ternatively, an equivalent toilet can be defined with the same The author notes that it was actually a previous
actually a previous consultant
instantaneous discharge (q, = 1.0 Us) but increased probability
of usage (p,):
6 those engineers to increase flow capacity by pigging the lines
LPlql
I-I
p,=--- (29)
q,
From the survey, at the morning peak ~ pq = 0.01142, giving
p, = 0.0114 (c.f. p = 0.003 for a single toilet).
A further drawback of the proposed method is that it does
not allow confidence levels to be specified unlike both the
fixture (discharge) unit method and the FLUSH methodology.
As shown in Figs. 5 and 6 it is clear that there will be both a
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mean morning peak flow and (for example) a 95% confidence
level peak flow.
The methodology described in the paper could be used to
select peak factors as queried by the discusser. Using his ter-
minology and rearranging (14) and (15) gives the following
(using the original notation):
QL = Npq + ZcqYNp(1 - p) =FLNpq (30)
FL = 1 + Zc f(1=lJj (31)
'1NP
By selecting appropriate values for Zc and p, F L could be
calculated for any N. In practice these would pertain to peak
factors related to the expected (continuous) flow.
While this approach has the attraction of simplicity, in the
opinion of the writers, it is not the way towards a comprehen-
sive sanitary drain/sewer methodology. This certainty begs the
question as to what is an appropriate approach, and more work
clearly needs to be done to reach this laudable goal.
8
PIGGING SUBMARINE OUTFALLS
Discussion by Robert A. Grace2
The discusser commends the author for an excellent prac-
tical and useful paper. Unfortunately, a well-thought-out, pos-
itive pigging operation such as described may mislead outfall
engineers into thinking that cleaning by pigging is a relatively
trouble-free exercise. There have definitely been bad experi-
ences with this means of increasing pipe flow capacity.
There has been a small history of pigs getting stuck in the
line, whether because of an inner wall projection, an unplow-
able load of scrapings, or insufficient flow force. An example
of the latter occurs at the upstream end of a manifold-type of
diffuser where much of the flow exits from the first-cleared
port.
Commercially available "pig pingers" are useful for keep-
ing track of a pig's location within the pipe during its transit,
or of fixing its position should it become stuck. One possibility
in such a case, if the pig is of polyurethane open cell structure,
is to send heavily chlorinated water to the pig in an effort to
dissolve enough of it to promote movement. Should this not
be possible or practicable, then a diving contractor may have
to cut into the pipe to remove the major obstruction, a poten-
tially very expensive exercise.
"May 1995, Vol. 121, No.5, by Jonathan A. French (Paper 7362).
2Prof. of Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822.
774/ JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / AUGUST 1996
J. Environ. Eng., 1996, 122(8): 775-775
that proposed the pigging of the lines. The discusser would be
interested in having the author cite the reasons put forward by
rather than by lining them. To the knowledge of the discusser,
one outfall (City of Newport, Oreg., 1990) has been success-
fully inversion-lined, whereas numerous municipal and indus-
trial ones have been effectively slip-lined. Two examples of
the latter involve pulp mills adjacent to Humboldt Bay, Calif.:
the Simpson one in 1973 (now unused); and the Louisiana-
Pacific plant in 1994.
The slip-lining process is also a procedure that can go
wrong. Even with a nosecone, passage of the liner can be
prevented altogether by obstructions within the pipe such as a
loosened liner, offsets at joints, or overly abrupt changes in
pipe direction. "Proving" of the pipe, to rule out these pos-
sibilities, may result in the loss inside of the survey device,
with substantial flow blockage. Completely grouting the an-
nulus between the installed liner and pipe can be difficult.
Perhaps lost in the discussion of pigging in the paper is the
fact that outfall pipes 101 and 102 are still being used more
than 90 years after their installation. It was mentioned by
French et al. (1986) that a section of the removed pipe segment
(for the pig-launching tee beside the gatehouse) was analyzed.
"Of the original inch and one-half [38 mm] thickness, roughly
10 mm has corroded, with 25-30 mm remaining." Was this
portion of the outfall above or below the (tidal) water table?
The Victorian Ramsgate cast iron outfall, in England, was
similarly analyzed after apparently being crushed by a towed
barge following a life of 103 years. Graphitization had pene-
trated only 6.5 mm into the 32 mm wall of the submerged
pipe.
Much is said nowadays about the increased life afforded by
plastic pipes, but the preceding two cases certainly point to
great longevity for one of the very traditional materials. In
both cases, there was no corrosion protection. The advantage
of cast iron is its self-weight. The disadvantage of plastic,
contrary to often-voiced opinion, is its lightness, necessitating
the attachment of two-piece bolt-together concrete collars to
maintain it stable in the marine environment. Such collars do
not have a good track record for remaining in place for mul-
tiyear periods, on occasion sliding into bunches and sometimes
falling off altogether. Does the author concur?
The design of any outfall must be done with operation and
maintenance considerations having at least as much weight as,
say, ensuring that the effluent dilution meets dictated levels.
First, the effort must be made to minimize the chances of a
major operation and maintenance problem. As an example, a
tee-shaped riser is simply asking for trouble from fishing nets,
buoy ropes, tow lines, and anchor cables.
Second, there is the realization that even if the outfall design
is "perfect," the odds are very great that some circumstance,
natural or man-caused, will over a 50 year life conspire to
keep the outfall from functioning in the manner originally in-
tended. As an example, diffuser deposits may accumulate due
to either increased suspended solids in the flow, because of
treatment malfunctions, or entry of sediment-laden seawater
into the pipe during partial or total flow shutdowns. With this
in mind, the design should facilitate any conceivable mainte-
nance activities. As examples, there should be accessible in-
spection/cleanout openings, accessible manholes for diver or
ROV passage, entry and exit chambers for instrumented ~r
cleaning pigs, and provision for inserting an end bulkhead If
the hinged gate fails.
The writer would welcome the author's views on the im-
portance of operation and maintenance concerns throughout
outfall planning and design.
Finally, the "perfect" design is not the perfect as-built un-
 less construction inspection is of high caliber. For example,
free port flow is impossible if the opening is blocked by ballast
rock. Some by-hand removal of tremie pipe or skip-dump rock
is often necessary, for a perhaps reluctant contractor, but of
course is a costly and time-consuming problem especially for
deep-water diffusers where divers must breathe mixed gas. To
use a remotely operated vehicle for this tedious task might not
be feasible, as in very murky water.
Closure by Jonathan A. French3
Many thanks to the discusser for his useful comments. Ex-
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amination of available records shows that the only other al-
ternative that the previous consultant (in the early 1980s) con-
sidered feasible was cement lining, and then only after
cleaning; further, that cement lining would add only a small
incremental benefit in conveyance, but cost three times as
much as cleaning. Therefore that consultant did not recom-
mend lining, only cleaning, by pigging. An ever-present con-
cern was to stress the pipeline as little as possible. We can
quickly compare the benefit gained by:
1. Pigging, which renders the pipe walls much more
smooth, and clears away attached grease and grit that
had accumulated to an average thickness of about 75
mm.
2. Lining, which would provide a very smooth "new" in-
terior flow boundary, but in a conduit still with accu-
mulated grit and grease, which in addition to the liner
thickness, reduces the pipe diameter by 2 times (77 mm
plus the liner wall thickness) from its nominal value.
Nonuniformity in the debris accumulation would also
lead to waviness in the liner, for an additional small flow
impediment.
Expressed quantitatively: if pigging provides a certain flow
capacity represented by a Hazen-Williams C of 110, say, with
diameter effectively enlarged to 1,524 mm (the 6Q-in. original
diameter), then what C-value would the lined pipe need to
provide equivalent conveyance, considering that the diameter
is reduced from its nominal 1,524 mm by at least 150 mm,
due to the debris still in place? The Hazen-Williams formula,
in SI units, is
Q = A V = O.85CARo.63 SO.54 (1)
3Assoc., Camp Dresser & McKee Inc., Ten Cambridge Center, Cam-
bridge, MA 02142.
JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / AUGUST 1996/ n5
J. Environ. Eng., 1996, 122(8): 775-775
in which Q = flow rate; A = cross-sectional area of the pipe
and equal to TrD 2/4; D = pipe diameter; C = conveyance fac-
tor; R = D/4 = hydraulic radius of flow in a closed, full-flowing
circular conduit of diameter D; and S = friction slope. Rear-
ranging
41.63Q/(O.85So. 54 Tr) = CD 263 (2)
We compare two cases with equal Q and S, but differing C
and D. The two sides of the equation remain constant. The
total derivative of the right hand side then becomes zero; after
tidying:
2.63dDID = -dCIC (3)
or dD = -(dCIC)Dl2.63 (4)
Therefore if we start with the cleaned pipe diameter of 1,524
m, and the cleaned pipe's C of about 110; and grant that the
lined pipe might have a "smooth" C of 140, what would the
lined pipe's diameter difference be, for equivalent hydraulic
capacity? With dC = 140 - 110 = 30, the resulting dD would
be -158 mm, a value very like the 150 mm cited previously.
Therefore lining without cleaning would have resulted in a
hydraulically comparable result, in this instance.
The discusser refers to an earlier paper on this project that
discussed the condition of a sample of the cast iron pipe wall,
showing acceptably little corrosion, considering the 80-year
age of the pipe. In fact, this sample was taken from an "in-
tertidal" region, subject to frequent wetting and drying due to
variable flow rates and tide stages. Corrosion would be more
aggressive in that region than in one always submerged; pre-
sumably corosion elsewhere in the pipeline was generally even
less.
The author concurs with the discusser that compared with
iron or concrete, plastic pipe is at a very great disadvantage
for sewage outfalls to a body of saltwater, especially one with
wave energy. Gravitational stability is obtained only via
weight collars, which can slide into useless bunches. The au-
thor knows of one such case where major repairs were needed
every 2-5 years or so, compared with a stable lifetime of 50
or 80 or more years that can easily be designed.
As the discusser suggests, the best outfall design would fa-
cilitate an eventual pigging operation by installing a pig-
launching tee at the shore end during initial construction, and
blind-flanging its leg; by using a diffuser section of constant
diameter equal to the main pipe diameter to permit a pig to
travel throughout the diffuser; or, wherever the diameter is
reduced, to provide for pig egress; and by providing the means
to temporarily plug the diffuser ports along any part of the
diffuser that is to be pigged, to maintain the hydraulic thrust
for pig motion.