construction 48
Scaffolding 49
Material properties 55
Steel Temperature 57
Calculation model 59
Code Check 59
EC3 – EN Cold-Formed 61
Consulted articles 61
Material properties 63
Initial Shape 63
Geometrical Proportions 66
Effective Shape 67
Section Checks 73
Stability Checks 82
Use of Diaphragms 86
Supported sections 94
References 95
References 105
-3-
Chapter 0
References 109
References 112
References 116
References 136
References 140
-4-
Consulted articles NBR 14762 141
References 142
SIA263:2013 143
SIA263 Code check 143
References 149
-5-
Chapter 0
-6-
Continuous compression diagonal, supported by continuous tension diagonal 174
Definitions 177
K Bracing 184
References 187
Moment line with maximum at the start or at the end of the beam 191
References 191
-7-
Chapter 0
References 194
Loadings 200
Imperfections 200
Diaphragms 202
References 204
Standard diagrams for warping torque, bimoment and the St.Venant torsion 213
Torsion fixed ends, warping free ends, local torsional loading Mt 214
Torsion fixed ends, warping fixed ends, local torsional loading Mt 215
Torsion fixed ends, warping free ends, distributed torsional loading mt 216
Torsion fixed ends, warping fixed ends, distributed torsional loading mt 217
One end free, other end torsion and warping fixed, local torsional loading Mt 218
One end free, other end torsion and warping fixed, distributed torsional loading mt 218
-8-
Decomposition for situation 2 220
References 220
Annex H: Section check for built-in beams (IFB, SFB, THQ sections) 223
Introduction 223
Plastic interaction formula for single bending and shear force 225
References 230
References 232
-9-
Chapter 1
Contacts
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- 10 -
Contacts
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- 11 -
Chapter 2
EC3 - EN 1993
Eurocode 3
Design of steel structures
Part 1 - 1: General rules and rules for buildings
EN 1993-1-1:2005
Corrigendum
EN 1993-1-1:2005/AC:2006
Corrigendum
EN 1993-1-1:2005/AC:2009
Addendum
EN 1993-1-1:2005/A1:2014
Consulted articles
An overview for the used articles is given in the following table. The articles marked with “X” are consulted. The articles
marked with (*) have a supplementary explanation in the following paragraphs.
EN 1993-1-1
Article Title
1. General
1.7 Conventions for member axes X(*)
2. Basis of design
3. Materials X(*)
5. Structural analysis
5.2 Global analysis X
5.3 Imperfections
5.3.1 Basis X
X(*)
5.3.2 Imperfections for global analysis of frames
- 12 -
EC3 - EN 1993
Article Title
5.3.4 Member imperfections
5.4 Methods of analysis considering material non-linearities X(*)
5.5 Classification of cross-sections X(*)
EN 1993-1-5
Article Title
4.4 Plate elements without longitudinal stiffeners X
5. Resistance to shear X
5.1 Basis
5.2 Design resistance X
5.3 Contribution from webs X
5.4 Contribution from flanges X
5.5 Verification X
7.1 Interaction between shear force, bending moment and axial force X
Annex D Plate girders with corrugated webs X(*)
- 13 -
Chapter 2
l I-Section (FC 1)
l RHS (FC 2)
l Channel-Section (FC 5)
l T-Section (FC 6)
l Asymmetric I-Section (FC 101)
l Cold-Formed I-Plus Section (FC 127)
l Cold-Formed IS-Plus Section (FC 128)
l IFBA (FC 154)
l IFBB (FC 155)
l SFB (FC 153)
l THQ (FC 156)
l Virtual Joist (FC 160)
l VARH element (see Definitions in "Calculation of critical Euler force for VARH elements" on page 177)
Material properties
For standard steel grades, the yield strength fy and tensile strength fu are defined according to the thickness of the element
according to EN 1993-1-1 Table 3.1.
Within the material properties the rules for reduction of the yield strength in function of the thickness can be edited. This
allows the definition of any custom material with custom thickness reduction.
For cold formed sections, the reductions of the yield strength in function of the thickness are
not applied.
Imperfections
Global initial sway imperfections are determined according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 5.3.2(3)a.
Local bow imperfections are determined according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 5.3.2(3)b.
Plastic Hinges
For material non-linearity using plastic hinges according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 5.4.3 reference is made to the manual for
Non-linear analysis.
Initial Shape
For thin-walled cross-sections with material Steel the Initial Shape is generated automatically.
For a General cross-section the ‘Thin-walled representation’ has to be used to be able to define the Initial Shape.
- 14 -
EC3 - EN 1993
The Initial Shape 'translates' the cross-section shape to parts defined by the code.
The Initial Shape is used for calculating the effective section properties as well as determining the Classification of the cross-
section.
The thin-walled cross-section parts can have the following types:
ROU and DEF reinforcement types can be set only to elements of type SO or UO.
RI types can be set only to elements of type I or UO or SO.
For general cross-sections neighbouring elements of type RI are seen as one stiffener for the calculation of the stiffener
area and inertia.
For standard profile library cross-sections, the flat parts are taken between the roundings. The roundings are set as fixed
parts.
For predefined sections without roundings, the initial shape is based on the centreline dimensions i.e. the flat parts are taken
between the intersection points of the centrelines.
For standard profile library cross-sections and pair sections the stiffeners are handled as follows:
For the following form codes edge stiffeners are automatically set as RUO
- 15 -
Chapter 2
- 16 -
EC3 - EN 1993
The length of the web element for example is thus calculated as:
With Hw the height of the web and a the throat thickness of the weld.
The same approach is used for the flanges.
RHS
For Rectangular Hollow Sections (FC 2) the initial shape is generated using a notional width of h-3t and b-3t.
The usage of this width ensures consistency between EN 1993-1-1 and EN 1993-1-5. For further information reference is
made to Ref.[40].
As specified in EN 1993-1-3 art. 1.1(3) CHS & RHS members are checked according to
EN 1993-1-1.
Classification
The classification of cross-sections is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 5.5.2 and Table 5.2.
For standard sections, the Classification is done according to the parts of the Initial Shape.
Internal compression elements (I) are classified according to Table 5.2 Sheet 1.
Outstand compression elements (SO & UO) are classified according to Table 5.2 Sheet 2.
CHS sections (FC 3) are classified according to Table 5.2 Sheet 3.
Angle sections (FC 4) are classified according to Table 5.2 Sheet 2 and in case of uniform compression also Sheet 3.
Stress distribution
Elastic Stress distribution
The elastic stresses are calculated in the endpoints of the parts Ref.[40].
- 17 -
Chapter 2
The elastic stress distribution ψ for each part can then be determined as follows:
The EN 1993-1-1 sign convention is used which implies compression stresses are positive
Uniform Compression
- 18 -
EC3 - EN 1993
Standard calculation of α
In case one stress is positive (compression) and the other negative (tension) the following calculation is used:
Doubly-symmetric I-section
Specifically for a doubly-symmetric I-section (Formcode 1) the α value of the web element is overruled by the following for-
mula Ref.[40]:
Within this formula the NEd is taken as positive for compression and negative for tension.
For large compressive forces this formula can lead to an α > 1,00 in which α is limited to 1,00.
For large tensile forces this formula can lead to an α <= 0,00. In this case the element is seen as in full tension and thus no
classification is required.
In case ψ > 0 for the web element this indicates that the entire web is in compression thus α
= 1,00.
- 19 -
Chapter 2
The actual intersection point does not always collide exactly with a predetermined point of the surface, so small deviations
can occur.
From the location of the plastic neutral axis(PNA), which results of this analysis, the α value for the different parts can be
determined Ref.[40].
- 20 -
EC3 - EN 1993
For each load case/combination, the classification for member buckling design is determined as the maximal class along the
member. This class is used to perform the stability check since stability effects are related to the whole member and not to a
single cross-section.
To determine this critical classification, all sections in the Ly and Lz system lengths of the buckling system are checked and
the worst classification is used as the critical. Note that only sections on the actual member are used so in case the system
length spans multiple members, only the sections of the actual member are used to determine the critical classification.
For non-prismatic sections, the stability section classification is determined for each intermediary section.
The alternative regulations given in EN 1993-1-1 art. 5.5.2(9) - (12) are not supported.
Section properties
Net Area
The net area according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.2.2 is not supported.
For angles connected through one leg see the Chapter on "Tension" below.
The Cross-section requires an Initial Shape in order to calculate the Effective Shape and
Effective Properties.
Aeff is the effective area of the cross section when subject to uniform compression.
Weff is the effective section modulus of the cross-section when subject only to a moment about the relevant axis.
eN is the shift of the relevant centroidal axis when the cross section is subject to uniform compression.
Additional moments ΔMEd due to the possible shift eN of the centroid of the effective area Aeff are accounted for according
to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.2.5(4). These additional moments are neglected in case they would have a favourable effect on the
check result.
Section Checks
Tension
The Tension Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.3.
The net area Anet is taken equal to the gross area Ag.
- 21 -
Chapter 2
For angles connected through one leg by means of bolted diagonal connections the net
area is calculated according to EN 1993-1-8 art 3.10.3. For more information see the The-
oretical Backgroud for bolted diagonal connections.
Compression
The Compression Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.4.
Bending Moment
The Bending Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.5.
Shear
The Shear Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.6.
By default the plastic shear resistance according to art. 6.2.6(2) will be determined for those cross-sections which have a
shear area Av defined. The following table gives an overview of the shear areas:
EN 1993-1-1
Rolled I-section (FC 1)
ECCS 85
EN 1993- 1- 1
(mod)
Rolled Asym. I- section (FC
101)
ECCS 85 (mod)
EN 1993-1-1
Welded I-section (FC 1)
EN 1993-1-1
EN 1993-1-1
EN 1993- 1- 1
EN 1993-1-1
EN 1993-1-1
- 22 -
EC3 - EN 1993
EN 1993-1-1
EN 1993-1-1
EN 1993-1-1
EN 1993-1-1
EN 1993-1-1
EN 1993-1-1
Welded RHS (FC 2)
EN 1993-1-1
EN 1993-1-1
CHS (FC 3)
EN 1993-1-1
7) ECCS 85
ECCS 85
Full Circular Section (FC 11)
ECCS 85
ECCS 83
ECCS 83 (mod)
ECCS 83
ECCS 83 (mod)
ECCS 83
SFB (FC 153)
- 23 -
Chapter 2
ECCS 83
ECCS 83 (mod)
The first column in this table indicates the type of the cross-section including the formcode (for background information see
"Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes" on page 151.)
The last column indicates the source from which this shear area was taken. The reference list contains their full denom-
ination, see Ref.[1], [11], [37] and [38]. The suffix (mod) indicates that the formula has been modified based on the cross-
section type. A typical example of this is the modification of the shear area formula given for a symmetric I-section in order to
account for the different flange geometries of an asymmetric I-section.
For any cross-section which does not have a shear area Av defined in the above table the elastic shear resistance according
to art. 6.2.6(4) is determined.
The reduction factor ρ for shear, as defined in art. 6.2.8 and 6.2.10, is based on the plastic
shear resistance. As a result, in case an elastic shear verification is done, ρ cannot be
determined and thus an elastic combined section check will be done for this section.
Through the Steel Setup it is possible to indicate that, instead of an elastic shear check, the
plastic shear check can be done using the shear areas Ay and Az from the cross-section.
When using the Elastic verification setting in the Steel Setup, the elastic shear verification
will be done for all sections, even those which would normally be checked plastically.
For Shear Buckling reference is made to "Combined Bending and Axial Tension" on page 39.
Torsion
The Torsion Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.7.
Formula (6.23) is checked as follows:
With
- 24 -
EC3 - EN 1993
τRd
The first column in this table indicates the type of the cross-section including the formcode (for background information see
"Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes" on page 151.)
The warping shear stress τw,Ed in formula (6.27) is taken as the maximal value along the fibres in the cross-section. For its
calculation reference is made to "Calculation of the shear stress due to warping" on page 209.
In case of one of the following, the Combined Torsion and Shear check cannot be executed:
l No plastic shear resistance is available i.e. an elastic shear check was done which means torsion cannot be accounted for
in a plastic interaction check.
l A plastic shear resistance is available but the cross-section does not match any of those listed in the above table. This
implies that the code does not give a formula to account for torsion in a plastic interaction check.
l A plastic shear resistance is available and the cross-section matches one of those listed in the above table, but due to
extreme torsion the reduction is so big that it would cause a negative resulting shear resistance Vpl,T,Rd.
In each of those cases an elastic verification using the yield criterion according to art. 6.2.1(5) will be done instead.
The combined plastic interaction checks according to art. 6.2.9.1 account for the presence
of torsion by reducing the plastic shear resistance (which in turn reduces the plastic bend-
ing resistance). Thus in case there is no shear, the torsion cannot be accounted for in a
plastic verification. In such a case an elastic verification using the yield criterion according to
art. 6.2.1(5) will be done instead.
- 25 -
Chapter 2
Warping
In case the warping check has been activated within the buckling data of a member, the torsional moment will be split into an
internal Saint-Venant torsional moment and an internal warping torsional moment as indicated in EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.7
(2).
Two distinct combined checks are supported, depending on the type of section and type of analysis:
l By default the elastic verification using the Von Mises yield criterion is verified.
l For doubly symmetric I-sections of class 1 or 2 a plastic interaction is verified.
l No plastic shear resistance is available i.e. an elastic shear check was done which means the reduction factor ρ cannot be
determined.
l Due to extreme shear the reduction factor ρ > 1 which would lead to a negative reduction.
l In case there is no corresponding bending moment the reduction for shear cannot be applied (for example Vz combined
with Mz and thus no corresponding My).
In each of those cases an elastic verification using the yield criterion according to art. 6.2.1(5) will be done instead.
In case the elastic verification has been activated within the Steel Setup, for any cross-sec-
tion class the elastic verification using the yield criterion according to art. 6.2.1(5) is verified
instead.
As specified in the code, the type of the check depends on the classification.
Class 1 & 2 cross-sections
Class 1 & 2 cross-sections are by default verified by art. 6.2.9.1
This article gives formulas for the following cross-section types:
For these sections the moment resistance is reduced due to the presence of an axial force.
In case of an extreme axial force which would lead to a negative reduction the formulas from this article cannot be applied. In
this case the plastic linear summation according to art. 6.2.1(7) is applied.
For any other class 1 or 2 cross-sections which do not have a reduced moment resistance defined within this article also the
plastic linear summation according to art. 6.2.1(7) is applied.
- 26 -
EC3 - EN 1993
In addition, the resultant shear force and resultant moment is determined. The resultant shear force is used to calculate the
reduction for shear according to "Bending, Shear (and Axial force)" on the previous page.
The unity check is then executed as follows:
Class 3 cross-sections
Class 3 cross-sections are by default verified by art. 6.2.9.2.
For shear, reference is made to "Bending, Shear (and Axial force)" on the previous page. The reduction factor ρ to be used
in formula (6.42) is taken as the maximum of ρy and ρz see Ref.[38].
Class 4 cross-sections
Class 4 cross-sections are by default verified by art. 6.2.9.3 formula (6.44).
Stability Checks
Flexural Buckling
The Flexural Buckling Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.3.1.
Buckling Curve
Table 6.3 regarding the buckling curves is revised as follows:
- I-section (formcode 1) with fabrication Rolled:
Curve zz c a
- 27 -
Chapter 2
Curve yy b
tf <= 40 mm
Curve zz c
tf > 40 mm
Curve yy c
Curve zz d
Curve yy = a
Curve zz = a
In case fy = 460 N/mm^2 this becomes:
Curve yy = a0
Curve zz = a0
- RHS (formcode 2) or CHS (formcode 3) with fabrication Cold-Formed:
Curve yy = c
Curve zz = c
- RHS (formcode 2) with fabrication Welded:
Curve yy = b
Curve zz = b
- RHS (formcode 2) or CHS (formcode 3) with any other fabrication:
Curve yy = d
Curve zz = d
Curve yy = b
- 28 -
EC3 - EN 1993
Curve zz = b
- Asymmetric I-section (formcode 101): This follows the same rules as a symmetric I-section. For the con-
ditions b is taken as the max of Bt and Bb and tf is taken as the max of tt and tb.
- From the group the SFB, IFBA, IFBB sections follow the same rules as a welded I-sec-
tion (independent of fabrication). For the condition tf is taken as the max of to and tu.
- Any section from the group follows the same rules as a welded I-section (independent of fab-
rication). For the condition tf is taken as the max thickness of any of the flanges.
Curve yy = d
Curve zz = d
The user can manually overrule the buckling curve within the Cross-section.
For non-prismatic members with cross-sections that are not listed in Table 6.2 all generated sections will receive the user
inputted values of the buckling curves of the first section in the span.
Buckling Length
For the calculation of the buckling length, reference is made to chapter " "Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio" on
page 172".
The buckling properties for a VARH element are calculated by using the critical Euler force for this member (see chapter
“"Calculation of the critical Euler force" on page 177”).
- 29 -
Chapter 2
With:
E Modulus of Young
G Shear modulus
It Torsion constant
Iw Warping constant
lT Buckling length for the torsional buckling mode
y0 and z0 Coordinates of the shear center with respect to the centroid
iy radius of gyration about the strong axis
iz radius of gyration about the weak axis
Calculation of Ncr,TF
The elastic critical load Ncr,TF for torsional flexural buckling is calculated according to Ref.[17].
0
With:
Ncr,y Critical axial load for flexural buckling about the y-y axis
Ncr,z Critical axial load for flexural buckling about the z-z axis
Ncr,T Critical axial load for torsional buckling
- 30 -
EC3 - EN 1993
Diaphragms
In case a diaphragm is used, independent on which side, the augmented It will be used also in Torsional Buckling.
For more information on diaphragms see "Annex D: Use of diaphragms " on page 193.
With:
For all other sections the Lateral Torsional Buckling check is executed in which the elastic critical moment for Lateral-Tor-
sional Buckling Mcr is determined by the following formula Ref.[9]:
With:
E Modulus of elasticity
G Shear modulus
Length of the beam between points which have lateral restraint
L
(= lLTB )
Iw Warping constant
It Torsional constant
Iz Moment of inertia about the weak axis
kz Buckling factor for buckling about the weak axis
kw Factor to account for warping endconditions
zg Distance between point of load application and shear center
zj Asymmetry factor
C1 C2
Moment factors
C3
- 31 -
Chapter 2
Haunched sections (I+Ivar, Iw+Plvar, Iw+Iwvar, Iw+Ivar, I+Iwvar) and composed rail sec-
tions (Iw+rail, Iwn+rail, I+rail, I+2PL+rail, I+PL+rail, I+2L+rail, I+Ud+rail) are considered as
equivalent asymmetric I sections.
For advanced Lateral Torsional buckling analysis, see "Annex D: Use of diaphragms " on
page 193.
ECCS 119/Galea
When this setting is chosen, the moment factors are determined according to ECCS 119 Annex B Ref.[9].
The figures given in this reference for C1 and C2 in case of combined loading originate from Ref.[28] which in fact also gives
the tabulated values of those figures as well as an extended range.
The actual moment distribution is compared with several standard moment distributions. These standard moment dis-
tributions are moment lines generated by a distributed q load, a nodal F load, or where the moment line is maximum at the
start or at the end of the beam.
The standard moment distribution which is closest to the actual moment distribution, is taken for the calculation of the factors
C1 and C2.
Linear Moment
In case of a linear moment diagram the C1 coefficient is determined using formula (301) of ECCS 119 Annex B Ref.[9].
The coefficient C2 is taken as zero in this case.
Point Loading
In case of Point loading the coefficients C1 and C2 are calculated using tables 5-8 of Galea Ref.[28].
A double interpolation is used for intermediate values.
Line Loading
In case of Line loading the coefficients C1 and C2 are calculated using tables 1-4 of Galea Ref.[28].
- 32 -
EC3 - EN 1993
Ifc and Ift concern the moments of inertia of the compression ( c ) and tension ( t ) flange about the minor axis.
For this method ψf should be within the following range:
When this is not the case ψf is set to the respective limit and a warning is given.
I-section Cantilevers
ECCS 119 Annex B Ref.[9] tables 65 to 68 give values for C1, C2 and C3 for I-section cantilevers.
These coefficients are used only in case the following conditions are met:
A cantilever is defined as a member at the end of a buckling system which has free ends for both buckling about
the y-y and z-z axis. In addition, the LTB length should correspond to the full system length of the buckling system.
l The cross-section is an I-section (Form code 1) or Asymmetric I-section (Form code 101).
This method differentiates between ‘warping prevented’ and ‘warping free’ at the fixed end. This setting is taken from the
buckling system.
This method uses the value ψf which is calculated as specified above.
When this is not the case ψf is set to the respective limit and a warning is given.
with:
- 33 -
Chapter 2
G Shear modulus
Iz Inertia about the weak axis
It Torsion constant
Distance defined as follows:
hs Form Code 1: H - t
Form Code 101: H – 0,5 * tt – 0,5 * tb
When this is not the case is set to the respective limit and a warning is given.
In addition this method should be used in combination with k equal to 2,00 and kw equal to 1,00
When this is not the case an additional warning is given.
- 34 -
EC3 - EN 1993
With:
k1 Taken equal to kw
k2 Taken equal to kw
The moments My determined on the buckling system in the given sec-
M1, M2, tions as shown on the above figure.
M3, M4, M5 These moments are determined by dividing the beam into 10 parts (11
sections) and interpolating between these sections.
Mmax The maximal moment My along the LTB system.
This method is only supported in case both k and kw equal 0.50 or 1.00
Determination of distance zg
The distance zg is defined as the distance between the point of load application and the shear center. The point of load
application is taken as both the top (+z) and bottom (-z) of the cross-section. Depending on the sign of the moment either
the top or the bottom zg is used.
The sign is determined as follows: zg is taken as positive for a Destabilizing load.
For a standard beam, the determination of Stabilizing/Destabilizing is done depending on the moment:
If My > 0 and loading On top => Destabilizing
If My > 0 and loading On bottom => Stabilizing
If My < 0 and loading On top => Stabilizing
If My < 0 and loading On bottom => Detabilizing
For a cantilever, the determination of Stabilizing/Destabilizing will be done depending on the sign of the equivalent lineload:
If q downward and loading On top => Stabilizing
If q downward and loading On bottom => Destabilizing
If q upward and loading On top => Destabilizing
If q upward and loading On bottom => Stabilizing
By setting the point of load application to Always destabilising or Always stabilising the
above dependency on the bending moment or loading direction can be overruled.
- 35 -
Chapter 2
Determination of distance zj
The distance zj is determined from the βy asymmetry parameter of the cross-section.
A specific National Annex can overrule this condition and use this article also for other sec-
tions. For more information reference is made to the Theoretical Background of National
Annexes to EN 1993.
Correction factor kc
In case Lateral-Torsional Buckling curves for the ‘Rolled and equivalent welded’ case are used according to EN 1993-1-1
art. 6.3.2.3 the correction factor kc can be determined in two ways:
- By default, kc is determined from C1 as follows Ref.[30]:
The default approach gives a more accurate value for kc compared to the simplified Table 6.6.
- 36 -
EC3 - EN 1993
This Modified design rule is applied only in case the following conditions are met:
Diaphragms
In case the diaphragm is positioned on the compression flange and provides a fully braced support, no LTB check needs to
be executed and a note is printed instead.
- 37 -
Chapter 2
For prismatic members the value My,Ed is the maximum value of the bending moment around the strong axis in the mem-
ber. The value Mz,Ed is the maximum value of the bending moment around the weak axis in the member.
For non-prismatic sections, the values My,Ed and Mz,Ed are the concurrent bending moments for each intermediary sec-
tion.
For non-prismatic members the maximal moments are still used in the determination of the
moment factors Cmi,0 when using the General formula.
Torsional(-Flexural) Buckling
For both Interaction Methods, in case Torsional Buckling is limiting (χTF < χz ) the value for χz is replaced by the value of χTF
and used in all formulas.
Interaction Method 1 – Annex A
For Interaction Method 1 there is a discrepancy in the use of Ncr,T or Ncr,TF :
Within ECCS 119 Ref[9] as well as the ECCS Design manual for EN 1993-1-1 all formulas are written using Ncr,T . There-
fore also within SCIA Engineer Ncr,T is used.
Interaction Method 1 uses several 2nd order terms which relate to Ncr,y ; Ncr,z ; Ncr,T.
For example:
In case N Ed exceeds any of those critical forces this would lead to an undetermined result (more specifically the member
already fails in buckling so technically there is no use in verifying the combined check.)
- 38 -
EC3 - EN 1993
In such a case, thus when NEd exceeds any of the critical forces, the combined check itself is not executed. Instead the limit
forces are printed to indicate which one is exceeded and the check is set to 999.
Interaction Method 2 – Annex B
Interaction Method 2 makes a distinction between members susceptible and not-susceptible to torsional deformations.
Within SCIA Engineer this distinction is done as follows:
Doubly symmetric I sections which have a reduction factor for Lateral Torsional Buckling χLT equal to 1,00 are classified as
non-susceptible to torsional deformations.
Circular hollow sections are classified as non-susceptible to torsional deformations.
Rectangular hollow sections are classified as non-susceptible to torsional deformations if the following condition is fulfilled
(Ref.[9] pp.119).
Interaction Method 2 uses specific formulas which subtract a constant value from the relative slenderness:
With:
- 39 -
Chapter 2
This check is only executed in case all three components (NEd ; My,Ed ; Mz,Ed) are present.
In case only two components are present the effects are already covered by other checks.
In case of a Numerical cross-section Mc,z,Rd,com is calculated using Wel,z since such a sec-
tion has no fibres.
Shear Buckling
The Shear Buckling Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-5 Chapter 5 and art. 7.1.
Condition
The shear buckling check is verified for the following cross-sections:
Composed rail sections (Iw+rail, Iwn+rail, I+rail, I+2PL+rail, I+PL+rail, I+2L+rail, I+Ud+rail)
are considered as equivalent asymmetric I-sections.
The check is executed only in case those sections are loaded by a shear force Vz,Ed and in case the web slenderness hw/ t
exceeds the limits given in art. 5.1(2).
End post condition
The condition for the end post used in Table 5.1 is defined through the input of Stiffeners on the member. By default the end
post condition is taken as non-rigid.
Plate slenderness
The Plate slenderness is determined depending on the definition of stiffeners:
l In case no stiffeners are inputted on the member or stiffeners are inputted only at the member ends Formula (5.5) is
used.
l For any other input of stiffeners (at intermediate positions, at the ends and intermediate positions …) Formula (5.6) is
used.
This value is reduced for the effect of NEd according to Formula (5.9).
- 40 -
EC3 - EN 1993
Interaction
When required according to art. 7.1(1) the interaction between bending, axial force and shear buckling is verified according
to Formula (7.1).
The value of Mf,Rd including the effects of NEd is determined as specified above.
The value of Mpl,Rd concerns the plastic moment resistance of the cross-section, this includes a possible reduction due to
NEd (i.e. MNRd).
l For doubly symmetric I-sections this is determined according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.2.9.1(5).
l For asymmetric I-sections this article does not provide any method to account for NEd, therefore the following reduction is
used:
In case of a Class 3 or Class 4 section the following additional condition is checked before the interaction formula can be
applied:
This condition was determined from Ref.[16] pp96 and negates the definitions of Mf,Rd and
Mpl,Rd given in art. 7.1(1).
Built-in beams
For built-in beam sections (IFB, SFB, THQ sections), proper section checks are performed, taking into account the local
plate bending. See Chapter ‘"Annex H: Section check for built-in beams (IFB, SFB, THQ sections)" on page 223’.
1. 2I
2. 2Uo
3. 2Uc
This specifically concerns hot rolled sections i.e. cold-formed pair sections are not sup-
ported.
- 41 -
Chapter 2
Battened compression members are evaluated according to EN 1993-1-1 article 6.4.1 and 6.4.3.
Two links (battens) are used.
The following additional checks are performed:
With:
For I-sections a classification is made which thus supports both an elastic or plastic interaction. For U-sections always an
elastic interaction is made.
With:
- 42 -
EC3 - EN 1993
The check is executed for sheet welded cross-sections of type Iw c and Iwn c. The corrugations are taken to be per-
pendicular to the upper flange.
The dimensioning of corrugated web girders is executed for the in plane effects NEd, Vz,Ed and My,Ed.
- 43 -
Chapter 2
The shear force Vz is decomposed into a corrugation-parallel component V* and an axis-parallel component N(V)*.
N(V)* can be added directly to the calculated normal force N. The chord forces can now be determined as follows:
With:
- 44 -
EC3 - EN 1993
From the chord forces the chord-parallel components and the corrugation-parallel components are
determined. For the upper chord this becomes:
The actual component of the shear force can then be written as:
The chord forces Nog* and Nug* are now known. By summation of the V* and V(Nog)* and V(Nug)* components the total
shear force is obtained.
l Yielding
l Local buckling
l Global buckling
Yielding
NRd,yield = bf * tf * fy / γM0
With:
- 45 -
Chapter 2
bf Flange width
tf Flange thickness
fy Yield strength
γ M0 Partial safety factor
Local buckling
Local buckling of the compression flange is checked according to EN 1993-1-5 article 4.4.
To avoid local buckling the slenderness is limited to 0,748. By substituting this into the formula for the slenderness the
following limit is obtained for the width:
For a sinusoidal corrugated web member the total flange width thus becomes:
The resistance for local buckling can then be written out as:
NRd,local = b * tf * fy / γM0
Global buckling
Global buckling of the compression flange (Lateral-Torsional Buckling) is checked according to EN 1993-1-1 article 6.3.2.4:
This is written out to the following resistance for the compression flange:
With:
b Flange width
t Flange thickness
fy Yield strength
E Modulus of Young
Lc Length between lateral restraints (LTB length)
kc Correction factor according to EN 1993-1-1 Table 6.6
- 46 -
EC3 - EN 1993
With:
Web
For the web the shear resistance is determined according to EN 1993-1-5 Annex D article D2.2:
Where χc is taken as the lesser of the reduction factors for local buckling χc,l and global buckling χc,g.
According to Ref.[34] it was found by testing and FEM that no local buckling occurs for all actually produced beams with
sinusoidal corrugated webs. Therefore only the reduction factor for global buckling χc,g needs to be accounted for.
With:
fy Yield strength
E Modulus of Young
ν Poisson ratio
tw Web thickness
hw Web depth
Second moment of area of one corrugation of length w, calculated as:
Iz
- 47 -
Chapter 2
Conditions
In case the setting is activated in the Steel Setup the additional moments will be calculated on columns in which the following
conditions are satisfied:
l The column cross-section concerns an I-section (Form code 1) or RHS section (Form code 2)
l The column has structural type Column, Gable column or Secondary column
l The column is uniform i.e. does not have arbitrary sections or haunches
l Only connected beams with structural type Beam or Rafter are accounted for. In addition these beams should have a
hinge at the side where they are connected to the column.
l There can maximally be two connected beams in the same plane in the same node. These two connected beams must
have the same X-axis direction of their LCS.
Additional moments
When the above conditions are satisfied the additional moments are calculated in the following way:
With:
R Shear force in the considered plane in the connected beam at the specified dis-
b1,Ed tance
Profile height for an I-section
h
Profile height or width for an RHS-section
tw Web thickness for an I-section
- 48 -
EC3 - EN 1993
The distribution of the additional moments to the upper and lower column sections is carried out in proportion to their
stiffness, except where the ratio of the stiffnesses (I/L) does not exceed 1.5, when the moments may be shared equally.
This is illustrated on the following picture:
With:
These additional moments are then added to the sections in the column just above and just below the connected beam.
The simplified procedure given in this chapter allows to account for eccentricities without
specifically adding these eccentricities in the calculation model. In case however an actual
member eccentricity is defined on the column member the above procedure will not be
used since additional moments will already be generated during the analysis.
Scaffolding
The scaffolding member and coupler check are implemented according to EN 12811-1 Ref.[23].
The following paragraphs give detailed information on these checks.
- 49 -
Chapter 2
and
and
and
and
Npld
Vpld
Mpld
- 50 -
EC3 - EN 1993
As specified in EN 12810 Ref.[25] & 12811 Ref.[23] the scaffolding check for tubular mem-
bers assumes the use of a 2nd order analysis including imperfections.
In case these conditions are not set the default EN 1993-1-1 check should be applied
instead.
Friction sleeve
- 51 -
Chapter 2
Manufacturer couplers
In addition to the scaffolding couplers listed above, specific manufacturer couplers are provided within SCIA Engineer.
The interaction checks of these couplers are executed according to the respective validation reports.
Cuplock
The cuplock coupler which connects a ledger and a standard is described in Zulassung Nr. Z-8.22-208 Ref.[35].
The interaction equations are summarised as follows:
Interaction 1
Interaction 2
With:
- 52 -
EC3 - EN 1993
Variante K2000+:
Interaction 1
Variante HS:
Interaction 2
With:
= Nxk / γM
NR,d
With Nxk taken from the coupler properties
= Myk / γM
My,R,d
With Myk taken from the coupler properties
- 53 -
Chapter 2
= Mzk / γM
Mz,R,d
With Mzk taken from the coupler properties
= Mxk / γM
MT,R,d
With Mxk taken from the coupler properties
= Vyk / γM
Vy,R,d
With Vyk taken from the coupler properties
= Vzk / γM
Vz,R,d
With Vzk taken from the coupler properties
N Normal force in the ledger
(+) This index indicates a tensile force
Vy Shear force in y direction
Vz Shear force in z direction
My Bending moment about the y axis
Mx Torsional moment about the x axis
Nv Normal force in a connecting vertical diagonal
α Angle between connecting vertical diagonal and standard
= 2,75 cm for Variante II
e = 3,30 cm for Variante K2000+
= 3,30 cm for Variante HS
eD = 5,7 cm for Variante II, Variante K2000+ and Variante HS
= 1,26 cm for Variante II
ξ = 1,41 cm for Variante K2000+
= 1,15 cm for Variante HS
Safety factor taken as γM0 of EN 1993-1-1 for steel couplers
γM
Safety factor taken as γM1 of EN 1999-1-1 for aluminium couplers
- 54 -
EC3 – EN Fire Resistance
The beam elements are checked according to the regulations given in
Eurocode 3
Design of steel structures
Part 1 - 2 : General rules – Structural fire design
EN 1993-1-2:2005
Corrigendum
EN 1993-1-2:2005/AC:2005
Corrigendum
EN 1993-1-2:2005/AC:2009
The choice between ψ1,l or ψ2,l is done by the user. Default is ψ1,l.
With:
Material properties
The material properties are depending on the steel temperature.
Strength and deformation properties :
- 55 -
Chapter 3
The variation in function of the steel temperature of the value for yield strength ky,θ , proportional limit kp,θ and modulus of
elasticity kE,θ is given by tables in ref.[6], Table 3.1.
For cold formed members ky,θ is taken from Ref.[7]; table III.2.5.
In the simplified calculation method, the following default properties are considered to be constant during the analysis :
t time in [min]
θg gas temperature in [°C]
αc the coefficient of heat transfer by convection
hydrocarbon curve
- 56 -
smoldering fire curve
With:
With:
Steel Temperature
The increase of temperature ∆θa,t in an unprotected steel member during a time interval ∆t
- 57 -
Chapter 3
With:
The increase of temperature ∆θa,t in an insulated steel member during a time interval ∆t
With:
- 58 -
For the increase of temperature ∆θ a in an insulated steel member with intumescent coating, reference is made to NEN
6072.
With:
Calculation model
The calculation can be performed in 2 domains :
l strength domain
l temperature/time domain
In the strength domain, the strength R fi,d,t (unity check) is calculated after a given time t (e.g. strength after 45 min). In the
temperature/time domain, the critical steel temperature θcr,d is computed. From this critical temperature, the fire resistance
time tfi,d is calculated (the time domain).
Code Check
The section and stability checks (buckling, lateral torsional buckling) are performed according to the regulations given in EN
1993-1-2. The checks are performed in the resistance domain or in the temperature/time domain.
For each member, the classification of the cross section, the section check and the stability check are performed.
The following checks are executed:
- 59 -
Chapter 3
In case Torsional Buckling is limiting (χTF < χz ) the value for χz is replaced by the value of
χTF in the combined stability check according to art. 4.2.3.5.
For Shear Buckling reference is made to chapter "Shear Buckling" on page 40. The following modifications are done in case
of fire:
The above modification accounts for the fact that is calculated based on EN 1993-1-5
Formula (5.5) or (5.6).
- 60 -
EC3 – EN Cold-Formed
The members are checked according to the regulations given in:
Eurocode 3
Design of steel structures
Part 1 - 3: Supplementary rules for cold-formed members and sheeting
EN 1993-1-3:2006
Corrigendum
EN 1993-1-3:2006/AC:2009
Eurocode 3
Design of steel structures
Part 1 - 5: Plated Structural elements
EN 1993-1-5:2006
Corrigendum
EN 1993-1-5:2006/AC:2009
Consulted articles
An overview for the used articles is given in the following table. The articles marked with “X” are consulted. The articles
marked with (*) have a supplementary explanation in the following paragraphs.
Article Title
1 Introduction X
2 Basis of design X
3 Materials
3.1 General X
3.2 Structural Steel X(*)
5 Structural Analysis
5.1 Influence of rounded corners X(*)
5.2 Geometrical proportions X(*)
5.3 Structural modelling for analysis X
5.5 Local and distortional buckling
5.5.1 General X
- 61 -
Chapter 4
Article Title
5.5.3 Plane elements with edge or intermediate stiffeners
- 62 -
As specified in EN 1993-1-3: 1.1(3) the code does not apply to cold -formed CHS (FC 3)
and RHS (FC 2) sections. For these form codes the default EN 1993-1-1 provisions apply.
Haunches, arbitrary members and cross-sections without initial shapes are not supported
for the EN 1993- 1- 3 code check. In this case the default EN 1993- 1- 1 code check is
executed.
The checks are executed according to the principal axis in accordance with EN 1993-1-3
art. 1.5.1(4) NOTE except where stated otherwise.
Material properties
The steel grades given within EN 1993-1-3 Table 3.1b are available in the default Material Library of SCIA Engineer.
l Axial Tension
l Axial Compression
l Bending Moment
l Torsional moment
l Flexural Buckling
l Torsional (-Flexural) Buckling
l Purlin design – Cross-section resistance
The steel core thickness is only available for the following sections:
The ranges for the core thickness are set ‘for sheeting and members’.
Form codes 172 & 128 are not supported for the Steel Core Thickness.
Initial Shape
For thin-walled cross-sections with material Steel the Initial Shape is generated automatically.
- 63 -
Chapter 4
For a General cross-section the ‘Thin-walled representation’ has to be used to be able to define the Initial Shape.
The Initial Shape 'translates' the cross-section shape to parts defined by the code.
The Initial Shape is used for calculating the effective section properties as well as determining the Classification of the cross-
section.
The thin-walled cross-section parts can have the following types:
ROU and DEF reinforcement types can be set only to elements of type SO or UO.
RI types can be set only to elements of type I or UO or SO.
For general cross-sections neighbouring elements of type RI are seen as one stiffener for the calculation of the stiffener
area and inertia.
For standard profile library cross-sections, the flat parts are taken between the roundings. The roundings are set as fixed
parts.
For predefined sections without roundings, the initial shape is based on the centreline dimensions i.e. the flat parts are taken
between the intersection points of the centrelines.
For standard profile library cross-sections and pair sections the stiffeners are handled as follows:
For the following form codes edge stiffeners are automatically set as RUO
- 64 -
FC 115 Cold formed Omega section
FC 116 Cold formed C-Section eaves beam
FC 118 Cold formed ZED section
FC 119 Cold formed ZED section asymmetric lips
FC 120 Cold formed ZED section inclined lip
FC 121 Cold formed Sigma section
FC 124 Cold formed Sigma section eaves beam
FC 126 Cold formed ZED section both lips inclined
FC 129 Cold formed Sigma section asymmetric
FC 130 Cold formed 2C-section
For the following form codes edge stiffeners are automatically set as DEF
- 65 -
Chapter 4
The length of the web element for example is thus calculated as:
With Hw the height of the web and a the throat thickness of the weld.
The same approach is used for the flanges.
RHS
For Rectangular Hollow Sections (FC 2) the initial shape is generated using a notional width of h-3t and b-3t.
The usage of this width ensures consistency between EN 1993-1-1 and EN 1993-1-5. For further information reference is
made to Ref.[40].
As specified in EN 1993-1-3 art. 1.1(3) CHS & RHS members are checked according to
EN 1993-1-1.
Geometrical Proportions
The Geometrical proportions are checked according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 5.2(1) Table 5.1.
The limits for edge stiffeners (c) and double edge folds (d) are checked in case the correct stiffener type (RUO or DEF) has
been set in the initial shape.
The limit ratio’s given in EN 1993-1-3 art. 5.2(2) are checked. Lip dimensions c and d are however always accounted for
and will not be ignored.
In addition the limit for the internal radius given in EN 1993-1-3 art. 5.1(6) is checked.
For general sections, the geometrical proportions are checked for elements I, UO and SO
using their respective part lengths. Flanges including RI stiffeners are thus considered part
by part and not as one whole flange.
- 66 -
Effective Shape
Notional widths
For non cold-formed sections the notional width used for the calculation of the effective shape is specified in EN 1993-1-5
art.4.4(2).
For cold-formed sections the notional widths are specified in EN 1993-1-3 art. 5.1 and Figure 5.1.
The initial shape elements are taken between the roundings (i.e. internal dimensions w).
bp = w + rm * sin ( φ / 2)
- 67 -
Chapter 4
In addition to the notional with bp, for each element the centerline length lc is determined as follows:
lc = bp + gr,left + gr,right
With
gr,left = rm * [tan ( φleft / 2) - sin ( φleft / 2)]
lc = bp + gr
With
gr = rm * [tan ( φ / 2) - sin ( φ / 2)]
With:
Step 1:
For the given stress f the normal stress over the rectangular plate element of the initial geometrical shape is calculated.
These stresses are calculated based on the nominal width bp.
- 68 -
σ beg : normal stress at start point of rectangular shape – compression stress is positive
σ end : normal stress at end point of rectangular shape – compression stress is positive
If the rectangular shape is completely under tension, i.e. σ beg and σ end are both tensile stresses, no reduction is needed, p
= 1.0
in case
f1 = σ beg
f2 = σ end
in case
f1 = σ end
f2 = σ beg
Step 4: If ψ = 1 the element is under uniform compression, else the element is under stress
gradient.
Depending on the stress gradient and the element type, the effective width can be calculated as specified in the following
paragraphs.
- 69 -
Chapter 4
EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.4.2 concerning the plastic reserve of the tension flange is not sup-
ported i.e. always an elastic stress distribution is used.
kσ is calculated according to EN 1993-1-5 Table 4.2 which, in case the biggest stress is at the toe, gives formulas for Ψ up to
-3.
Therefore Ψ is limited to -3when calculating kσ.
When activating the checkbox “Use Annex E E.1(1)” the formulas given in Annex E are
used to determine the reduction factor ρ.
- 70 -
l Elements connected to the stiffener are not accounted for since they are considered as flanges
l Elements connected to those flanges are all accounted for in case they are of type I and the summation is
made of the lengths of these elements
l Roundings are not accounted for
kf is taken as zero. (i.e. no interaction between two flanges since there is only one flange).
kf is determined by default. (i.e. interaction between the two flanges is accounted for).
General Cross-section: In case there are more than two edge stiffeners
The same logic is followed as for a single stiffener. The factor kf is thus taken as zero.
The formula for K given in the EN 1993-1-3 is based purely on simple sections with two
flanges. In case of more complex cross-sections, the only exact procedure is to perform a
numerical analysis (finite strip method) to determine the critical stresses for local and dis-
tortional buckling. This is referenced as the ‘Advanced Procedure’ given in art. 5.5.1(7).
Critical stresses for local and distortional buckling obtained from a numerical analysis can
be inputted in the cross-section manager.
The reduced effective area of the stiffener As,red according to art 5.5.3.2(11) is calculated
using σcom,Ed = fyb/γM0.
The reduced effective area of the stiffener As,red according to art 5.5.3.3(10) is calculated
using σcom,Ed = fyb/γM0.
- 71 -
Chapter 4
Step 4: This process can now be optionally iterated using the stress ratio based on the effective cross-section in
place of the gross cross-section.
Both iteration procedures (iteration of stiffeners and iteration of the full cross-section) can be set in the Steel Setup.
The iteration of the full cross- section is not run in case Iz > Iy in order to avoid incon-
sistencies in the axis between the initial and the effective shape.
This method provides an alternative for cross-sections which have more complex shapes.
It should however be noted that, due to the use of the minimal stresses, this procedure is
quite conservative.
- 72 -
The following properties can be defined in the Effective Section Library:
Property Description
fy [MPa] Steel grade for which the effective properties have been derived
Aeff [mm^2] Effective Area for compression
eN,y [mm] Shift of centroid in y direction for compression
eN,z [mm] Shift of centroid in z direction for compression
Ieff,y My+ [mm^4] Effective moment of inertia about the y-y axis for a positive moment My
Weff,y My+ [mm^3] Effective section modulus to the extreme fiber about the y-y axis for a positive moment My
eM,z My+ [mm] Shift of centroid in z direction for a positive moment My
Ieff,y My- [mm^4] Effective moment of inertia about the y-y axis for a negative moment My
Weff,y My- [mm^3] Effective section modulus to the extreme fiber about the y-y axis for a negative moment My
eM,z My- [mm] Shift of centroid in z direction for a negative moment My
Ieff,z Mz+ [mm^4] Effective moment of inertia about the z-z axis for a positive moment Mz
Weff,z Mz+ [mm^3] Effective section modulus to the extreme fiber about the z-z axis for a positive moment Mz
eM,y Mz+ [mm] Shift of centroid in y direction for a positive moment Mz
Ieff,z Mz- [mm^4] Effective moment of inertia about the z-z axis for a negative moment Mz
Weff,z Mz- [mm^3] Effective section modulus to the extreme fiber about the z-z axis for a negative moment Mz
eM,y Mz- [mm] Shift of centroid in y direction for a negative moment Mz
In case the yield strength used for the cross- section does not match any of the yield
strengths defined in the Effective Section Library the default EN 1993-1-3 calculation will be
used.
Section Checks
Axial Tension
The Axial Tension Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.2.
The net section resistance Fn,Rd is taken as:
With Anet taken equal to Ag since bolt holes are not accounted for.
Axial Compression
The Axial Compression Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.3.
The choice between formula (6.2) and (6.3) is made by comparing the gross area Ag from the initial shape with the effective
area Aeff of the effective shape for compression.
The gross area Ag used in the formulas is taken from the cross-section manager.
- 73 -
Chapter 4
This comparison using the initial shape property is of importance for the following reasons:
- Profile Library sections can have different gross properties compared to the initial shape
since the gross properties come from certain sources (books, tables, …) and are mostly
rounded off.
- For general cross-sections the gross shape can differ from the initial shape since the initial
shape concerns a thin walled representation.
Each element on which a distortional buckling reduction factor χd is applied is seen as ‘stiffened’.
All other elements are seen as ‘plane’.
Bending Moment
The Bending Moment Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.4.1.
The choice between formula (6.4) and (6.5) is made by comparing the elastic section modulus Wel from the initial shape
with the effective section modulus Weff of the effective shape for bending.
The elastic section modulus Wel used in the formulas is taken from the cross-section manager.
Note: This comparison using the initial shape property is of importance for the following
reasons:
- Profile Library sections can have different gross properties compared to the initial shape
since the gross properties come from certain sources (books, tables, …) and are mostly
rounded off.
- For general cross-sections the gross shape can differ from the initial shape since the initial
shape concerns a thin walled representation.
In case formula (6.5) should be applied but the above conditions are not fulfilled, formula (6.6) is applied.
EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.4.2 concerning the plastic reserve of the tension flange is not supported i.e. always an elastic stress dis-
tribution is used.
EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.4.3 concerning the effects of shear lag is not supported.
- 74 -
Shear Force
The Shear Force Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.5.
General
The shear resistance is calculated for each ‘web’ element separately and the cross-section resistance is taken as the sum of
these element resistances.
Only elements with element types I, UO and SO are accounted for.
In addition, elements with stiffener type RUO or DEF are not accounted for.
Formula (6.8) is rewritten as follows for both directions:
With:
αi = Angle of element i related to the principal y-y axis
lc,i = Centreline length of element i
By default the Shear Check is executed ‘without stiffening at the support’ In case Local
Transverse Forces data are inputted which have the checkbox ‘No Local Transverse
Forces Check’ activated, the Shear Check in those sections is executed ‘with stiffening at
the support’.
The angle αi for each element i is determined as the angle related to the principal y-y axis.
The relative web slenderness for each element i is determined according to formula (6.10a).
The slant height sw,i is taken as the notional width bp,i of the element under consideration as indicated on the following pic-
ture.
- 75 -
Chapter 4
The internal stiffener and connected elements are seen as ‘one web’. This ‘composed’ web is seen as ‘one’ element i in the
shear calculation.
For such a ‘composed’ web, the different distances are determined as follows:
l In case the first or last element of the composed web has element type SO or UO:
lc = sw + gr
With
gr = rm * [tan ( φ / 2) - sin ( φ / 2)]
If the first element is an outstand, gr is taken as gr at the end point of the last element.
If the last element is an outstand, gr is taken as gr at the starting point of the first element.
Reference is made to "Notional widths" on page 67.
l In case both the first and last element of the composed web has element type I:
lc = sw + gr,first + gr,end
With
gr,first taken as gr at the starting point of the first element.
The angle α of the ‘composed’ web concerns the angle of the centreline length lc relative to the principal y-y axis.
- 76 -
Neighbouring connected elements are seen as one ‘web’. A typical example of this is a
sigma section: the web has two internal stiffeners which both are connected to the same
internal element. As such they are recognized as forming one web.
Torsional Moment
The Combined Stress Check including Torsion and Warping is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.6.
Regarding warping reference is made to "Annex F: Warping check" on page 206.
The average yield strength fya in all three formulas (6.11a), (6.11b), (6.11c) will only be used in case for all three force com-
ponents separately (N, My, Mz) the average yield strength may be used (Aeff = Ag ; Weff,y = Wel,y ; Weff,z = Wel,z).
l The shear force diagram of both the actual member as well as adjacent members is evaluated. Adjacent members are
defined as members which are in the same buckling system.
l The Flange Condition depends on the definition of the initial shape. In case there is an element with reinforcement type
ROU or DEF the setting is taken as ‘Stiffened ’.
l The distances for One-flange/Two-flange and End/Interior are evaluated taking into account adjacent members. Adja-
cent members are defined as members which are in the same buckling system.
l In case the cross-section has multiple webs, for determining the load condition the maximal web height is used.
l As opposed to EN 1993-1-3 art. .1.7.2(4), the exact inputted bearing length ss will be used at all times i.e. the sim-
plification of using the minimal length for both opposing loads is not supported.
l As indicated on EN 1993-1-3 Figure 6.6, the local transverse force resistance is taken relative to the support, not accord-
ing to the principal z-axis. Therefore FEd, is determined according to the LCS axis system and not according to the prin-
cipal axis system!
General Procedure
This paragraph specifies the general procedure to determine the local transverse web resistance which is applied for any
type of cross-section except for FC 115 (Cold formed Omega).
In case the cross-section has any element with stiffener type RI, the procedure for stiffened
webs is applied first.
In a first step the web height hw is determined for each ‘web’ element:
- 77 -
Chapter 4
l In case none of the cross-section elements fulfil the above conditions, the local transverse forces check is not supported
for the cross-section.
When h w,i is determined, the local transverse resistance R w,Rd,i for each of those elements is determined based on EN
1993-1-3 art. .1.7.2
The final cross-section resistance is taken as the sum of the individual element resistances.
By default, the local transverse resistance Rw,Rd,i is determined using EN 1993-1-3 Figure 6.7a & 6.7b.
The following table shows the relation between the loading conditions and the cases defined in the tables.
In case Web rotation prevented was set using Local Transverse Forces data instead of EN 1993-1-3 Figure 6.7a & 6.7b the
formulas given in EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.7.2(4) are used.
The following table shows the relation between the loading conditions and the cases defined in this article.
Omega Sections
Specifically for FC 115 (Cold formed Omega) cross- sections the special procedure for sections with two or more
unstiffened webs is applied. The local transverse resistance Rw,Rd,i for each of those webs is determined according to EN
1993-1-3 art. 6.1.7.3.
Other cross-sections with two or more unstiffened webs will always be calculated accord-
ing to the General Procedure, not this special procedure.
The value of α in EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.7.3(5) is taken for ‘liner trays and hat sections’.
The following table shows the relation between the loading conditions and the categories defined in EN 1993-1-3 Figure
6.9.
- 78 -
Figure 6.9 does not directly specify ETF. However since two flange loading is specified as
category 1 and End loading is also specified as category 1, the combined condition of ETF
is considered as category 1.
According to [27] to use la = 10 mm for the end support reaction force (category 1) results
in a very conservative resistance. A modification is given for case 2 and 3 of Figure 6.9: la =
c + Ss.
By activating the setting “Use la correction in (6.18)” this modification is applied.
Stiffened Webs
This paragraph outlines the special procedure in case of stiffened webs according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.7.4.
This method is used only in case there are one or more elements with stiffener type RI
The procedure consists of four steps.
Composed webs which do not meet these requirements are further evaluated in step 3.
Composed webs which meet all requirements are further evaluated in step 4.
Example:
- 79 -
Chapter 4
Section B contains a single RI stiffener which meets all the requirements. This stiffener is thus a ‘true’ two fold stiffener so the
special article applies.
Section C contains several RI stiffeners however not all match the requirements (one is an outstand, others are connected
etc). The web thus does not meet the requirements.
Section D has a composed web which contains two RI stiffeners. Both meet all the requirements and are thus ‘true’ two fold
stiffeners. The special article applies.
The angle φi is determined as the angle of the centre line length relative to the horizontal axis.
The eccentricity e is determined at each end of an RI within the ‘composed’ web. Eccentricity emin and emax are then taken
as the min and max value for the considered composed web.
In case the limit specified in formula (6.21) is not fulfilled, the special article is not applied and the composed web is con-
sidered as a web which does not meet all requirements. For such a web the procedure outlined in step 3 is applied.
For the developed width of the loaded flange b d any RI stiffeners of element Type I are always included, independent of
their angle. RI stiffeners of element Type UO or SO are always ignored.
Connected flange elements which have a relative angle > 135° are accounted for as „one‟flange for the determination of
bd.
In case there is no connected flange, for example when using a general section, then bd is considered as zero. Practically
this implies that there is no limit for κa,s .
The value of hw,i for this composed web is calculated using the centre line lc,i of the composed web as outlined in step 3.
- 80 -
Additional moments due to the shift in neutral axis are calculated at the beginning of the check and added to the internal
forces.
This ensures specific bending checks are executed also in case there is no initial moment
but only an additional moment.
The shifts in neutral axis eNy and eNz are read directly from the effective shape for compression.
As specified in EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.1.3(3) additional moments are only accounted for in case they lead to an unfavourable
check result.
The bending resistances are determined using the section moduli Weff of the effective shapes for bending.
Remarks:
(In case of weak axis bending, the ‘web’ becomes a ‘flange’. Since there is only a single ‘flange’ in that case, the
moment resistance of this flange is negligible. In addition, in case of more webs like in a box section EN 1993-1-5
art. 7.1 (5) specifies Mf,Rd = 0. Therefore, as a general conservative approach for Vy the value of Mf,Rd is taken
as 0.)
Shear Vz
In case of shear Vz formula (6.27) is written out as follows:
Remarks:
- 81 -
Chapter 4
Stability Checks
Flexural Buckling
The Flexural Buckling Check is executed according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 6.2.2 and EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.3.1.
Table 6.3 regarding the buckling curves is revised as follows:
- 82 -
Description about axis Curve
116 Cold formed C-Section eaves beam any b
117 Cold formed C-Plus section any b
118 Cold formed ZED section any b
119 Cold formed ZED section asymmetric lips any b
120 Cold formed ZED section inclined lip any b
121 Cold formed Sigma section any b
122 Cold formed Sigma section stiffened any b
123 Cold formed Sigma-Plus section any b
124 Cold formed Sigma section eaves beam any b
125 Cold formed Sigma-Plus section eaves beam any b
126 Cold formed ZED section both lips inclined any b
y-y a
127 Cold formed I-Plus section
z-z b
y-y a
128 Cold formed IS-Plus section
z-z b
129 Cold formed Sigma section asymmetric any b
y-y a
130 Cold formed 2C section
z-z b
y-y a
2CFCo with a = 0
z-z b
2CFCc with a = 0 Closed section rule 6.2.2(3)
y-y a
2CFUo with a = 0
z-z b
2CFUc with a = 0 Closed section rule 6.2.2(3)
2CFLT with a = 0 any c
Any other section any c
All other sections fall in the ‘other cross-section’ case of curve c for any axis.
For the calculation of the buckling length, we refer to chapter ""Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio" on page 172"
- 83 -
Chapter 4
With
E Modulus of Young
G Shear modulus
It Torsion constant
Iw Warping constant
lT Buckling length for the torsional buckling mode
y0 and z0 Coordinates of the shear center with respect to the centroid
iy radius of gyration about the strong axis
iz radius of gyration about the weak axis
Calculation of Ncr,TF
The elastic critical load Ncr,TF for torsional flexural buckling is calculated according to Ref.[17].
0
With
Ncr,y Critical axial load for flexural buckling about the y-y axis
Ncr,z Critical axial load for flexural buckling about the z-z axis
Ncr,T Critical axial load for torsional buckling
Diaphragms
In case a diaphragm is used, independent on which side, the augmented It will be used also in Torsional Buckling.
For more information on diaphragms see "Annex D: Use of diaphragms " on page 193.
- 84 -
For additional information reference is made to "Diaphragms" on the previous page.
For information regarding the influence of diaphragms on the Lateral Torsional Buckling Check reference is made to "Use
of Diaphragms" on the next page.
The choice between these two methods is set in the Steel Setup.
Interaction according to EN 1993-1-1
The interaction is executed according to EN 1993-1-1 art. 6.3.3 using interaction factors from Annex A & B.
In both Method 1 (Annex A) and Method 2 (Annex B) the cold - formed sections are seen as ‘class 3 or 4’.
Formula (6.36) includes the strong axis bending resistance M b,Rd . There is however no
indication for a weak axis bending moment. Therefore, in case a weak axis bending
moment is present, this interaction cannot be applied and the general interaction according
to EN 1993-1-1 is applied.
With:
- 85 -
Chapter 4
Use of Diaphragms
The influence of a diaphragm is outlined in the following diagram.
First of all the lateral stiffness S of the diaphragm is determined and compared to the required stiffness Serf.
- 86 -
The lateral stiffness S is calculated according to Ref.[19],3.5 and Ref.[20],3.3.4.
In case S < Serf the member is seen as Inadequately braced. In this case, when the diaphragm is located on the com-
pression side, the Lateral Torsional Buckling check is executed using the augmented torsional stiffness It. Reference is
made to "Adaptation of torsional constant " on page 193.
As specified in art. 10.1.1 the shear stiffness S is replaced by 0,2 S in case the diaphragm is
connected every second rib only.
In case S ≥ Serf the member is seen as Fully braced. In this case, a first test is executed to evaluate if the special purlin
checks according to EN 1993-1-3 Chapter 10 can be applied.
More specifically, this chapter is applied only in case the cross-section concerns a Z, C, Σ or U section:
- 87 -
Chapter 4
The code specifies that the chapter is also valid for hat (Omega) sections however in all fur-
ther paragraphs; no specific formulas are given for Omega sections. For example the free
flange geometry is described only for Z, C and Σ sections, not for Omega sections. There-
fore, Omega sections are not supported for this special chapter.
In case the cross-section does not match any of the above, the default checks are executed. Since the member is seen as
fully braced, no Lateral Torsional Buckling check needs to be executed in case the diaphragm is located on the compression
side.
In case the cross-section does match the list of set form codes, a second test is executed. More specifically, the special purlin
checks according to EN 1993-1-3 Chapter 10 can be applied only in case:
Chapter 10 specifies only checks related to in plane effects N, Vz and My. Therefore, in
case of other loading components, the special articles are not valid and the default checks
will be applied.
l Reduced default Checks are executed i.e. not all default checks will be executed.
l Special purlin checks according to Chapter 10
- 88 -
Section Check Article
Combined Bending and Local Transverse Force 6.1.11
Stability Check Article
Flexural buckling only for y-y 6.2.2
Torsional and Torsional-Flexural buckling NOT
Lateral-Torsional buckling NOT
Bending and axial compression NOT
Bending and axial tension NOT
The Torsional moment check will never occur in this case since the prerequisite is to have only N, Vz, My.
The combined axial and bending checks are not executed since they are replaced by the special purlin checks.
The flexural buckling check is executed for y-y buckling in accordance with EN 1993-1-3 art. 10.1.4.2(2).
Torsional buckling and Lateral-torsional buckling are prohibited by the fully braced diaphragm. The compression in the free
flange is included in the special purlin checks.
The combined stability checks are not executed since they are replaced by the special purlin checks.
In contrast to art. 10.1.3.3(2) the Local Transverse Load Check and its interaction with the
bending moment is executed even if the support reaction is a tensile force.
Resistance of Cross-Section
The Resistance of the Cross-Section is determined according to EN 1993-1-3 art. 10.1.4.1.
Since this check concerns a separate formula for each flange (10.3a) and (10.3b) the effective section modulus Weff,y is
determined for each flange separately.
The average yield strength will only be used in case for both force components separately (N, My) the average yield
strength may be used (Aeff = Ag ; Weff,y = Wel,y).
Definition of the free flange geometry
The dimension h is taken as the full cross section height.
The properties of the free flange are calculated according to the z-z axis of the full cross-section.
The following table shows the supported cross-sections including the contributing web height.
- 89 -
Chapter 4
As the code indicates in Figure 10.2, for sigma sections the rounding which leads to the
web depression is also accounted for in the height of the free flange. Therefore, to gen-
eralize this principle, within SCIA Engineer the rounding between the flange and the web is
always accounted for in the free flange height (for all section types).
For any given moment diagram, the equivalent vertical line load qEd is determined as the line load which results in approx-
imately the same bending moment diagram..
The factor kh is determined according to EN 1993-1-3 Figure 10.3.
For kh0, the general formula for Z,C or Σ sections is applied. The formula for a simple Z-
section is not supported.
For Gravity loading, the vertical loading is assumed to be positioned at the outside of the web. For Uplift loading the vertical
loading is assumed to be positioned exactly in the middle of the flange width.
For Gravity loading the general formula including the shear center distance e is used.
For Uplift loading the general formula including the shear center distance f is used. In case of a symmetrical Z section this dis-
tance will become a.
The load qh,Ed is given a positive sign in case it follows the same convention as shown in the code. The load is given a neg-
ative sign in case it points in the other direction.
- 90 -
Determination of the lateral bending moment
Table 10.1 provides the formulas to determine Mfz,Ed for specific positions within the beams: at the ends (e) and at the pos-
ition of the maximal moment (m).
Within SCIA Engineer however, the check is executed in different sections. Therefore, the values of M fz,Ed need to be
known in each section.
To this end, as indicated in the code in EN 1993-1-3 art. 10.1.4.1(7), the general equations have been derived using the the-
ory of beams on an elastic Winkler foundation.
The differential equation for the displacement of a beam on elastic foundation loaded by a line load is written out as follows
Ref.[21]:
With
E Section modulus
I Bending stiffness
L Member length, taken as La
q Line load, taken as qh,Ed
K Foundation stiffness, taken as lateral spring stiffness K
The integration constants are determined depending on the boundary conditions for the cases given in Table 10.1.
Using the beam equation with the second derivative of the displacement the equation for the bending moment M fz,Ed is
obtained and leads to the following solutions:
Solution for a beam on elastic Winkler foundation with Hinged end conditions
Solution for a beam on elastic Winkler foundation with Hinged-Fixed end conditions
- 91 -
Chapter 4
Solution for a beam on elastic Winkler foundation with Fixed end conditions
As specified in EN 1993- 1- 3 art. 10.1.4.1 (5) in case the free flange is in tension M fz,Ed is taken equal to zero.
To determine if the free flange is in tension or compression the following stress is calculated:
(My,Ed / Weff,y,free flange) + (Ned / Aeff)
In case this stress results in tension, the free flange is considered to be in tension.
In case this stress results in compression, the free flange is considered to be in compression.
The sign of Mfz,Ed determines the tension/compression side of the free flange and thus determines which Wfz is used in the
check.
The limit of R ≤ 40 given in art. 10.1.4.1(6) does not apply since the general Winkler theory
is used instead of Table 10.1.
- 92 -
The distance a i.e. position of the fastener is taken as 0,5 b. The fastener is thus assumed to be positioned in the middle of
the flange.
Uplift Loading
In case of upward +z loading the buckling length of the free flange is determined according to formula (10.9).
The ηi factors are determined according to EN 1993-1-3 Table 10.2b.
- 93 -
Chapter 4
General Notes
For both loading types, Tables 10.2a & b differentiate between ‘simple span’, ‘end span’ and ‘intermediate span’. This is
based on the Ly system length.
In case the member under consideration has only one part for Ly then it is considered as ‘simple span’.
When the member has more parts for Ly it is considered as multi-span. For a multi-span, sections located in the first or last
part of the system length are considered as ‘end span’. Sections located in the other parts are considered as ‘intermediate
span’.
Table 10.2a does not specify ‘simple span’. The values for a ‘simple span’ are taken equal
as an ‘end span’.
The ‘number of anti-sag’ bars used in Tables 10.2a & b concerns the number of LTB restraints defined on the actual mem-
ber. Only LTB restraints at the side of the free flange are accounted for in this ‘number’.
EN 1993-1-3 art. 10.1.4.2(5) specifies a method for the buckling length in case of a ‘relatively large axial force’. Within SCIA
Engineer this is quantified using a limit value, which is set in the Steel Setup.
In case the axial load is considered as large, the method described in EN 1993-1-3 art. 10.1.4.2(5) is applied.
This procedure applies to both gravity and uplift loading using Table 10.2a and 10.2b respectively.
Supported sections
I Symmetric I shapes (IPE, HEA, HEB, ….)
RHS Rectangular Hollow Section
CHS Circular Hollow Section
L Angle section
U Channel section
T T section
PPL Asymmetric I shapes
Z Z section
RS Rectangular section
The necessary data conditions for these sections are described in "Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes" on page 151.
- 94 -
The COM and NUM sections are not read out of the profile library.
References
Eurocode 3
Design of steel structures
[1] Part 1 - 1 : General rules and rules for buildings
EN 1993-1-1:2005
Eurocode 3
Design of steel structures
Part 1-3: General rules
[2]
Supplementary rules for cold-formed members and sheeting
EN 1993-1-3:2006
Eurocode 3
Design of steel structures
[3]
Part 1.5 : Plated structural elements
EN 1993-1-5 : 2006
R. Maquoi
[4] ELEMENTS DE CONSTRUCTIONS METALLIQUE
Ulg , Faculté des Sciences Appliquées, 1988
- 95 -
Chapter 4
EN 1990
Eurocode – Basis of structural design
[5]
EN 1990:2002 E
Eurocode 3
Design of steel structures
[6] Part 1 - 2 : General rules - Structural fire design
EN 1993-1-2:2005
Eurocode 1
Actions on structures
[8] Part 1-2 : General Actions - Actions on structures exposed to fire
prEN 1991-1-2:2002
Eurocode 3
Design of steel structures
[10] Part 1 - 1/ A1 : General rules and rules for buildings
ENV 1993-1-1:1992/A1, 1994
Eurocode 3
Design of steel structures
[11] Part 1 - 1 : General rules and rules for buildings
EN 1993-1-1:2005/AC:2009 Corrigendum
[12] Eurocode 3
- 96 -
Design of steel structures
Part 1 - 2 : General rules - Structural fire design
EN 1993-1-2:2005/AC:2009 Corrigendum
Eurocode 3
Design of steel structures
Part 1-3: General rules
[13]
Supplementary rules for cold-formed members and sheeting
EN 1993-1-3:2006/AC:2009 Corrigendum
Eurocode 3
Design of steel structures
[14] Part 1.5 : Plated structural elements
EN 1993-1-5 : 2006/AC:2009 Corrigendum
Essentials of Eurocode 3
Design Manual for Steel Structures in Building
[15]
ECCS - N° 65, 1991
[16] Johansson B., Maquoi R., Sedlacek G., Müller C., Beg D.,
JRC - ECCS, 2007.
SN001a-EN-EU
NCCI: Critical axial load for torsional and flexural torsional buckling modes
[17] Access Steel, 2006
www.access-steel.com
AISI S100-2007
North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural
[18] Members
2007 edition
[19] E. Kahlmeyer
- 97 -
Chapter 4
Beuth-Kommentare
Stahlbauten
[20] Erläuterungen zu DIN 18 800 Teil 1 bis Teil 4, 1.Auflage
Beuth Verlag, Berlin-Köln 1993
D. Vandepitte
Berekening van Constructies
[21] Boekdeel 1 pp522
www.berekeningvanconstructies.be
EN 12811-1
Temporary works equipment
[23] Part 1: Scaffolds – performance requirements and general design
2004
EN 12810-1
Façade scaffolds made of prefabricated components
[24] Part 1: Products specifications
2004
EN 12810-2
Façade scaffolds made of prefabricated components
[25] Part 2: Particular methods of structural design
2004
- 98 -
Arbeits- und Schutzgerüste
Allgemeine Regelungen, Sicherheitstechnische Anforderungen, Prüfungen
Dezember 1990
[28] Y. Galéa
CTICM, Construction Métallique, n° 2-2002.
SC001a-EN-EU
Code commentary: Collection No. 1
[30]
Access-Steel, 2007.
SN005a-EN-EU
Determination of moments on columns in simple construction
[31]
Access-Steel, 2005.
- 99 -
Chapter 4
- 100 -
AISC / AISI / ANSI
AISC – ASD:1989
AISC – ASD:1989
The beam elements are checked according to the regulations given in
Manual of Steel Construction
Allowable Stress Design
Part 5 : Specification and Codes
AISC, Ninth Edition, 1989
The cross section is classified according to Table B5.1. (compact, non compact, or slender section).
The member is checked on following criteria:
l tension : D1
l compression : E2, E3
l flexural members : F1,F2,F3,F4
l plate girders : G2
l combined forces : H1,H2
A more detailed overview for the used articles of the relevant parts is given in the following table. The chapters marked with
“x” are consulted. The chapters marked with (*) have a supplementary explanation the following chapters.
B. Design requirements
B1. Gross Area x
B2. Net Area (*)
B3. Effective Area
B4. Stability
B5. Local Buckling (*)
1.Classification of Steel Sections x
2.Slender Compression Elements x
B6. Rotational Restraint at Points of Support
B7. Limiting Slenderness Ratios x
B8. Simple Spans
B9. End Restraint
B10. Proportions of Beams and Girders
B11. Proportioning of Crane Girders
D. TENSION MEMBERS
D1. Allowable Stress x (*)
D2. Built-up members
D3. Pin-Connected Members
- 101 -
Chapter 5
G. PLATE GIRDERS
G1. Web Slenderness Limitations
G2. Allowable Bending Stress x
G3. Allowable Shear Stress with Tension Field Action
G4. Transverse Stiffeners
G5. Combined Shear and Tension Stress
H. COMBINED STRESSES
H1. Axial Compression and Bending x
H2. Axial Tension and Bending x
Classification of sections
For each intermediary section, the classification is determined..
For each load case / combination, the critical section classification over the member is used to perform the code check.
However, for non-prismatic sections, the section classification is determined for each intermediary section.
- 102 -
AISC / AISI / ANSI
Section properties
The influence of the bore hole is neglected, i.e. only the gross area is used.
Buckling length
For the calculation of the buckling length, we refer to ""Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio" on page 172".
The buckling properties for a VARH element are calculated by using the critical Euler force for this member (see “"Cal-
culation of critical Euler force for VARH elements" on page 177”).
Lateral-torsional buckling
For I sections and channel sections, the allowable LTB stress is given in F1.
For RHS (Rectangular Hollow Section) sections and CHS (Circular Hollow Section) , the allowable LTB stress is given in
F3.
For angle sections with symmetrical legs, the allowable LTB stress is given in Ref. [1], pp.309-314, “Specification for allow-
able stress - Design of single-angle members”.
For the other supported sections, the elastic critical moment for LTB Mcr is given by
with
with
- 103 -
Chapter 5
The allowable LTB stress is calculated using the slenderness λLTB with the formulas given in Ref.[1], E2.
Supported sections
I Symmetric I shapes (IPE, HEA, HEB, ….)
RHS Rectangular Hollow Section (RHS)
CHS Circular Hollow Section (CHS)
L Angle section
U Channel section
T T section
PPL Asymmetric I shapes
RS Rectangular section
The necessary data conditions for these sections are described in "Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes" on page 151.
The COM and NUM sections are not read out of the profile library.
- 104 -
AISC / AISI / ANSI
References
Manual of Steel Construction
[1] Allowable Stress Design
AISC, Ninth Edition, 1989
Manual of Steel Construction
[2] Load & Resistance Factor Design
AISC, First Edition, 1986
Manual of Steel Construction
[3] Load & Resistance Factor Design
AISC, Volume I, Second Edition, 1995
R. Maquoi
[4] ELEMENTS DE CONSTRUCTIONS METALLIQUE
Ulg , Faculté des Sciences Appliquées, 1988
NBN B 51-001
[5] Stalen Bouwconstructies
BIN, 5e uitg. April 1977
- 105 -
Chapter 6
AISC – LRFD:2001
AISC - LRFD Code check
The beam elements are checked according to the regulations given in
AISC – Manual of steel construction
Load and Resistance Factor Design
Part 16 Specifications and Codes
Third Edition
2001
The cross section is classified according to Table B5.1. (compact, non compact, or slender section).
The member is checked on following criteria :
l tension : D1
l compression : E2, E3, Appendix E3
l flexural members : F1,Appendix F1, Appendix F2
l plate girders : Appendix G2, Appendix G3, Appendix G5
l combined forces :H1,H2
A more detailed overview for the used articles of the relevant parts is given in the following table. The chapters marked with
“x” are consulted. The chapters marked with (*) have a supplementary explanation the following chapters.
B. Design requirements
B1. Gross Area x
B2. Net Area (*)
B3. Effective Area for Tension Members
B4. Stability
B5. Local Buckling (*)
1.Classification of Steel Sections x
2.Slender Compression Elements x
3.Slender-Element Compression Sections x
B6. Bracing at Support
B7. Limiting Slenderness Ratios x
B8. Simple Spans
B9. End Restraint
B10. Proportions of Beams and Girders
D. TENSION MEMBERS
D1. Design Tensile Strength x (*)
D2. Built-up members
D3. Pin-Connected Members and Eyebars
- 106 -
E. COLUMN AND OTHER COMPRESSION MEMBERS
E1. Effective Length and Slenderness Limitations
x
1.Effective Length
x (*)
2.Design by Plastic Analysis
E2. Design Compressive Strength for Flexural Buckling x
E3. Design Compressive Strength for Flexural-Torsional Buckling x
E4. Built-up Members
E5. Pin-Connected Compression Members
1.Yielding x
2.Lateral-Torsional Buckling x
F2. Design for Shear x
F3. Web-tapered Members
F4. Beams and Girders with Web Openings
G. PLATE GIRDERS x
- 107 -
Chapter 6
Classification of sections
For each intermediary section, the classification is determined..
For each load case/combination, the critical section classification over the member is used to perform the code check.
However, for non-prismatic sections, the section classification is determined for each intermediary section.
Section properties
The influence of the bore hole is neglected, i.e. only the gross area is used.
Buckling length
For the calculation of the buckling length, we refer to ""Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio" on page 172".
The buckling properties for a VARH element are calculated by using the critical Euler force for this member (see “"Cal-
culation of the critical Euler force" on page 177”).
Lateral-torsional buckling
For I sections, channel sections, RHS (Rectangular Hollow Section) sections, T sections, rectangular sections, and asym-
metric I sections, the critical LTB moment is given in F1 and Appendix F1.
For angle sections with symmetrical legs, the critical LTB moment is given in Ref. [1], pp.281-288, “Specification for Load
and Resistance Factor Design of Single-Angle members”.
For the other supported sections, the elastic critical moment for LTB Mcr is given by
with
Use of diaphragms
See Chapter '"Annex D: Use of diaphragms " on page 193'.
- 108 -
Supported sections
I Symmetric I shapes (IPE, HEA, HEB, ….)
RHS Rectangular Hollow Section (RHS)
CHS Circular Hollow Section (CHS)
L Angle section
U Channel section
T T section
PPL Asymmetric I shapes
RS Rectangular section
The necessary data conditions for these sections are described in "Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes" on page 151.
The COM and NUM sections are not read out of the profile library.
References
AISC – Manual of steel construction
Load and Resistance Factor Design
[1]
Third Edition
2001
R. Maquoi
[2] ELEMENTS DE CONSTRUCTIONS METALLIQUE
Ulg , Faculté des Sciences Appliquées, 1988
- 109 -
Chapter 7
ANSI/AISC 360-05:2005
ANSI/AISC 360-05 Code check
The beam elements are checked according to the regulations given in
ANSI/AISC 360-05
Specifications for Structural Steel Buildings
2005
The steel code check can be executed according to either ASD or LRFD provisions.
The cross section is classified according to Table B4.1. (compact, non compact, or slender section).
The member is checked on following criteria:
l tension : Chapter D
l compression : Chapter E
l flexural members :Chapter F
l shear : Chapter G
l combined forces :Chapter H
A more detailed overview for the used articles of the relevant parts is given in the following table. The chapters marked with
“x” are consulted. The chapters marked with (*) have a supplementary explanation the following chapters.
B. Design requirements
B2. Loads and Load Combination x
B3. Design Basis
1.Required Strength
2.Limit States
3.Design for Strength using LRFD x
4.Design for Strength using ASD x
B4. Classification of Sections for Local Buckling x
- 110 -
F. DESIGN FOR MEMBERS FOR FLEXURE
F1. General Provisions x
F2. Doubly Symmetric Compact I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent about their Major Axis x
F3. Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with Compact Webs and Noncompact or Slender Flanges Bent about Their Major Axis x
F4. Other I-Shaped Members with Compact or Noncompact Webs Bent about Their Major Axis x
F5. Doubly Symmetric and Singly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with Slender Webs Bent about Their Major Axis x
F6. I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent about Their Minor Axis x
F7. Square and Rectangular HSS and Box-Shaped Members x
F8. Round HSS x
F9. Tees and Double Angle Loaded in Plane of Symmetry x
F10. Single Angle x
F11. Reactangular Bars and Rounds x
F12. Unsymmetrical Shapes
Classification of sections
For each intermediary section, the classification is determined..
For each load case/combination, the critical section classification over the member is used to perform the code check.
However, for non-prismatic sections, the section classification is determined for each intermediary section.
Section properties
The influence of the bore hole is neglected, i.e. only the gross area is used.
Buckling length
For the calculation of the buckling length, we refer to ""Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio" on page 172".
The buckling properties for a VARH element are calculated by using the critical Euler force for this member (see “"Cal-
culation of the critical Euler force" on page 177”).
Lateral-torsional buckling
Haunched sections (I+Ivar, Iw+Plvar, Iw+Iwvar, Iw+Ivar, I+Iwvar) and composed rail sections (Iw+rail, Iwn+rail, I+rail,
I+2PL+rail, I+PL+rail, I+2L+rail, I+Ud+rail) are considered as equivalent asymmetric I sections.
- 111 -
Chapter 7
Use of diaphragms
See Chapter "Annex D: Use of diaphragms " on page 193.
Supported sections
I Symmetric I shapes (IPE, HEA, HEB, ….)
RHS Rectangular Hollow Section (RHS)
CHS Circular Hollow Section (CHS)
L Angle section
U Channel section
T T section
PPL Asymmetric I shapes
RS Rectangular section
Σ Cold formed section
COM Composed section in PRIMAWIN
O Solid tube
NUM Numerical section
The necessary data conditions for these sections are described in "Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes" on page 151.
The COM and NUM sections are not read out of the profile library.
References
ANSI/AISC 360-05
[1] Specifications for Structural Steel Buildings
2005
- 112 -
ANSI/AISC 360-10:2010
ANSI/AISC 360-10 Code check
The beam elements are checked according to the regulations given in
ANSI/AISC 360-00
Specifications for Structural Steel Buildings
2010, Second printing 2012.
The steel code check can be executed according to either ASD or LRFD provisions.
The cross section is classified according to Table B4.1a. for axial compression and Table B4.1b. for flexure.
The member is checked on following criteria:
l Tension : Chapter D
l Compression : Chapter E
l Flexural members :Chapter F
l Shear : Chapter G
l Combined forces :Chapter H
A more detailed overview for the used articles of the relevant parts is given in the following table. The chapters marked with
“x” are consulted. The chapters marked with (*) have a supplementary explanation the following chapters.
B. Design requirements
B2. Loads and Load Combination x
B3. Design Basis
1.Required Strength
2.Limit States
3.Design for Strength using LRFD x
4.Design for Strength using ASD x
B4. Member Properties
1. Classification of Sections for Local Buckling
2. Design Wall Thickness for HSS x
3. Gross and Net Area Determination
- 113 -
Chapter 8
Elements
E7. Members with Slender Elements x
Classification of sections
For each intermediary section, the classification is determined.
For each load case/combination, the critical section classification over the member is used to perform the code check.
However, for non-prismatic sections, the section classification is determined for each intermediary section.
Section properties
The influence of the bore hole is neglected, i.e. only the gross area is used.
Buckling length
For the calculation of the buckling length, we refer to ""Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio" on page 172".
The buckling properties for a VARH element are calculated by using the critical Euler force for this member (see “"Cal-
culation of critical Euler force for VARH elements" on page 177”).
- 114 -
Lateral-torsional buckling
Haunched sections (I+Ivar, Iw+Plvar, Iw+Iwvar, Iw+Ivar, I+Iwvar) and composed rail sections (Iw+rail, Iwn+rail, I+rail,
I+2PL+rail, I+PL+rail, I+2L+rail, I+Ud+rail) are considered as equivalent asymmetric I sections.
Use of diaphragms
See Chapter "Annex D: Use of diaphragms " on page 193.
Supported sections
I Symmetric I shapes (IPE, HEA, HEB, ….)
RHS Rectangular Hollow Section (RHS)
CHS Circular Hollow Section (CHS)
L Angle section
U Channel section
T T section
PPL Asymmetric I shapes
RS Rectangular section
Σ Cold formed section
COM Composed section in PRIMAWIN
O Solid tube
NUM Numerical section
The necessary data conditions for these sections are described in "Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes" on page 151.
The COM and NUM sections are not read out of the profile library.
- 115 -
Chapter 8
References
ANSI/AISC 360-10
Specifications for Structural Steel Buildings
[1]
2005 , 2nd Printing February 2012
- 116 -
AISI NAS S100-2007
AISI NAS S100-2007 Code check
The beam elements are checked according to the regulations given in:
AISI S100-2007
North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members
2007 edition
AISI S100-07-E1
Errata to North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members
2007 edition
February 20, 2008
Amended September 25, 2008
Amended June 4, 2009
AISI S100-07/S1-09
Supplement No. 1 to the North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members, 2007 edi-
tion
August, 2009
AISI S100-07/S2-10
Supplement No. 2 to the North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members, 2007 edi-
tion
February, 2010
The steel code check is supported for the United States provisions and can be executed according to either ASD or LRFD
principles. The Canadian LSD method is not supported.
Consulted articles
An overview for the used articles is given in the following table. The articles marked with “x” are consulted. The articles
marked with (*) have a supplementary explanation in the following paragraphs.
Article Title
A General Provisions
A4 Allowable Strength Design X
A5 Load and resistance Factor Design X
B Elements
- 117 -
Chapter 9
Article Title
B1 Dimensional Limits and Considerations X(*)
B2 Effective Widths of Stiffened Elements
B2.3 Webs and Other Stiffened Elements under Stress Gradient X(*)
X(*)
B4 Effective Width of Uniformly Compressed Elements with a Simple Lip Edge Stiffener
C Members
C1 Properties of Sections X(*)
C2 Tension Members X(*)
C3 Flexural members
C3.1 Bending
- 118 -
Article Title
D6.1.3 Compression Members Having One Flange Through-Fastened to Deck of Sheeting X(*)
Second-Order Analysis
Appendix 2
2.1 General requirements X(*)
Haunches, arbitrary members and cross-sections without initial shapes are not supported
for the AISI NAS S100-2007 code check. In this case the default AISC 2005 code check is
executed.
Initial Shape
For a cross-section with material Steel and fabrication set to Cold-Formed, the Initial Shape can be defined.
For a General cross-section the ‘Thin-walled representation’ has to be used to be able to define the Initial Shape.
The thin-walled cross-section parts can have the following types:
For standard profile library cross-sections, the flat parts are taken between the roundings. The roundings are set as fixed
parts.
For predefined sections without roundings, the initial shape is based on the centreline dimensions i.e. the flat parts are taken
between the intersection points of the centrelines.
- 119 -
Chapter 9
Dimensional limits
Dimensional limits are supported according to article B1.1 and B1.2.
Article B1.1 (a) (1) for a simple lip is checked for an internal element (I) connected to a stiffener (RUO).
Article B1.1 (a) (2) is checked for an internal element (I).
Article B1.1 (a) (3) is checked for an outstand element (UO or SO).
Articles B1.1 (b) concerning flange curling and (c) concerning shear lag effects are not supported.
Article B1.2 (a) is checked for web elements under stress gradient. Webs are defined as elements perpendicular (tol-
erance +/-45°) to the axis of bending.
Effective Widths
Uniformly Compressed Stiffened elements
The effective width of Uniformly Compressed Stiffened elements is calculated according to article B2.1 (a) Strength
Determination.
More specifically, this concerns elements of type I with stress gradient ψ = 1
Serviceability Determination is not supported.
Webs and Other Stiffened Elements under Stress Gradient
The effective width of Webs and Other Stiffened elements under stress gradient is calculated according to article B2.3 (a)
Strength Determination.
More specifically, this concerns elements of type I with stress gradient ψ ≠ 1
Serviceability Determination is not supported.
Uniformly Compressed Unstiffened elements
The effective width of Uniformly Compressed Unstiffened elements is calculated according to article B3.1 (a) Strength
Determination.
More specifically, this concerns elements of type SO or UO (with or without reinforcement type RUO) with stress gradient ψ
=1
Serviceability Determination is not supported.
Unstiffened elements and Edge Stiffeners with Stress Gradient
The effective width of Unstiffened elements and Edge Stiffeners with Stress Gradient is calculated according to article B3.2
(a) Strength Determination.
More specifically, this concerns elements of type SO or UO (with or without reinforcement type RUO) with stress gradient ψ
≠1
The alternative methods for unstiffened C-sections are not supported.
Serviceability Determination is not supported.
Effective width of Uniformly Compressed elements with a Simple Lip Edge Stiffener
The effective width of Uniformly Compressed elements with a Simple Lip Edge Stiffener is calculated according to article B4
(a) Strength Determination.
More specifically, this concerns elements of type I with stress gradient ψ = 1 which are connected to a fixed element (round-
ing) which in turn is connected to an element of type UO or SO with reinforcement type RUO.
Serviceability Determination is not supported.
- 120 -
Effective section properties can never be bigger than gross section properties (for example
in case of manually inputted gross section properties which have been rounded down).
Properties of Sections
Deductions for holes, openings and cut-outs are not supported.
Tension Members
The tensile strength is determined according to article C2.
For yielding in the gross section:
with
Fy Yield strength
Fu Tensile strength
Ag Gross area of cross-section
An Net area of cross-section
Flexural Members
Nominal Section Strength
The nominal section strength is determined according to article C3.1.1. More specifically Procedure I - Based on Initiation of
Yielding is applied.
Lateral Torsional Buckling Open Section
The Lateral Torsional Buckling strength for open sections is determined according to article C3.1.2.1 (a).
For diaphragms reference is made to "Diaphragm on the compression flange" on page 132.
The simplified formulas of article C3.1.2.1 (b) are not supported.
- 121 -
Chapter 9
1 (Symmetric I shape)
7 (Rectangular section)
11 (Solid tube)
In addition this applies to the cold formed pair sections 2CFUo, 2CFUc, 2CFCo, 2CFCc
Formula (C3.1.2.1-4) is rewritten as follows:
Remarks:
l For x-x bending the LTB length is used instead of the effective length KyLy.
l For y-y bending Kx is taken as the buckling ratio about the x-axis and Lx the system length for buckling about the x-axis.
l The equation for r0 is expanded to allow any type of cross-section:
- 122 -
The same remarks are valid as for doubly symmetric sections.
- 123 -
Chapter 9
The same remarks are valid as for open doubly symmetric sections.
Flexural Strength Closed Cylindrical Tubular members
The Flexural Strength of Closed Cylindrical Tubular members is determined according to article C3.1.3.
This applies to the following form code:
3 (Circular Hollow Section)
In case the diameter to thickness ratio D/t exceeds the limit 0,441 E/Fy the check is not
executed and a warning is issued on the output.
l The cross-section has at least one element with reinforcement type RUO
l For the given bending moment in the section, at least one of these elements is in compression
More specifically this implies that, if the stiffener is in compression distortional buckling can occur (even if the flange itself is
partially in tension). This is in accordance with the distortional buckling shapes for weak axis bending of typical C-sections
obtained using numerical analysis Ref. [9].
Remarks:
l The unbraced length Lm is taken as the LTB length and this for both bending axis.
l In case a diaphragm is positioned on the compression side and the diaphragm provides full bracing, the member is
regarded as continuously restrained and Lm = Lcr.
In case a diaphragm is located on the compression side, is taken as the rotational stiffness vorhCθ of the dia-
phragm.
For diaphragms reference is made to "Diaphragm on the compression flange" on page 132.
- 124 -
l For calculating the compression flange properties, the default SCIA Engineer axis convention is used (x-y axis system loc-
ated at the centroid of the flange, with the x-axis measured positive to the right from the centroid and the y-axis positive up
from the centroid)
l The elastic section modulus of the full unreduced section relative to the extreme fiber in first yield Sfy is taken as Sfy,x for
x-x bending and Sfy,y for y-y bending.
l In determining the stress gradient in the web, pure symmetrical bending is assumed. This implies that for x-x bend-
ing this parameter equals 2 and for y-y bending this parameter equals zero.
l The distance b0 for a standard profile library section is taken as the width property. For a general section this is taken as
the summation of the Internal (I) parts of the flange.
l The distance h0 for a standard profile library section is taken as the height property. For a Sigma section (Form Code 121
– 125) this is taken as the (full) height property. For a general section this is taken as the maximal height of the ‘web’ ele-
ments.
Web elements are defined as elements with an angle > 45° to the horizontal axis.
l When there is no ‘web’ element (i.e. CHS section ), distortional buckling is not checked.
l Flanges are defined as elements with angle < 45° to the horizontal axis.
l Connected flange elements which have a relative angle > 135° are accounted for as ‘one’ flange for distortional buckling.
l For cross-sections with roundings, the flange/web junction is taken to be at the intersection between the flange/web
rounding and the flat part of the flange.
l The thickness t is taken as the smallest thickness of the cross-section elements.
l For Omega sections (Form Code 115) the top flange is not seen as flange for distortional buckling.
Shear
The shear strength is determined according to article C3.2.1.
In the calculation of Aw only elements with element types I, UO and SO are accounted for. In addition, elements with rein-
forcement type ROU are not accounted for.
For each element i the shear area Aw,i is calculated as follows:
With:
In addition, for each element i the nominal shear stress Fv,i is calculated.
The shear strength of the element then becomes Vn,i = Aw,i * Fv,i
The nominal shear strength Vn for the cross section is taken as the sum of the Vn,i of the related elements.
Transverse stiffeners are not supported, therefore the shear buckling coefficient kv is taken as 5,34.
- 125 -
Chapter 9
AISI NAS S100-2007 does not give provisions to calculate the shear resistance for circular
hollow sections (Form Code 3). Therefore the default AISC 2005 provisions are used in
this case.
l The shear force diagram of both the actual member as well as adjacent members is evaluated. Adjacent members are
defined as members which are in the same buckling system.
l The angle θ between the plane of the web and the plane of the bearing surface is taken as 90°.
l The Flange Conditions depend on the definition of the initial shape. In case there is an element with reinforcement type
ROU the setting is taken as ‘Stiffened or Partially Stiffened Flanges’.
l The distances for One-flange/Two-flange and End/Interior are evaluated taking into account adjacent members. Adja-
cent members are defined as members which are in the same buckling system.
Built-Up Sections
For built-up sections table C3.4.1-1 is used.
This applies to cold formed pair sections 2CFUo and 2CFCo with distance a = 0 mm and the following form codes:
127 (Cold formed I-Plus section)
128 (Cold formed IS-Plus section)
130 (Cold formed 2C section)
Since these pair sections consist of two webs the resistance of the full section is obtained by adding the values of each web.
- 126 -
117 (Cold formed C-Plus section)
In addition this applies to the following pair sections:
2CFUc and 2CFCc
2CFUo and 2CFCo with distance a > 0 mm
Since the pair sections consist of two webs the resistance of the full section is obtained by adding the values of each web.
Since these sections consist of two webs the resistance of the full section is obtained by adding the values of each web.
Other Sections
For any other cross-section types as those listed in the previous paragraphs no web crippling check is executed.
In addition table C3.4.1-5 is not supported.
Combined Bending and Web Crippling
The combined bending and web crippling check is determined according to articles C3.5.1 and C3.5.2.
Requirement (a) is applied to the following form codes/sections:
5 (Channel section)
112 (Cold formed Channel section)
114 (Cold formed C section)
116 (Cold formed C section eaves beam)
117 (Cold formed C-Plus section)
102 (Z section)
- 127 -
Chapter 9
Requirement (c) is applied to the following form codes/sections in case the check is executed within a lapped zone:
102 (Z section)
113 (Cold formed Z section)
118 (Cold formed ZED section)
119 (Cold formed ZED section asymmetrical lips)
120 (Cold formed ZED section inclined lip)
126 (Cold formed ZED section both lips inclined)
Remarks:
- 128 -
For diaphragms reference is made to “"Diaphragm on the compression flange" on page 132”.
Compression Members
Nominal axial strength
The nominal axial strength is determined according to article C4.1 using Fn = Fy.
Flexural Buckling
The stress Fe for flexural buckling is determined according to article C4.1.1.
For the calculation of the effective length factor, reference is made to “"Calculation buckling ratio – general formula" on
page 172”.
In case an LTB restraint of type ‘Both’ is inputted, it specifies that both the top and bottom
flange are held into position. As such, this point is seen as a fixed point for weak axis buck-
ling.
This implies that the system length Ly is taken between the LTB restraints of type ‘Both’ and
the member ends. In addition the effective length factor ky is set to 1,00.
For any other section the stress Fe is taken as the smallest of Sigma,t and Sigma,TF
Sigma,t = Ncr,T / Ag
Sigma,TF = Ncr,TF / Ag
With:
Determination of Ncr,T
The elastic critical load Ncr,T for torsional buckling is calculated according to Ref.[7].
- 129 -
Chapter 9
With:
E Modulus of Young
G Shear modulus
J Torsion constant
Cw Warping constant
lT Buckling length for the torsional buckling mode
x0 and y0 Coordinates of the shear center with respect to the centroid
rx radius of gyration about the x-x axis
ry radius of gyration about the y-y axis
Determination of Ncr,TF
The elastic critical load Ncr,TF for torsional flexural buckling is calculated according to Ref.[7].
0
With:
Ncr,x Critical axial load for flexural buckling about the x-x axis
Ncr,y Critical axial load for flexural buckling about the y-y axis
Ncr,T Critical axial load for torsional buckling
The smallest value of Fe (flexural, torsional and torsional-flexural buckling) is used for calculating Fn according to article
C4.1.
For diaphragms reference is made to "Diaphragm on the compression flange" on page 132.
Closed Cylindrical Tubular sections
The axial strength for closed cylindrical tubular sections is determined according to article C4.1.5.
This applies to the following form code:
3 (Circular Hollow Section)
In case the diameter to thickness ratio D/t exceeds the limit 0,441 E/Fy the check is not
executed and a warning is issued on the output.
- 130 -
l The same remarks are valid as for distortional buckling of flexural members.
l The elastic distortional buckling stress Fd is determined for each flange separately. The minimal Fd is taken as the limiting
value of the cross-section.
Because of this separate determination, a diaphragm on only one flange is accounted for in the Fd calculation of
that specific flange.
In addition, this procedure allows stiffened flanges of unequal dimensions.
For diaphragms reference is made to “"Diaphragm on the compression flange" on the next page”.
In case of 2nd order analysis, reference is made to “"2nd Order using Appendix 2" on page 134”.
Use of diaphragms
Diaphragms are used specifically in conjunction with article D6.1 concerning purlin and girt design.
The lateral stiffness S for a diaphragm is calculated as follows in case the bolt pitch of the diaphragm is set as ‘br’: (Ref.
[11],3.5 and Ref.[12],3.3.4.):
With:
a Frame distance
Ls Diaphragm length
K1 Diaphragm stiffness factor K1
K2 Diaphragm stiffness factor K2
For a bolt pitch of ‘2br’ the shear stiffness S is replaced by 0,2 S (Ref.[11] p22).
For the rotational stiffness vorhCθ of a diaphragm reference is made to “"Annex D: Use of diaphragms " on page 193”.
The available lateral strength S is compared to the required lateral strength Serf Ref.[8]:
With:
- 131 -
Chapter 9
E Modulus of Young
CW Warping constant of the purlin
L LTB length of the purlin
G Shear modulus
J Torsion constant of the purlin
Iy Second moment or area about the y-y axis of the purlin
h Height of the purlin
In case the available lateral strength S is higher than or equal to the required strength Serf , the diaphragm is providing suf-
ficient stiffness and the purlin is seen as fully braced.
In case the available lateral strength S is lower than the required strength Serf , the diaphragm is not providing sufficient stiff-
ness and the purlin is seen as inadequately braced.
The influence of a diaphragm on different checks (bending, compression and torsion) is outlined in the following overview.
Bending
As a result no LTB check is required for bending about the x-x axis.
Distortional buckling still needs to be checked. For distortional buckling is taken as vorhCθ.
See Ref. [2] pp 47 “Since the distortional buckling has an intermediate buckling half
wavelength; the distortional buckling still needs to be considered even for braced mem-
bers.”
As a result the LTB check for bending about the x- x axis is executed using the augmented torsional stiffness J.
Reference is made to “"Annex D: Use of diaphragms " on page 193”.
Distortional buckling still needs to be checked. For distortional buckling is taken as vorhCθ.
In case S ≥ Serf the member is taken as fully braced on the tension flange.
- 132 -
As a result the LTB check for bending about the x-x axis is executed by default, without an increased torsional stiffness J.
Compression
Remarks:
l The article is only valid for C and Z sections with edge stiffeners (i.e. elements with reinforcement type ROU).
This applies to the following form codes:
114 (Cold formed C-section)
116 (Cold formed C-section eaves beam)
117 (Cold formed C-Plus section)
- 133 -
Chapter 9
Remarks:
l The article is only valid for C and Z sections with edge stiffeners (i.e. elements with reinforcement type ROU).
This applies to the following form codes:
114 (Cold formed C-section)
116 (Cold formed C-section eaves beam)
117 (Cold formed C-Plus section)
118 (Cold formed ZED section)
119 (Cold formed ZED section asymmetric lips)
120 (Cold formed ZED section inclined lip)
126 (Cold formed ZED section both lips inclined)
l The fastener distance x is taken as 0,5.
l It is assumed that conditions (7) & (8) are fulfilled.
- 134 -
Article 2.2 of Appendix 2 is not supported.
Since the lap length is defined along the member axis, it is important to specify a suf-
ficient ‘number of sections on average member’ in the Solver Setup when using overlaps.
Combined Strength
The strength within the lapped zones is taken as the sum of the strengths of the individual members Ref.[4].
The use of the combined strength of the individual members is applied for the following checks:
For distortional buckling, the distortional buckling stress Fd is calculated for the critical flange i.e. the flange resulting in the
lowest Fd value.
The following equations are then used:
Mcrd = (Sfsection 1 + Sfsection 2) * Fd
My = (Sfysection 1 + Sfysection 2) * Fy
l Within the lapped zone, in case the bottom flange is in compression, no LTB check is executed.
l Outside of the lapped zone the LTB length is taken to the end of the lap.
By default it would imply article D6.1.1 should be applied however this article is only valid in case the compression flange is
free. Since in this case the compression flange is fully braced this article is not applied and the nominal bending strength is
used.
- 135 -
Chapter 9
References
AISI S100-2007
North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural
[1]
Members
2007 edition
AISI S100-2007-C
Commentary on North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed
[2]
Steel Structural Members
2007 edition
AISI S100-07-E1
Errata to North American Specification for the Design of Cold- Formed Steel
Structural Members
- 136 -
constrained finite strip methods.
Eighteenth International Specialty Conference on Cold- Formed Steel Struc-
tures,
Orlando, FL. October 2006.
J. Schikowski
Stabilisierung von Hallenbauten unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der
[10]
Scheibenwirkung von Trapez- und Sandwichelementdeckungen, 1999
http://www.jschik.de/
E. Kahlmeyer
[11] Stahlbau nach DIN 18 800 (11.90)
Werner-Verlag, Düsseldorf
Beuth-Kommentare
Stahlbauten
[12]
Erläuterungen zu DIN 18 800 Teil 1 bis Teil 4, 1.Auflage
Beuth Verlag, Berlin-Köln 1993
AISI S100-07/S1-09
Supplement No. 1 to the North American Specification for the Design of Cold-
[13]
Formed Steel Structural Members, 2007 edition
August, 2009
AISI S100-07/S2-10
Supplement No. 2 to the North American Specification for the Design of Cold-
[14]
Formed Steel Structural Members, 2007 edition
February, 2010
- 137 -
Chapter 10
Consulted articles
The following list indicates the supported articles for this code check:
Item 5.1.2.1 cross section classification
Included sections I, H, U, Box, T, Circular hollow sections, I_monosymetric for both cases of fabrication: welded and hot
rolled.
The routine is doing the classification for Compression and bending. The classification is done according to tables F.1 and
G.1
Double angles and other built-up sections are not supported.
Item 5.2 – Members subjected to tension
Fully covered for sections I, H, U, Box, T, Circular hollow sections, I_monossymetric for both cases of fabrication: welded
and hot rolled.
Item 5.2.4 -> calculation considering Net area (reduction by holes) is considered using a % of reduction.
Item 5.2.5 - > Ct factor must be entered manually.
Item 5.2.8 Slenderness check fully covered
Double angles and other built-up sections are not supported.
Item 5.3 – Members subjected to compression
Item 5.3.2 - > Fully covered
Item 5.3.3 - Fully covered for sections I, H, U, Box, T, Circular hollow sections for both cases of fabrication: welded and hot
rolled.
Item 5.3.4 - > Slenderness check - Fully covered
Annex E – Elastic buckling Load
- 138 -
ABNT NBR 8800
Section E.1.4.2 - covered considering that the angles will be always connected through the
larger leg and that they work in plane truss.
- 139 -
Chapter 10
References
ABNT NBR 8800
2008
- 140 -
ABNT NBR 14762
- 141 -
Chapter 10
References
ABNT NBR 14762
2010
- 142 -
SIA263:2013
SIA263:2013
Material properties
The most common steel grades are used in SIA263. Their mechanical properties are described in table 1 SIA263. The fol-
lowing table gives the yield strength for each type of grade commonly used in function of the nominal web thickness:
Consulted articles
The classification described in SIA263 is based on the calculation method. The calculation method in SIA263 distinguishes
the method used respectively to determine the internal forces and to perform the section and the stability check.
A parallel can be made between the calculation method of SIA263 and the section classification proposed in EN 1993.
According to SIA263 Table 5a-5b , cross sections are classified in 4 types:
l PP (plastic-plastic) or class 1
l EP (elastic-plastic) or class 2
l EE (elastic-elastic) or class 3
l EER (elastic-elastic reduced) or class 4
The first letter of the classification denomination is related to the method used to calculate internal forces in the structure.
The second letter indicates if we perform the section and the stability check with a elastic or a plastic approach. Finally, we
must note that the steel code SIA263 is essentially oriented for symmetrical and bisymmetrical profile like I profiles. In the
present modulus, other profiles are calculated by using a classic elastic approach (EE classification).
The section is checked for tension, compression, shear, combination of bending and axial forces. For the stability check, the
beam element is checked for lateral torsional buckling, shear buckling, compression and bending with axial compression. A
more detailed overview for the used articles is given in the following table:
- 143 -
Chapter 11
4.5.1 Flambage x
4.5.2 Déversement des poutres fléchies x
4.5.3 Voilement d' éléments plans comprimés x
4.5.4 Voilement des éléments plans cisaillés x
4.8 Situation de projet incendie
4.8.1 Principes x
4.8.2 Propriétés de l'acier en cas d'incendie x
4.8.5 Méthode de calcul simplifiée x
5 Eléments de construction
Section classification
For each intermediary section, the classification is determined and the proper section check is performed. The classification
can change for each intermediary point. For each load case/combination, the critical section classification over the member
is used to perform the stability check.
So, the stability section classification can change for each load case/combination. However, for non-prismatic sections, the
stability section classification is determined for each intermediary section.
Slender cross-section
The design of a section that not satisfies the table 5 of SIA263 is always performed by using a reduced area. This clas-
sification corresponds to the EER method. The determination of a reduced area is based on the effective width of each com-
pression element in the current section (Art. 4.5.3). The using of a reduced area implies the recalculation of the shear centre
position, the inertia and the elastic modulus.
- 144 -
SIA263:2013
Sections properties
The holes due to fastener are neglected in the area of a section
Use of diaphragms
See Chapter '"Annex D: Use of diaphragms " on page 193'.
Shear buckling
Composed rail sections (Iw+rail, Iwn+rail, I+rail, I+2PL+rail, I+PL+rail, I+2L+rail, I+Ud+rail) are considered as equivalent
asymmetric I sections.
Stability check
For double symmetric I profile PP or EP, SIA263 provides specific formula to perform the stability check of member sub-
mitted to biaxial moment. For other sections, non symmetric or from EE and EER classification, a general formula is
provided to design member under mono-axial solicitations.
Torsion check
For the cross section check inclusive torsion and warping, we refer to Chapter "Annex F: Warping check" on page 206.
Built-in beams
For built-in beam sections (IFB, SFB, THQ sections), proper section checks are performed, taking into account the local
plate bending. See Chapter "Annex H: Section check for built-in beams (IFB, SFB, THQ sections)" on page 223.
- 145 -
Chapter 12
Material properties
The material properties are depending on the steel temperature.
Strength and deformation properties:
The variation in function of the steel temperature of the value for yield strength ky,θ and modulus of elasticity kE,θ is given by
tables in ref.[1], Figure 15.
In the simplified calculation method, the following default properties are considered to be constant during the analysis :
Steel Temperature
See Ref.[1], Annexe C.
- 146 -
The increase of temperature ∆θa,t in an unprotected steel member during a time interval ∆t
With:
The increase of temperature ∆θa,t in an insulated steel member during a time interval ∆t
With:
- 147 -
Chapter 12
The increase of temperature ∆θa,t in an insulated steel member with intumescent coating during a time interval ∆t
Calculation model
The calculation can be performed in 2 domains :
n strength domain
n temperature/time domain
In the strength domain, the strength R fi,d,t (unity check) is calculated after a given time t (e.g. strength after 45 min). In the
temperature/time domain, the critical steel temperature θcr,d is computed. From this critical temperature, the fire resistance
time tfi,d is calculated (the time domain).
Code Check
The section and stability checks (buckling, lateral torsional buckling) are performed according to the regulations given in Ref.
[1], 4.8.5.
For each member, the classification of the cross section, the section check and the stability check are performed.
The following checks are executed :
- 148 -
Supported sections
I Symmetric I shapes (IPE, HEA, HEB, ….)
RHS Rectangular Hollow Section
CHS Circular Hollow Section
L Angle section
U Channel section
T T section
PPL Asymmetric I shapes
Z Z section
RS Rectangular section
The necessary data conditions for these sections are described in "Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes" on page 151.
The COM and NUM sections are not read out of the profile library.
References
SIA263
[1]
Construction en acier
- 149 -
Chapter 13
SIA263:2013
SIA263/1
Construction en acier / Spécification complémentaires
[2]
SIA263/1:2013
- 150 -
Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes
Formcode 1: I-Section
Parameters Description
h Height
b Flange width
t Flange thickness
s Web thickness
r Radius at flange root
r1 Radius at flange toe
a Flange slope
W Internal bolt distance
wm Unit warping at flange toe
- 151 -
Chapter 14
Parameters Description
h Height
b Width
s Thickness
r Outer radius
r1 Inner radius
Parameters Description
d Diameter
w Thickness
- 152 -
Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes
Formcode 4: L-Section
Parameters Description
h Height
b Width
t Thickness
r Radius at flange root
r1 Radius at flange toe
W1 Bolt distance
W2 Bolt distance
W3 Bolt distance
Parameters Description
h Height
b Flange width
- 153 -
Chapter 14
Parameters Description
t Flange thickness
s Web thickness
r Radius at flange root
r1 Radius at flange toe
a Flange slope
wm1 Unit warping at flange root
wm2 Unit warping at flange toe
Formcode 6: T-Section
Parameters Description
h Height
b Flange width
t Flange thickness
s Web thickness
r Radius at flange root
r1 Radius at flange toe
r2 Radius at web root
a1 Flange slope
a2 Web slope
- 154 -
Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes
Parameters Description
h Height
b Width
Parameters Description
d Diameter
Parameters Description
h Height
s Web thickness
bt Flange width top
bb Flange width bottom
- 155 -
Chapter 14
Parameters Description
tt Flange thickness top
tb Flange thickness bottom
r Radius at flange root
Parameters Description
h Height
b Flange width
t Flange thickness
s Web thickness
r Radius at flange root
r1 Radius at flange toe
- 156 -
Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Width
h Height
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
- 157 -
Chapter 14
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Total width
h Height
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
c Lip
- 158 -
Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Total width
h Height
c Inner length
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
c Lip
a Flange angle
- 159 -
Chapter 14
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
c Lip
c2 Pluslip
a Pluslip angle
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
bt Flange width top
bb Flange width bottom
h Height
c Lip
- 160 -
Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
bt Flange width top
bb Flange width bottom
h Height
ct Lip top
cb Lip bottom
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
- 161 -
Chapter 14
Parameters Description
bt Flange width top
bb Flange width bottom
h Height
ct Lip top
cb Lip bottom
a Lip angle
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
h1 Web height near flange
h2 Inner web height
c Lip
b1 Web depression
- 162 -
Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
h1 Web height near flange
h2 Inner web height
c Lip
c2 Pluslip
b1 Web depression
Parameters Description
s Thickness
- 163 -
Chapter 14
Parameters Description
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
h1 Web height near flange
h2 Inner web height
c Lip
c2 Pluslip
b1 Web depression
a Pluslip angle
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
h1 Web height near flange
h2 Inner web height
c Lip
b1 Web depression
a Flange angle
- 164 -
Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
h1 Web height near flange
h2 Inner web height
c Lip
c2 Pluslip
b1 Web depression
a Flange angle
a2 Pluslip angle
- 165 -
Chapter 14
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
bt Flange width top
bb Flange width bottom
h Height
ct Lip top
cb Lip bottom
a Lip angle
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
c Lip
c2 Pluslip
a Pluslip angle
- 166 -
Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
h1 Web height near flange
h2 Inner web height
c Lip
c2 Pluslip
b1 Web depression
a Pluslip angle
- 167 -
Chapter 14
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
bt Flange width top
bb Flange width bottom
h Height
h1 Web height near flange
h2 Inner web height
ct Lip top
cb Lip bottom
b1 Web depression
Parameters Description
s Thickness
r Inner radius
b Flange width
h Height
c Lip
- 168 -
Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes
Parameters Description
h1 Height
h2 Intermediate top height
h3 Intermediate top height
b1 Width bottom
b2 Intermediate width
b3 Intermediate width
k Width top
f1 Intermediate bottom height
f2 Intermediate bottom height
f3 Intermediate bottom height
r1 Radius
r2 Radius
r3 Radius
r4 Radius
r5 Radius
a Wear
- 169 -
Chapter 14
Parameters Description
h1 Height
h2 Intermediate top height
h3 Intermediate top height
b1 Width bottom
b3 Intermediate width
k Width top
f1 Intermediate bottom height
f3 Intermediate bottom height
r1 Radius
r2 Radius
r3 Radius
- 170 -
Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes
Parameters Description
D Depth
B Width
TB Flange thickness
TD Web thickness
DEE Depth of Web
BSD Minimum Bearing Seat Depth
- 171 -
Chapter 15
with:
- 172 -
Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio
The values for Mi and φi are approximately determined by the internal forces and the deformations, calculated by load cases
which generate deformation forms, having an affinity with the buckling form. (See also Ref.[5], pp.113 and Ref.[6],pp.112).
The following load cases are considered:
l load case 1 : on the beams, the local distributed loads qy=1 N/m and qz=-100 N/m are used, on the columns the global dis-
tributed loads Qx = 10000 N/m and Qy =10000 N/m are used.
l load case 2 : on the beams, the local distributed loads qy=-1 N/m and qz=-100 N/m are used, on the columns the global
distributed loads Qx = -10000 N/m and Qy= -10000 N/m are used.
The used approach gives good results for frame structures with perpendicular rigid or semi-rigid beam connections. For
other cases, the user has to evaluate the presented bucking ratios. In such cases a more refined approach (from stability
analysis) can be applied.
- 173 -
Chapter 15
- 174 -
Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio
- 175 -
Chapter 15
- 176 -
Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio
L beam length
Ii , Ij moment of inertia at end i and j
Ai , Aj sectional area at end i and j
E modulus of Young
Ncr critical Euler force
Ri , Rj beam stiffness at end i and j
2. We suppose that
- 177 -
Chapter 15
- 178 -
Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio
When the option 'Bracing members are sufficiently supported' is activated in the buckling data, the effective slenderness is
reduced as follows:
l for vv-axis :
l for yy-axis :
l for zz-axis :
- 179 -
Chapter 15
- 180 -
Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio
Single Bracing
- 181 -
Chapter 15
Cross bracing
- 182 -
Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio
with
- 183 -
Chapter 15
with
K Bracing
- 184 -
Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio
Horizontal Bracing
with
P1 Compression load
P2 Tensile load
with
P1 Compression load
P2 Tensile load
- 185 -
Chapter 15
with
With:
- 186 -
Annex B: Calculation of buckling ratio
In case of a non-prismatic member, the moment of inertia is taken in the middle of the ele-
ment.
References
Handleiding moduul STACO VGI
Staalbouwkundig Genootschap
[1] Staalcentrum Nederland
5684/82
DIN18800 Teil 2
Stahlbauten : Stabilitätsfälle, Knicken von Stäben und Stabwerken
[4]
November 1990
Rapportnr. BI-87-20/63.4.3360
Controleregels voor lijnvormige constructie-elementen
[5]
IBBC Maart 1987
Y. Galéa
[7]
Flambement des poteaux à inertie variable
- 187 -
Chapter 15
NEN-EN 50341-3-15
Overhead electrical lines exceeding AC 45 kV - Part 3: Set of National Normative
[8] Aspects
Number 15: National Normative Aspects (NNA) for The Netherlands
Eurocode 3
Design of steel structures
[9] Part 2: Steel Bridges
EN 1993-2: 2006
- 188 -
Annex C: Calculation of moment factors for LTB
if M2 > 0
C1 = 1.13 A* + B* E*
C2 = 0.45A*
if M2 > 0
C1 = 1.12 A* + B* E*
- 189 -
Chapter 16
C2 = 0.45A*
with :
M2 < 0
C1 = A** (2.75 B** + 1) 1.35 + B** (-1.62 A** + 1) E**
M2 > 0
C1 = 1.35 A** + B** E**
C2 = 0.55 A**
with :
- 190 -
Annex C: Calculation of moment factors for LTB
The values for E** can be taken as E* from chapter "Moment distribution generated by q load" on page 189.
Moment line with maximum at the start or at the end of the beam
C2 = 0.0
For DIN18800 / ONORM 4300
For CM66
References
Staalconstructies TGB 1990
Stabiliteit
[1]
NEN 6771 - 1991
- 191 -
Chapter 16
ENV 1993-1-1:1992
- 192 -
Annex D: Use of diaphragms
with
- 193 -
Chapter 17
References
ENV 1993-1-3:1996
Eurocode 3 : Design of steel structures
[1]
Part 1-3 : General rules
Supplementary rules for cold formed thin gauge members and sheeting
- 194 -
Annex D: Use of diaphragms
CEN 1996
E. Kahlmeyer
Stahlbau nach DIN 18 800 (11.90)
[2]
Werner-Verlag, Düsseldorf
Beuth-Kommentare
Stahlbauten
[3] Erläuterungen zu DIN 18 800 Teil 1 bis Teil 4, 1.Auflage
Beuth Verlag, Berlin-Köln 1993
- 195 -
Chapter 18
Introduction to LTBII
For a detailed Lateral Torsional Buckling analysis, a link was made to the Friedrich + Lochner LTBII application Ref.[1].
The FriLo LTBII solver can be used in 2 separate ways:
For both methods, the member under consideration is sent to the FriLo LTBII solver and the respective results are sent
back to SCIA Engineer.
A detailed overview of both methods is given in the following chapters.
The end conditions for warping and torsion are defined as follows:
To take into account loading and stiffness of linked beams, see chapter "Linked Beams" on page 203”.
For this system, the elastic critical moment Mcr for lateral torsional buckling can be analyzed as the solution of an eigenvalue
problem:
with
- 196 -
Annex E: Lateral Torsional Buckling 2nd Order Analysis
For members with arbitrary sections, the critical moment can be obtained in each section, with: (See Ref.[3],pp.176)
with
The calculated Mcr is then used in the Lateral Torsional Buckling check of SCIA Engineer.
For more background information, reference is made to Ref[2].
To take into account loading and stiffness of linked beams, see chapter "Linked Beams" on page 203.
For this system, the internal forces are calculated using a 2nd Order 7 degrees of freedom calculation.
- 197 -
Chapter 18
The calculated torsional and warping moments (St Venant torque Mxp, Warping torque Mxs and Bimoment Mw) are then
used in the Stress check of SCIA Engineer (See chapter "Annex F: Warping check" on page 206).
Specifically for this stress check, the following internal forces are used:
o Normal force from SCIA Engineer
o Maximal shear forces from SCIA Engineer / FriLo LTBII
o Maximal bending moments from SCIA Engineer / FriLo LTBII
Since Lateral Torsional Buckling has been taken into account in this 2nd Order stress check, it is no more required to execute
a Lateral Torsional Buckling Check.
For more background information, reference is made to Ref[2].
l EC3 - ENV
l EC3 - EN
l DIN18800
l ONORM
l NEN
l SIA
l IS
l EAE
For the following national codes, the 2nd Order analysis approach is supported.
l EC3 - ENV
l EC3 - EN
l DIN18800
l ONORM
l NEN
l SIA
l EAE
Supported Sections
The following table shows which cross-section types are supported for which type of analysis:
- 198 -
Annex E: Lateral Torsional Buckling 2nd Order Analysis
Remark: Haunched sections are replaced by equivalent asymmetric I sections, by ignoring the middle flanges.
The following picture illustrates the relation between the local coordinate system of SCIA Engineer and FriLo LTBII. Special
attention is required for U sections due to the inversion of the y and z-axis.
- 199 -
Chapter 18
Loadings
The following load impulses are supported:
l Point force in node (if the node is part of the exported beam)
l Point force on beam
l Line force in beam
l Moment in node (if the node is part of the exported beam)
l Moment on beam
l Line moment in beam (only for Mx in LCS)
The supported load impulses and their eccentricities are transformed into the local LCS of the exported member.
The dead load is replaced by an equivalent line force on the beam.
Load eccentricities are replaced by torsional moments.
The forces in local x-direction are ignored, except for the torsional moments.
In Frilo LTBII a distinction is made between the centroid and the shear center of a cross-
section. Load impulses which do not pass through the shear center will cause additional tor-
sional moments.
Imperfections
In the 2nd Order LTB analysis the bow imperfections v0 (in local y direction) and w0 (in local z direction) can be taken into
account.
For DIN, ONORM, EC-EN and EAE the imperfections can be calculated according to the code. The codes indicate that for
a 2nd Order calculation which takes into account LTB, only the imperfection v0 needs to be considered.
The sign of the imperfection according to code depends on the sign of Mz in SCIA Engineer.
- 200 -
Annex E: Lateral Torsional Buckling 2nd Order Analysis
EP
PP I section a0 L/700
(Plastic)
I section a L/600
I section b L/500
I section c L/400
I section d L/300
For non-uniform members, the bow imperfection is considered at the centre of the buckling system length L.
with:
a0 1/350 1/300
a 1/300 1/250
b 1/250 1/200
c 1/200 1/150
d 1/150 1/100
with
- 201 -
Chapter 18
LTB Restraints
LTB restraints are transformed into 'Supports' (Ref.[2] p22), with horizontal elastic restraint Cy:
Cy = 1e15 kN/m
The position of the restraint z(Cy) is depending on the position of the LTB restraint (top/bottom).
The use of an elastic restraint allows the positioning of the restraint since this is not possible for a fixed restraint. (Ref.[2] p23)
Specifically for U-sections, an elastic restraint Cz is used with position y(Cz) due to the rotation of U-sections in the FriLo
LTBII solver. (see Chapter "Supported Sections" on page 198)
Diaphragms
Diaphragms are transformed into 'Elastic Foundations' of type ‘elastic restraint’ (Ref.[2] p25). Both a horizontal restraint Cy
and a rotational restraint Cθ are used.
The elastic restraint Cy [kN/m^2] is calculated as follows (Ref.[2] p52 and Ref.[5] p40):
with
The above formula for Cy is valid in case the bolt pitch of the diaphragm is set as ‘br’. For a bolt pitch of ‘2br’ the shear stiff-
ness S is replaced by 0,2 S (Ref.[5] p22).
The shear stiffness S for a diaphragm is calculated as follows (Ref.[7],3.5 and Ref.[8],3.3.4.):
- 202 -
Annex E: Lateral Torsional Buckling 2nd Order Analysis
with
a Frame distance
Ls Length of the diaphragm
K1 Factor K1 of the diaphragm
K2 Factor K2 of the diaphragm
The position of the restraint z(Cy) is depending on the position of the diaphragm.
Specifically for U-sections, an elastic restraint Cz is used with position y(Cz) due to the rotation of U-sections in the FriLo
LTBII solver. (see Chapter "Supported Sections" on page 198)
The rotational restraint Cθ [kNm/m] is taken as vorhCθ (see Chapter "Adaptation of torsional constant " on page 193)
Linked Beams
Linked beams are transformed into 'Supports' (Ref.[2] p22), with elastic restraint.
The direction of the restraint is dependent on the direction of the linked beam:
If the linked beam has an angle less then 45° with the local y-axis of the beam under consideration, the restraint is set as Cy.
In all other cases the restraint is set as Cz.
The position of the restraint z(Cy) or y(Cz) is depending on the application point of the linked beam (top/bottom).
The position is only taken into account in case of a flexible restraint (Ref.[2] p23).
The end forces of the linked beam are transformed to point loads on the considered 1D member,
- 203 -
Chapter 18
Specifically for U-sections, if the linked beam has an angle less then 45° with the local y-axis of the beam under con-
sideration, the restraint is set as Cz. In all other cases the restraint is set as Cy. This is due to the rotation of U-sections in the
FriLo LTBII solver. (see Chapter "Supported Sections" on page 198)
During the analysis, the FriLo LTBII solver may return a warning message. The most important causes of the warning mes-
sage are listed here.
Due to the low relative slenderness, no LTB check needs to be performed. In this case it is not required to use the
FriLo LTBII solver.
Design Torsion! Simplified analysis of lateral torsional buckling is not possible.
Due to the torsion in the member it is advised to execute a 2nd order analysis instead of an eigenvalue calculation.
The loading on the member is too big, a 2nd order calculation cannot be executed.
You want to calculate the structural safety with Elastic-Plastic method. This analytical procedure cannot be used
for this cross-section. It is recommended to use the Elastic-Elastic method.
Plastic calculation is not possible, use imperfection according to code elastic instead of plastic.
For more information, reference is made to Ref[1] and [2].
References
FriLo LTBII software
Friedrich + Lochner Lateral Torsional Buckling 2 nd Order Analysis
[1] Biegetorsionstheorie II.Ordnung (BTII)
http://www.frilo.de
Friedrich + Lochner LTBII Manual
[2] BTII Handbuch
Revision 1/2006
- 204 -
Annex E: Lateral Torsional Buckling 2nd Order Analysis
J. Meister
[3] Nachweispraxis Biegeknicken und Biegedrillknicken
Ernst & Sohn, 2002
Eurocode 3
Design of steel structures
[4] Part 1 - 1 : General rules and rules for buildings
EN 1993-1-1:2005
J. Schikowski
Stabilisierung von Hallenbauten unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Scheiben-
[5] wirkung von Trapez- und Sandwichelementdeckungen, 1999
http://www.jschik.de/
E. Kahlmeyer
Stahlbau nach DIN 18 800 (11.90)
[7]
Werner-Verlag, Düsseldorf
Beuth-Kommentare
Stahlbauten
[8] Erläuterungen zu DIN 18 800 Teil 1 bis Teil 4, 1.Auflage
Beuth Verlag, Berlin-Köln 1993
- 205 -
Chapter 19
Stress check
In cross sections subject to torsion, the following is checked:
with
the direct stress due to the axial force on the relevant effective cross-section
σN,Ed
the direct stress due to the bending moment around y axis on the relevant
σ
effective cross-section
My,Ed
the direct stress due to the bending moment around z axis on the relevant
σ
effective cross-section
Mz,Ed
- 206 -
Annex F: Warping check
σw,Ed
τ the shear stress due to shear force in y direction on the gross cross-section
Vy,Ed
τ the shear stress due to shear force in z direction on the gross cross-section
Vz,Ed
τt,Ed the shear stress due to uniform (St. Venant) torsion on the gross cross-section
τw,Ed the shear stress due to warping on the gross cross-section
The warping effect is considered for standard I sections and U sections, and for Σ (= “cold formed sections”) sections. The
definition of I sections and U sections, and Σ sections are described in "Annex A: Profile Library Formcodes" on page 151.
The other standard sections ( RHS, CHS, Angle section, T section and rectangular sections) are considered as warping
free. See also Ref.[2], Bild 7.4.40.
with
Mw the bimoment
wM the unit warping
Cm the warping constant
I sections
For I sections, the value of wM is given in the tables (Ref. [2], Tafel 7.87, 7.88). This value is added to the profile library. The
diagram of wM is given in the following figure:
- 207 -
Chapter 19
The direct stress due to warping is calculated in the critical points (see circles in figure).
The value for wM can be calculated by (Ref.[5] pp.135) :
U sections
For U sections, the value of wM is given in the tables as wM1 and wM2 (Ref. [2], Tafel 7.89). These values are added to the
profile library. The diagram of wM is given in the following figure :
The direct stress due to warping is calculated in the critical points (see circles in figure).
Σ sections
The values for wM are calculated for the critical points according to the general approach given in Ref.[2] 7.4.3.2.3 and Ref.
[8] Part 27.
The critical points for each part are shown as circles in the figure.
- 208 -
Annex F: Warping check
M the warping torque (see "Standard diagrams for warping torque, bimoment and
xs the St.Venant torsion" on page 213)
w
the unit warping
M
C
the warping constant
m
t the element thickness
I sections
The shear stress due to warping is calculated in the critical points (see circles in figure)
U sections, Σ sections
Starting from the wM diagram, we calculate the value
- 209 -
Chapter 19
The shear stress due to warping is calculated in these critical points (see circles in figures)
Plastic Check
For doubly symmetric I sections of class 1 and class 2 (plastic check), the interaction formula given in Ref.[10] is used.
Used variables
Section Properties
A sectional area
b width
H heigth of section
tf flange thickness
- 210 -
Annex F: Warping check
Section Properties
tw web thickness
h = H - tf
Aw = 1.05 (h+tf) tw for rolled section
Aw = h tw for welded sections
Material Properties
fy,d yield strength
Internal forces
NSd normal force
My,Sd bending moment around y axis
Mz,Sd bending moment around z axis
Mw,Sd bimoment
Vy,Sd shear force in y direction
Vz,Sd shear force in z direction
Mxp,Sd torque due to St. Venant
Mxs,Sd warping torque
Plastic capacities
Npl,Rd = A fy,d
Mz,pl,Rd = Wz,pl fy,d
Vz,pl,Rd = Aw τy,d
Vy,pl,Rd = Af τy,d
- 211 -
Chapter 19
Section Properties
- 212 -
Annex F: Warping check
Section Properties
Sign
p=sign ( Mz,Sd x Mw,Sd)
Unity checks:
- 213 -
Chapter 19
Mx
- 214 -
Annex F: Warping check
Mw for a side
Mw for b side
Mx
Mw for a side
- 215 -
Chapter 19
Mw for b side
Mx
Mxp
- 216 -
Annex F: Warping check
Mxs
Mw
Mx
Mxp
Mxs
Mw
- 217 -
Chapter 19
One end free, other end torsion and warping fixed, local torsional loading Mt
Mx
Mxp
Mxs
Mw
One end free, other end torsion and warping fixed, distributed torsional load-
ing mt
Mx
- 218 -
Annex F: Warping check
Mxp
Mxs
Mw
l warping free
l warping fixed
- 219 -
Chapter 19
The values for Mxp, Mxs and Mw are taken from the previous tables for the local torsional loadings Mtn and the distributed
loading mt. The value Mt0 is added to the Mxp value.
The values for Mxp, Mxs and Mw are taken from the previous tables for the local torsional loadings Mtn and the distributed
loading mt.
References
ENV 1993-1-3:1996
Eurocode 3 : Design of steel structures
Part 1-3 : General rules – Supplementary rules for cold formed thin gauge mem-
[1]
bers and sheeting
CEN 1996
Stahl im Hochbau
14. Auglage Band I/ Teil 2
[2]
Verlag Stahleisen mbH, Düsseldorf 1986
Kaltprofile
3. Auflage
[3]
Verlag Stahleisen mbH, Düsseldorf 1982
- 220 -
Annex F: Warping check
DASt-Richtlinie 016
Bemessung und konstruktive Gestaltung von Tragwerken aus dünnwandigen
[6] kaltgeformten Bauteilen
Stahlbau-Verlagsgesellschaft, Köln 1992
C. Petersen
Stahlbau : Grundlagen der Berechnung und baulichen Ausbildung von Stahl-
[8] bauten
Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig 1988
Eurocode 3
Design of steel structures
[9] Part 1 - 1 : General rules and rules for buildings
ENV 1993-1-1:1992, 1992
I. Vayas,
Interaktion der plastischen Grenzschnittgrössen doppelsymmetrischer I-Quer-
[10] schnitte
Stahlbau 69 (2000), Heft 9
- 221 -
Chapter 20
Stress check
The stress calculation for a numerical section is as follows:
with
- 222 -
Annex H: Section check for built-in beams (IFB, SFB, THQ sections)
Introduction
For the national codes EC-ENV, EC-EN, NEN6770/6771, DIN18800 and SIA263, special checks are performed for built-in
beams, according to Ref.[1].
- 223 -
Chapter 21
The point of load application of the q loading is taken at 2/3 of the inputted sw length.
For asymmetrical I-sections the sw length is taken as 40 mm.
When the lower plate is loaded by q-load (uniform distributed load), the effective area of the loaded plate (flange) for the cal-
culation of the plastic capacity is reduced as follows:
- 224 -
Annex H: Section check for built-in beams (IFB, SFB, THQ sections)
with
e1=bo
ψo
tu=to
e2=tw
- 225 -
Chapter 21
ξ (Ksi)
fy yield strength
γM partial safety factor
- 226 -
Annex H: Section check for built-in beams (IFB, SFB, THQ sections)
- 227 -
Chapter 21
with
to , bo see figures
hf = h+tu/2-to/2 (see figure)
It torsional constant for complete section
E modulus of Young
G shear modulus
L system length for Lyz
Q,e see figure
- 228 -
Annex H: Section check for built-in beams (IFB, SFB, THQ sections)
with
e, bf see figure
hf = h+tu/2-to/2 (see figure)
load on flanges, plate (as N/m)
q
= qmax +qmin
ξ (Ksi)
- 229 -
Chapter 21
References
Multi-Storey Buildings in Steel
Design Guide for Slim Floors with Built-in Beams
[1]
ECCS N° 83 - 1995
- 230 -
Annex I: Effective cross-section properties for lattice tower angle members
The effective width shall be obtained from the nominal width of the leg, assuming uniform stress distribution:
- 231 -
Chapter 22
t the thickness
b the nominal width
fy the yield strength in Mpa
References
EN 50341-1:2001
[1] Overhead electrical lines exceeding AC 45 kV Part 1: General requirements
- 232 -