CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
The significance of Radio to human life cannot be
overestimated. This is true because beyond the physical
requirement of food and shelter man needs to develop. The
urge for Radio in the area of social development and
fostering unity is a primal one and in our contemporary
civilization a necessity for survival.

That is to say without Radio no society can exist, much less

develop and survive. For existence as well as the
organization of every society, Radio is a fundamental and
vital process for social development and fostering national
unity.

The Radio serves essential functions in the society by

accepting and fulfilling certain obligations to the society.
These obligations are mainly to be met by setting high
professional standard of informativeness, truth, accuracy,
objectivity and balance. It could be seen from the foregoing
functions that Radio provide information and education,
personal identity, entertainment most importantly
integration and social interaction; integration and social
interaction by giving insight into the circumstance of others
as well as by helping with the development of social
empathy. Radio is very important to developing
communities everywhere, it also seeks to bring the people
together and helps to advance national unity.

1
However in the recent years Radio had undergone enormous
and generally speaking, positive changes. Coinciding with
the general rise in educational levels of the overall
population, especially in terms of social development. The
profession of Radio is very much developed because it
integrates Radio into public policy dialogue, process and
plan developmental strategy and outreach campaigns for
public policy, dialogue and consensus building, thus
fostering national unity.

Radio has improved in the quality of production and service

to the society, particularly in the promotion of economic and
national unity.

The obstacle to the use of communication technology to

help marginalized groups to improve their situation lies in a
lack of political will, and also in policies that fail to recognize
the importance of communication as a social process that
can help to bring change and development. For example,
Radio leaps the barriers of isolation and illiteracy and it is
the most economical electronic media to broadcast and
receive. But despite the two billion radio receivers in the
world and some 20,000 radio stations, radio is still not being
used systematically to help fight poverty, malnutrition and
poor health in the developing world.

The need for community participation at all stages of a

development initiative has been widely recognized since the
late 1970s. However, it has not been sufficiently recognized

2
that participation and communication are different sides of
the same coin. Only by creating communication processes in
which people in the community enter into dialogue and
analytical discussion within themselves, will they participate
and decide for themselves on changes that affect their lives
and become active in implementing them. Radio in
particular can provide the platform for the public dialogue
through which people can define who they are, what they
want, and how to get it, at the same time building long term
capacity to solve problems in ways that lead to sustainable
social change and development, thereby fostering unity.

Distinct from other forms of broadcasting, radio is non-profit

services that is owned and managed by government, but
however there are some private radio stations and
community radio stations usually managed by the
community and private individuals. The programs are based
on audience access and participation and reflect the special
interests and needs of the society.

The earlier radio stations were simply radiotelegraphy

systems and did not carry audio. The first claimed audio
transmission that could be termed a broadcast occurred on
Christmas Eve in 1906, and was made by Reginald
Fessenden. Whether this broadcast actually took place is
disputed. While many early experimenters attempted to
create systems similar to radiotelephone devices where only
two parties were meant to communicate, there were others
who intended to transmit to large audiences. Charles Harold

3
started broadcasting in California in 1909 and was carrying
audio by the next year.

For the next decade, radio tinkers had to build their own
radio receivers. In the Hague, the Netherlands, PCGG started
broadcasting on November 6, 1919. Dr. Frank Conrad began
broadcasting from his Wilkinsburg, Pennsylvania garage with
the call letters KDKA. KDKA’s first commercial broadcast was
moved from Saxonburg, Butler County, PA on November 2,
1920.

Later, the equipment was moved to the top of an office

building in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and purchased by
Westinghouse. KDKA of Pittsburgh, under Westinghouse’s
ownership, started broadcasting as the first licensed
“Commercial” radio station in November 2, 1920. The
commercial designation came from the type of license;
advertisements did not air until years later. The first
broadcast in USA was the results of the U.S. Presidential
election, 1920. The Montreal station that became CFCF
began program broadcasts on May 20, 1920, and the Detroit
station that become WWJ began program broadcasts
beginning on August 20, 1920, although neither held a
license at the time.

Radio Argentina began regularly scheduled transmissions

from the Teatro Coliseo in Buenos Aires on August 27, 1920,
making its own priority claim. The station got its license on
November 1923. The delay was due to the lack of official
Argentine licensing procedures before that date. This station

4
continued regular broadcasting of entertainment and
cultural fare for several decades.

Radio is the older of the two main forms of electronic media,

the other being television. Radio in commercial broadcast
form has been around since about 1920. Of the two it is far
better adapted to abstract thought (such as, to give a begin
example, book reviews) and ideally is- well infinite as
regards projection of subject matter. The demands are
different- sight gags and talking heads are, mercifully, out of
the question, but radio has enormous potential for
entertainment and enlightenment as well as mere news,
weather, traffic and sportive events. I have been off TV
many years but an avid radio fan, and particularly espouse
WBAI and similar underground stations. Radio can go, where
TV simply cannot, and in a sense is far more democratic-
there are or were 7 main TV channels in the New York area
prior to digitalization. There are many times this number of
different types of radio stations with widely divergent points
of view and personalities.

Community media, and in particular radio, can provide the

platform for the public dialogue through which people can
define who they are, what they want, and how to get it, at
the same time building long-term capacity to solve problems
in ways that lead to sustainable peace and unity.

Distinct from other forms of broadcasting, radio is non-profit

service that is owned and managed by a particular
community, usually through a trust or a foundation. It is also

5
managed by the community, and its operation rely mainly
on the government own resources.

Also radio reflect and promote local identity, character and

culture by focusing principally on local content. Culture is
how the people of a community talk about their past and
their future. It is what they care about. Like life itself, culture
is infinitely variable and constantly evolving. Community
culture is also artistic expression through local radio, dance,
poetry, theatre and storytelling. Local performers are
encouraged to go on air uninhibited by considerations of the
‘professional standards’ they may have acquired from
mainstream media. Culture is also language, so
programming includes the languages of any minority groups
in the country (Eyiah, 2004).

Also radio creates a diversity of voices and opinions on the

air through its openness to participation from all sectors.
Some discord is present in all communities, but the
acknowledgment of conflict is necessary for democracy and
for democratic communities. Radio tries to air objectively all
sides of a discussion without itself taking sides. Radio
encourages open dialogue and democratic process by
providing an independent platform for interactive discussion
about matters and decisions of importance to the country. In
essence, the core of unifying process is the ability of people
to hear and make them heard. Radio provides the forum for
that to happen. This is consonant with the decentralization
process in many countries that aims to being unified
decision-making closer to the people concerned. And what is

6
 happening at the grassroots level- as portrayed by the radio
programming can be heard by local government and private
institutions, as well as being relayed to policy makers, thus
making it possible to design unity initiatives that best meet
the aspirations and needs of the people (David, 1999).

Radio succeeds when it grows out of the community’s sense

of internal cohesion and consciousness. A country that
analyses its needs in detail and thinks about the causes of
its problems and marginalization will often come to the
conclusion that it requires communication (Radio broadcast)
to help people formulate common understanding and
common goals. This is the foundation stone for a country
setting up its own radio station.
The ownership and management of the future station are
crucial issues that require good preparatory work. Even
within the overall concept of country ownership of a station,
there usually needs to be somebody, such as a foundation or
an association, which represents the country’s interests and
also provides a national unity. In addition, some sort of
country radio needs to be formed to represent the different
sectors in the country. The decision regarding all aspects of
the ownership and management must be transparent and
democratic.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Radio, despite its growth faces age-old problem stemming
from poor ownership structure, a weak financial base, low
quality, lack of access to information and conflict with
authorities. There is always the tendency to forget that rural

7
residents which constitute the majority of means to
disseminate information and as a result, its contribution to
national unity is restricted. In addition to the above, despite
a number of programmes aimed or shown reflects foreign
cultures which have negative effect on our own norms and
values, and this no doubt is detrimental to our national
unity.

The role of radio station owned and run by a community, in

providing the forum for the participatory, public dialogue
which is essential for social change and fostering unity. The
radio station is a platform for identifying and analyzing
problems and their solutions, thereby determining
development inputs that truly meet local needs. Open
access to air complaints from the audience can pressure
local authorities to adopt practices of good governance and
transparency thereby fostering unity. Cheap and easy to
install and operate, radio can also be the interface between
poor communities and the internet.

The obstacle to the use of radio technology to help

marginalized groups to improve their situation lies in a lack
of political will, and also in policies that fail to recognize the
importance of radio as a social process that can help to
bring changes, national unity and development. For
example, radio broadcasting leaps the barriers of isolation
and illiteracy and it is the most economical electronic
medium to broadcast and receive. But despite the two billion
radio receivers in the world and some 20,000 radio stations,
radio has still not been used systematically to help fight

8
poverty, malnutrition and poor health and national unity in
the developing world.
The need for community participation at all stages of a unity
initiative has been widely recognized since the late 1970s.
However, it has not been sufficiently recognized that
participation and communication are different sides of the
same coin. Only by creating communication processes in
which people in the community enter into dialogue and
analytical discussion among them will they participate and
decide for themselves in changes that affect their lives and
become active in implementing them.

The radio station is a platform for identifying and analyzing

problems and their solutions, thereby determining
development inputs that truly meet local needs. Open
access to air complaints from the audience can pressure
local authorities to adopt practices of good governance and
transparency. Cheap and easy to install and operate, radio
can also be the interface between poor country and the
internet.

Listeners do not appreciate public radio primarily for its

news programming. In the focus-groups undertaken
throughout 1986, they spontaneously discussed morning
edition, all things considered, and weekend edition more
than any other programming.

Radio listeners do not place a high premium on staying

informed. They know they can get local news and headlines
from commercial radios, and many of them do. Yet they tune

9
to public radio for detailed national and international news
coverage- the story behind the story. Getting well beyond
headlines, public radio tells why an event occurred, what it
means, why it is important, and what to expect next. This is
important to listeners.

They don’t care where programming is produced, as long as

it maintains the qualities they value. Some listeners noted
that some local shows do not always meet the standards of
those produced by NPR.

Listeners value public radio’s distinctive qualities, and for

them its national news occupies a unique position. They do
not expect public radio to broadcast from “the scene”, they
don’t fault public radio for its “inability” to provide local
news, weather, and traffic- they can get all of this
elsewhere.
Indeed, when listeners discuss news on public radio they are
talking about NPR news. There appear to be several reasons
why national news is a definite listener drawn and local news
is not.

Local news is not unique; it’s widely available on other radio

stations, and this will not change soon. Of course, national
news is also not unique- particularly on television. However,
morning edition airs at a time when radio is better suited to
listeners’ activities; and all things considered beats the
television networks by ninety minutes.

10
Many listeners cite lower “professional standards” in local
productions; many say station-originated programming just
isn’t as good” as NPR’s. Of course this varies widely from
station to station. Listeners refer not to technical qualities,
but to presentation styles and professionalism. Many say
local programming does not possess the analysis,
intelligence, depth, respect and professionalism they expect
from (National) public radio.

Listeners are very clear about the “tones” of public versus

commercial radio. To much in public radio’s audience,
commercial radio sounds “loud, insistent, hard-sell, noisy;”
public radio is “low key, calm, relaxed, soothing.” Public
stations sometimes cross this line with negative audience
reaction. For instance, the audio from syndicated traffic
services usually does not match morning edition’s tone; in
order to do so it would be better for the host to read the
printed version.

There are many other ways stations can improve their tone,
professionalism, analysis, and other appeals. But perhaps
there are qualities inherent in local news which simply does
not satisfy public radio listeners. Information bits such as
weather traffic and school choosing seem much more useful
than stories about fires, robberies, muggings-perhaps even
more highly valued than city council reports.

May be local events are perceived by listeners as transient

or less universal than national and international events-less

11
 important to an audience that values public radio for its
attention to the “important” things.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The objective of this research is to:
i. To evaluate the role of Radio in fostering national unity.
ii. Examine how effective Radio is toward bringing the
desired national unity.
iii. To find out the problems of Radio as an agent of
fostering national unity.
iv. To find out problems associated with Radio
Broadcasting
v. That Radio Nigeria Kaduna is really an instrument of
Fostering National Unity.

1.4 Hypothesis
In a research project of this nature there is always the need
for some assumptions to be included in the course of the
study. To this end, certain hypothesis will be put forward and
tested during the investigation.

Hypothesis can be defined as a statement of fact that is yet

to be tested. In another development hypothesis is an
intelligent guess which is subjected to prove.

It is scientific device to test and prove any assertion or

confirmation made in tackling the problem.

Kerhinger defined a hypothesis as a “conjectural statement

of the relations between two or more variables.

12
 The hypotheses are usually stated in declarative sentence
form either as a null hypothesis or as an alternative
hypothesis.

The under listed hypotheses are all drawn from our research
in Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria Kaduna

Ho: That Radio Nigerian Kaduna is an instrument of Fostering

National Unity.

H1: That Radio Nigerian Kaduna is not an instrument of

Fostering National Unity.

1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study

This research is to evaluate the performance of Radio
Nigeria Kaduna as an instrument of fostering National Unity,
2003-2008, it will cover only the period stated above. i.e.
between 2003-2008.
The study is limited by:
- Time constraints within which to
carry out the research as it is not easy to carry out
class work and research simultaneously
- Lack of sufficient data for the
research
- And also some of the respondents
are not willing to answer the questionnaire given to
them

1.6 Significance of the Study

This research work will help to enlighten the general public
on the roles that Radio plays in fostering national unity in

13
 the country (Nigeria) and also to evaluate the performance
of Radio Nigeria Kaduna.

The study will also help the policy makers at the Federal,
State and Local Government to realize the contributions of
Radio as an instrument of Fostering National Unity.

This will enable them to make reasonable budgetary

provisions to the existing Radio agencies to enable them to
perform more effectively for the benefit of the society as a
whole.

This study will also help any other person interested to

conduct research on the field of Radio and other media
organizations. And to be able to build up from where the
researcher stopped at.
1.7 Methodology of the Study
For one to find out certain problem and its solution, he has
to apply different techniques or methods in achieving this.
This is regardless of the concept one is or is going to deal
with.

As a result of this, the primary data for this research work

was sourced from two (2) main methods. They are:

a. Direct interview with staff of Federal Radio Corporation

of Nigeria, Kaduna.

b. A questionnaire tagged “Evaluation of the performance

of Radio Nigeria Kaduna as an instrument of Fostering
National Unity”

14
1.7.1 Sources of Data

Data will be collected from both primary and secondary

sources. The primary source refers to main source of data
while the secondary source refers to data that is obtained
through surveys of documents and available literature.

Primary data therefore, refers to data collected from

interviews, questionnaire, from observation of documents
and other procedures. However, the secondary sources
include data gathered from already existing information
which included books, publications, newspaper articles and
internet services etc.

Interview

Interview have proved to be very important method of data

collection, interviews are means of data collection that are
used by the researcher because undependable part of fact
finding and if well conducted, provides valuable information
about policies and situation that might not be apparent from
documents. It allows a face to face encounter between the
interviewer and the respondent(s), to discuss in a friendly
manner, those problems that need straight answers, where
the respondent does not understand what the interviewer is
trying to say. It was also chosen by the researcher to use
interviewers because it is relatively inexpensive to cover a
wide field of study and the respondents were willing to
cooperate with the researcher.

15
It has been observed generally that people are usually more
willing to talk to the researcher face to face than to actually
write down their responses on paper. As such, the interview
techniques as a means of data collection were designed
mainly on the personnel due to its importance. The
interview, which is to be conducted, must be made to fit into
the overall fact finding strategy. The interviewee must be
informed in advance of the proposed interview so that they
could be prepared to answer any question put forward to
them. The researcher should make preparation in advance
about the suitable time and appropriate venue. In addition,
the interviews provide the researcher with a primary
understanding of the size and structure of Federal Radio
Corporation of Nigeria Kaduna and how the activities of
broadcasting is achieved and the overall set goals and
objectives.

Questionnaire

As a method of data collection, the questionnaire involves

the preparation and sending of list of questions pertaining
the fact finding exercise to various respondents. It contains
questions and spaces for answer to the various questions.
Not all the personnel of the Federal Radio Corporation of
Nigeria, Kaduna opted to grant the researcher and interview
session. As a result, they preferred the use of research
questionnaire, which saves time and energy for both parties,
questionnaire allow for more time to think and write down
the best answers to the questions which would cause quality
and lead to the validity of the research findings.

16
- The explanation of its purpose in brief, of this is
however not self evident from its contents.
- The preparation of short, unbiased and straight-forward
questions.
- Bearing in mind the level of intellect and likely interest
of the response.
- Estimation of the time and cost in the process of
concluding the study.

The use of questionnaires to carry out a survey usually

proved slow, as many respondents sometimes find it hard to
create time. The use of questionnaires suffers from not
allowing a face to face contact between the two parties. This
has been proven due to the fact that the respondent cannot
ask another to further explain himself where the content of
the question are not properly understood.

Questionnaires are of two types: the open-ended and the

close-ended questioners

An opened-ended questionnaire is that which does not give

any choice to the respondents. They provide answers to the
questions, which have already been posed. These types of
questions make analysis and data interpretation very simple
for the researcher, for him to draw conclusions and
subsequently, make recommendation.

A close ended questionnaire is that which offers the

respondents answers from which they make a choice which
is close to their view i.e. it requires a choice between a

17
 number of given answers e.g. are you a student, graduate or
an employee? Etc. questionnaire are prepared and
distributed to sample staff of the Federal Radio Corporation
of Nigeria, Kaduna. It is made certain that every member of
the sample population receives at least a copy of the
questionnaire. It was expected that the responses from such
questionnaires would enlighten the research on:

- An Evaluation of the performance of Radio Nigerian

Kaduna as an instrument of Fostering National Unity.

- The adequacy of Fostering National Unity

- Do the Radio serve as an instrument of Fostering

National Unity?

It was hoped that the analysis of this information would

assist the researcher in arriving at a conclusion from the
research findings.

1.7.2 Population and Sample Size

The population for this research will be all the staff of the
Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria, Kaduna. Whose staff
strength was five hundred (500). Therefore, the sample size
for this study shall be two hundred people randomly
selected. The sample size randomly selected will cut across
the various strata of the employees and management staff.
The sample size equally represents a sizeable number of the
total population for the study, since it is above ten percent
(10%) of the total population.

18
1.7.3 Sampling Techniques

The sampling method to be used in this study is the random

sampling techniques. The researcher decide to use random
sampling procedure for the study because, it is an easy
means of gathering or getting information from a large
group.

1.7.4 Justification for Sampling Techniques Employed

In choosing sample randomly the researcher takes into

consideration, the cost reduction, this type of procedure will
afford the researcher. If the data secured from only a small
fraction of the aggregate, expenditure are smaller than if a
complete census (total population) is attempted or taken.
The greater speed with which the data can be collected and
summarized will be more enhanced with a sample than with
complete count or total population. Surveys that rely on
sampling have more scope and flexibility regarding the type
of information than can be obtained.

Greater accuracy will also be achieved; having a sample

may produce more accurate result than the complete
enumeration or total population.

1.7.3 Method of Data Analysis

The researchers used the simple percentage method of

statistical techniques for the analysis of data. The choice of
this technique is for easier tabulation and clarity in the
analysis of each question from the questionnaire

19
 administered. For example, the analysis took the form as
expressed below.

Number of Respondents X 100

Total Respondents 1

Also tables may be drawn for each questionnaire

1.8 Plan of the Thesis

This study is divided into 5 (five) chapters.

Chapter one is introductory: it discusses the objectives of

the study, its significance, the problem question(s),
limitation and scope of the study.

Chapter two deals with the review of related literature.

Chapter three shows the research methodology employed
and the methods of data collection.

Chapter four analyzed the data gathered during the

research. Chapter five is a summary of the research
findings. It makes recommendations for improvement of
observed weaknesses.

Finally, references cited in this work will be provided at other

end of the study

20
 END NOTE
1. Michael F Salvester, (1989), Radio Broadcasting and Social
Problems, Kazan; Kazan State University Press. Pg. 4-6

2. Keith, T Robinson, (1994), Media, Culture and Morality, London;

Rutledge Press. Pg. 18

3. Enugjun, M. Richard, (1999), The Media’s Image of Homeless

Culture, Westport; Praeger Press. Pg. 25-27

4. Henshel, R. Lucky, (2000), Television and Society. Cambridge;

Policy Press. Pg. 10

5. Maining. W. David, (2000), The Role of Radio broadcasting in

Social Development, New York: Macmillan. Pg. 30-34

21
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.0 Introduction
This chapter of the research will review comments,
statements and opinions made by various writers and group
of person’s as contained in books, newspapers, magazine
and journals. Having direct or indirect bearing on the topic of
this research.

“An Evaluation of the Performance of Radio Nigerian Kaduna

as an Instrument of Fostering National Unity, 2003-2008”

2.1 Concept of Radio

Radio broadcasting is an audio (sound) broadcasting service,
broadcast through the air as radio waves (a form of
electromagnetic radiation) from a transmitter to a receiving
antenna. Stations can be linked in radio networks to
broadcast common programming, either in syndication or
simulcast or both. Audio broadcasting also can be done via
cable FM, local wire networks, satellite and the Internet.

The earliest radio stations were simply radiotelegraphy

systems and did not carry audio. The first claimed audio
transmission that could be termed a broadcast occurred on
Christmas Eve in 1906, and was made by Reginald
Fessenden. Whether this broadcast actually took place is
disputed. While many early experimenters attempted to
create systems similar to radiotelephone devices where only
two parties were meant to communicate, there were others
who intended to transmit to larger audiences. Charles Harold

22
started broadcasting in California in 1909 and was carrying
audio by the next year. (Harold’s station eventually became
KCBS).

For the next decade, radio tinkerers had to build their own
radio receivers. In The Hague, the Netherlands, PCGG
started broadcasting on November 6, 1919. Dr. Frank
Conrad began broadcasting from his Wilkinsburg,
Pennsylvania garage with the call letters KDKA. KDKA's first
commercial broadcast was made from Saxonburg, Butler
County, PA on November 2, 1920. Later, the equipment was
moved to the top of an office building in Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania and purchased by Westinghouse. KDKA of
Pittsburgh, under Westinghouse's ownership started
broadcasting as the first licensed "commercial" radio station
on November 2, 1920. The commercial designation came
from the type of license; advertisements did not air until
years later. The first broadcast in USA was the results of the
U.S. presidential election, 1920. The Montreal station that
became CFCF began program broadcasts on May 20, 1920,
and the Detroit station that became WWJ began program
broadcasts beginning on August 20, 1920, although neither
held a license at the time.

Radio Argentina began regularly scheduled transmissions

from the Teatro Coliseo in Buenos Aires on August 27,
1920, making its own priority claim. The station got its
license on November 19, 1923. The delay was due to the
lack of official Argentine licensing procedures before that
date. This station continued regular broadcasting of

23
entertainment and cultural fare for several decades
(Baudino, 1977).

24
2.2 Radio as a Mass Medium
Mass denotes a section of the media specifically designed to
reach a large audience. The term was coined in the 1920s
with the advent of nationwide radio networks, mass
circulation newspapers and magazines. However, some
forms of mass media such as books, and manuscripts had
already been in use for centuries.

Mass media includes internet media (like blogs, message

boards, pod-cats, and video sharing) because individuals
now have a means to exposure that is comparable in scale
to that previously restricted to a select group of mass media
producers. The communications audience has been viewed
by some commentators as forming a mass society with
special characteristics, notably atomization or lack of social
connections, which render it especially susceptible to the
influence of modern mass-media techniques such as
advertising and propaganda.

The term public media is less used and is defined as “media

whose mission is to serve or engage a public” Radio is the
older of the two main forms of electronic media, the other
being television. Radio in commercial broadcast form has
been around since about 1920. Of the two it is far better
adapted to abstract thought (such as, to give a benign
example, Book reviews) and ideally is-well infinite as regards
projection of subject matter. The demands are different-
sight, gags and talking heads are, mercifully, out of the
question, but radio has enormous potential for
entertainment and enlightenment as well as mere news,

25
weather, traffic and positive events. I have been off TV many
years but an avid radio fan, and particularly espouse WBAI
and similar underground stations. Radio can go, where TV
simply cannot, and in a sense is far more democratic- there
are or were 7 main TV channels in the New York area prior to
digitalization: - there are many times this number of
different types of radio stations with widely divergent points
of view and personalities (Collins, 2002).

Some promising work is being done under UNESCO auspices

to use radio stations as the interface between the people
and the internet. For example, programmes called “Radio
browsing the internet” allow community broadcasters to
discuss website information in the local language and adapt
the information in the local interests thereby uniting the
people or community. Listeners can request information on
specific topics, such as market trends, agriculture, health, or
life skills for poverty alleviation and unifying factor. The
broadcasters search the web for the requested information
and put the results on air. They can also arrange for on-line
discussion between health workers, agricultural
extensionists, or ordinary villagers with technical experts to
discuss a particular problem and broadcast the results
(Maining, 2000).

He further said Radio stations can also be the base for multi-
purpose rural “telecenters”, places with an internet
connection and other services such as public telephone and
fax, collections of video, cassette tapes, books etc. the sale
of records and equipment, and providing services such as

26
desk-top publishing can help such centers to become self
sufficient.

27
2.3 Evolution of Radio
Radio broadcasting has undergone tremendous changes in
the last decade. The monopoly by government has been
broken. Radio and television are improving and are
gradually becoming powerful instruments for public
information and education. However, despite progress
made, Radio broadcasting remain constrained by acute
problems including a lack of finance, human and material
resources (Akin 2004) .

Except in countries undergoing serious social and political

crises the Radio broadcasting have undergone tremendous
and generally positive changes in the last decade. As a
result of democracy movement of early 1990’s the
monopoly of Radio broadcasting by government has been
broken.

In virtually every country, private newspapers are

flourishing. Ten years ago, in most French – speaking
countries there was usually just one national daily
newspaper, invariably every newspaper was government–
owned with a few privately-sponsored newspapers
struggling to survive as weeklies, bi-weeklies and monthlies
(Stanley, 1998).

Lemert (1999) opined that the strongest government media

monopoly broken last decade is that of the radio. He further
says government authorities have always considered radio
and television broadcasting as their own cherished territory,
not to be penetrated by private operators. Now in almost

28
every country, private radio stations proliferate, most of
them broadcasting on Frequency Modulation (FM) channels
with relatively low output and coverage areas.

Similar developments, though not so pronounced, have

taken place in television, with the privatization of ownership
and proliferation of cable and satellite broadcasting or relay
stations.

The key question however, is whether the increase in

number has led to improvement in the quality of production
and service to society, particularly in the promotion of
economic and social development (Richard, 2000).

Radio is the older of the two main forms of electronic media,

the other being television. Radio in commercial broadcast
form has been around since about 1920. Of the two it is far
better adapted to abstract thought (such as, to give a begin
example, book reviews) and ideally is- well infinite as
regards projection of subject matter. The demands are
different- sight gags and talking heads are, mercifully, out of
the question, but radio has enormous potential for
entertainment and enlightenment as well as mere news,
weather, traffic and sportive events. The reseacher have
been off TV many years but an avid radio fan, and
particularly espouse WBAI and similar underground stations.
Radio can go, where TV simply cannot, and in a sense is far
more democratic- there are or were 7 main TV channels in
the New York area prior to digitalization. There are many
times this number of different types of radio stations with

29
 widely divergent points of view and personalities (Richard,
2000).

Depth of coverage is only one of the several qualities

inherent in public radio news programming.

Listeners mention that public radio displays intelligence,

integrity, and degree of professionalism not found
elsewhere. They also feel that network journalism on public
radio treats its subjects and its audience with respect. Public
radio’s approach is analytical, not sensational; it assumes a
certain level of intelligence among its listeners and, in so
doing, treats them as intelligent people.

Public radio listeners are an intelligent group of people who

appreciate being treated with respect; many say public radio
is the only electronic mass medium that takes its audience
seriously.
Listeners believe that commercial broadcasters are locked in
a rating war sensationalizing news in an effort to attract the
biggest audience (Robert, 2007).

2.4 Relationship Between Radio and the Society

Denis (1994) in his book titled theories of mass
communication says but it is hard to draw a line between
ideas concerning Radio broadcasting and wider theories of
society.

Yet one can at least try to recognize some of the

fundamental underlying assumptions about the relationship
between Radio broadcasting and society. Most basic is the

30
view that Radio broadcasting is an established social
institution with its own distinctive set of norms and practices
but with its scope activities subject to definition and
limitation by the wider society. This implies that the Radio
are essentially dependent on “Society” especially on the
institutions of political, social development and economic
power, although there is scope for influence in return, and
the media institution may be gaining in autonomy, simple as
a result of extending volume and scope of activities of the
Radio .

Stephen (1998) further says the nature of relationship

between Radio broadcasting and society depends on
circumstances of time and place.

He also says that Radio in modern developed nation states,

mainly elective democracies with free market (or mixed)
economies which are integrated into wider international set
of economic, political and social development relations of
exchange, competition and also domination or conflict. He
further argued that despite apparent stability in this social
context, deep latent conflicts and tension exist nationally
and internationally which find expression in conflicts of
ideology, competing claims for resources and occasionally,
social crises.

The Radio broadcasting is deeply involved in these matters

as producers, disseminators and stores of meaning about
event and context of social life.

31
The theory of Radio broadcasting is characterized by widely
divergent perspectives, in addition to a fundamental
difference between the left and right of the social
development between progressive and conservative, or
critical and applied purpose- which plays a major part in
structuring theory, these are two main difference of
perspective in relation to Radio broadcasting and society
(McQuail, 1993). He also said one of these separates Radio
broadcasting centric from society centric (or social centric)
approaches.
Golding and Murdock (1998) says Radio centric theory sees
Radio as a primary mover in social change and often
themselves driven forwards by irresistible developments,
whether or not society driven, tending to respond to each
major shift of Radio technology and structure.

They further said the second main dividing line is between

those theorists whose interest (and conviction) lies in the
realm of culture and ideas and those who emphasize social
forces and factors. This divide corresponds approximately
with certain other dimension; humanistic versus scientific;
qualitative versus quantitative; and subjective versus
objective, while these differences may reflect only the
necessity for some division of labour in a wide territory, they
often involve competing and contradictory claims about how
to pose questions, conducts research and provide
explanation. These two alternatives are independent of each
other, so that in fact several different perspectives on Radio
broadcasting and society can be identified.

32
Radio succeeds when it grows out of the community’s sense
of internal cohesion and consciousness. A community that
analyses its needs in detail and thinks about the causes of
its problems and marginalization will often come to the
conclusion that it requires communication to help people
formulate common understanding and common goals. This
is the foundation stone for a society setting up its own radio
station.

The ownership and management of the future stations are

crucial issues that require good preparatory work. Even
within the overall concept of community ownership of a
station, there usually needs to be somebody, such as a
foundation or an association, which represents the
community’s interests and also provides a juridical entity
(Collin, 2002).

In addition some sort of community radio needs to be

formed to represent the different sectors in the society. The
decisions regarding all aspects of the ownership and
management must be transparent and democratic.

Precise methodology for evaluating the impact of radio,

based on appropriate social indicators, has still to be
devised. However, some societies have managed to bring
about important social changes and development initiatives
and the result of thorough discussion and debate of issues
broadcast by their own radio station. Some examples follow.
To an outsider they may appear trivial, but in the context of

33
the prevailing poverty and seen against the people’s
traditional apathy and inertia, they signify that radio can
create the will and energy for change in communities
(Collins, 2002).

Collins also said Gambling, which had been a passionate

pastime for men, because socially unacceptable in a society.
A series of broadcast discussion and interviews with women
and children of gamblers made the men conscious of the
hardships their losses were causing, and so they gave it up.

Illegal logging and fishing by major corporations was brought

to an end by people who brought their complaints to the
radio station. The local authorities, who had been bribed to
turn a blind eye, were brought to account by the criticisms
expressed on the air.

Delinquent and unemployed youths were motivated to clean

up the village pond and start an ornamental fish production
enterprise. Butchers were prohibited from bringing live
animals to the market and slaughtering them there.

Listeners feel that commercial broadcasters are locked in

ratings war- sensationalizing news in an effort to attract the
biggest audience. Listeners feel that public radio’s non-
commercial nature allows it to provide a less afflicted public
service.

This attitude permeates listeners perceptions about what

motivates reporters. They feel that commercial
considerations require reporters and newscasters to be

34
personalities. By contrast, listeners believe that public
radio’s non-commercial environment encourages news
professionals to be professional to concentrate on
intelligently informing the public (Robert, 2007).

He also said listeners feel that public radio reporters usually

do not impose themselves upon a story, and they value this
perceived detachment, objectively, accuracy, and
professionalism. Everything Geraldo Rivera is, public radio
reporters are not.

Most listeners are familiar with the term “National Public

Radio,” and many use “NPR” interchangeably with “public
radio”. For them, NPR is public radio.

A significant number are aware that “NPR” is a production

center; but most listeners think is programmatic, not
organizational terms.

Indeed, when asked point-blank if public radio’s news is

based too heavily on events happening in Washington, DC,
listeners typically react with surprise, indicating that this is
where important news is made, so it should be a focus of
attention.

They don’t care where programming is produced, as long as

it maintains the qualities they value. Some listeners noted
that some local shows do not always meet the standards of
those produced by NPR.

35
Listeners value public radio’s distinctive qualities, and for
them its national news occupies a unique position. They do
not expect public radio to broadcast from “the scene”, they
don’t fault public radio for its “inability” to provide local
news, weather, and traffic- they can get all of this
elsewhere.

Several stations in cities where the focus groups were

conducted invests a lot in local news and events converge;
their local news sounds better than local news at many other
public stations. Yet many listeners say this local news does
not attract or endear them to public radio.

Indeed, when listeners discuss news on public radio they are

talking about NPR news. There appear to be several reasons
why national news is a definite listener drawn and local news
is not.

Local news is not unique; it’s widely available on other radio

stations, and this will not change soon. Of course, national
news is also not unique- particularly on television. However,
morning edition airs at a time when radio is better suited to
listeners’ activities; and all things considered beats the
television networks by ninety minutes.

Many listeners cite lower “professional standards” in local

productions; many say station-originated programming just
“isn’t as good” as NPR’s. Of course this varies widely from
station to station. Listeners refer not to technical qualities,
but to presentation styles and professionalism. Many say

36
 local programming does not posses the analysis,
intelligence, depth, respect and professionalism they expect
from (National) public radio.

Listeners are very clear about the “tones” of public versus

commercial radio. To much in public radio’s audience,
commercial radio sounds “loud, insistent, hard-sell, noisy;”
public radio is “low key, claim, relaxed, soothing.” Public
stations sometimes cross this line with negative audience
reaction. For instance, the audio from syndicated traffic
services usually does not match morning edition’s tone; in
order to do so it would be better for the host to read the
printed version.

There are many other ways stations can improve their tone,
professionalism, analysis, and other appeals. But perhaps
there are qualities inherent in local news which simply do
not satisfy public radio listeners. Information bits such as
weather traffic, and school choosing seem much more useful
than stories about fires, robberies, muggings-perhaps even
more highly values than city council reports.

May be local events are perceived by listeners as transient

or less universal than national and international events-less
important to an audience that values public radio for its
attention to the “important” things.

2.5 Radio and Social Integration

Functionalist theory is really only useful for considering
question of social integration. Without integration there can

37
be no agreement on goals and means no co-ordinated
activity to achieve social development. Both “functional and
normative” integration, are indispensable.

However, in a complex society there will be a number of

different ways for societies to achieve required social
development by the control and consensus, and Radio are
only one institution among several with overlapping tasks in
this respect (Burn, 1997) .

He further said that the effect of Radio as regard to national

unity have often been studied in terms of the contribution
made to formal control or the formation of consensus
(sometime from a critical perspective) Radio broadcasting
institution ensure conformity to national or general public
interest or at least operate within limits of is considered
broadly acceptable terms of criticism of government and
society or matters of public.

Murdock (1997) argued that cohesion and loyalty within

Radio broadcasting organizations are likely to contribute to
integration into the society and to support for wider process
of social control and cohesion, often Radio broadcasting take
upon themselves to speak up for and express what they
believe to be the dominant values of their own society,
Radio broadcasting tend to support values not only of
society as a whole but also of segments within it, defined in
various ways, for instance local community Radio have
consistently been portrayed, as helping to promote identity

38
and national unity within the anonymity of large urban
societies (Janowitz, 1987) .

Social Uses of Radio

James Luk’s (1982) research into the social uses of
television, based on participant observation of family media
use, has confirmed, or added tom what was already
established. The offers a useful framework and presents a
livefold typology of uses; structural, relational, affiliation or
avoidance, social learning and competence/ dominance.

The first of these categories, structural refers to uses of

Radio broadcasting as background providing companionship,
regulating pattering of activity and talk.

Mendelssohn (1988) earlier described radio as “bracketing”

the day and creating or controlling “moods”. The rational
heading is similar to what was earlier called the coin of
exchange, function of Radio broadcasting use; the Radio
broadcasting provide common ground for talk. He further
says the affiliation or avoidance dimension refers to Radio
broadcasting as an aid to the media in increasing family
solidarity, maintaining relationships and decreasing tension.
Social development has mainly to do with various aspect of
socialization competence/ dominance has to do with the role
enactment and reinforcement, with validation of arguments,
with being an opinion leader in order to foster unity.

Lindlof and Traudt (1983) have argued that television, far

from undermining the family as was once supposed,

39
 probably helps to reduce tension in families and to maintain
some personal space in a cramped physical environment.

The further said it is certainly becoming clear that most

normal human resources into domestic setting of television
use in particular has revealed the extent to which something
apparently simple as viewing television is governed by
complex unspoken rules and understanding, which vary from
one family to another.

2.6 Role of Radio in Community Development

The significance of Radio broadcasting for human life cannot
be overestimated. This is true because beyond the physical
requirements of food and shelter man needs to
communicate with his or her fellow human beings. This urge
for communication is a primal one and in our contemporary
civilization a necessity for survival. That is to say, without
Radio broadcasting no society can exist, much less develop
and survive. For the existence as well as the organization of
every society, communication is a fundamental and vital
process fostering national unity (Kingsley, 2004).

Radio broadcasting such as radio, television, film,

newspaper, magazine, boot etc. they are part of institution
they work for and should not be blamed personally for what
comes from the institution. The credibility of message is not
for the individual communicator, but for the institution or the
organization that sends it. Thus, Radio broadcasting deals
with collective sender. For example, a newspaper is not
produced by only one person. The newspaper and magazine

40
is the end results of collective effort of reporters, editors,
type – setters, pro – of readers, designers and printers.
These must be well trained persons. It is, however, sad to
admit that the Radio broadcasting have been infiltrated by
some unqualified persons as well as some unscrupulous
individuals with their own political agenda as other than to
serve communities they supposed to educate, inform,
entertain and mobilize for fostering unity. Hence, the
establishment of media or radio commission in most
democratic and civilized communities, institution and
organizations engaged in Radio broadcasting anywhere
must be weary of such persons. The other important area of
notice is that Radio broadcasting deals with the concept of
audience. Here there is no common motivation. Audience do
not act together, they belong to different classes different
education socio-economic status all in attempt to bring unity
(Stanley 2002).

The Radio broadcasting serves essential function in the

society by accepting and fulfilling certain obligation to the
society.

These obligations are mainly to be met by setting high

professional standard of informativeness, truth, accuracy,
objectivity and balance.

In accepting and applying these obligations the elements of

the Radio broadcasting should be self- regulating within the
framework of law and established institutions they should
might lead to crime, violence or civil disorder or give offence

41
to any group of people in the society because of their faith
or ethnicity (Joe, 1996).

To Listeners, public radio is the sum of a number of positive

qualities- qualities which make public radio important to
them qualities which public radio must foster.

For instance, listeners perception of public radio as a public

service distinguishes it from commercial radio as much as
the lack of commercials does. It’s an accurate perception
which public radio’s pre-occupation with increasing audience
could shatter.

This is important to remember because it would be very

easy to inadvertently blow the public service image.

Discussion about “audience doubling,” for instance, should

always be carefully characterized and presented (Halper,
2009).

Its’ one thing for a listener to hear you say “Public radio will
double its audience,” that’s commercial talk. It’s quite
another to say “public radio will double its service to the
audience”.

That’s the talk of a responsible public broadcaster consistent

will audience perception.
Of course, audience service is what most public
broadcasters are implicitly addressing when they talk about
doubling audience. It would be a shame if the audience or
people who believe public monies would be better spent

42
 elsewhere-misunderstood these discussions. Such a
misunderstanding could decimate the crucial “mutual bond
of trust” between public radio and its listeners a bond
identified by listeners as important. Remember the reasons
they listen to and support it (Atgelt, 2008).

2.7 Functions of Radio

The following are the specific function of Radio broadcasting
to the society thus:
i. Surveillance of the environment: This is the collection
and distribution of information within and outside a
particular environment. The information flow is
necessary for unity and cohence if we live in the
society of collectivity.
ii. Correlation of parts of the society: this includes the
interpretation of the information, the prescription of
conducting and the comment on social value.
iii. Transmission of social heritage: By communicating
information through the Radio broadcasting we are
transmitting social and cultural values which aim at
sustaining the society
iv. Educating the masses: Education on the policies of
governments and the rights and responsibilities could
be carried out through the mass media.
v. Entertainment function: the Radio broadcasting also
entertain the public by providing emotional relaxation,
intrinsic and cultural employment (i.e. provision of
monetary escape from problems ) and killing boredom;
and

43
vi. Mobilization function: this function of Radio
broadcasting is very important to developing
communities everywhere. It seeks to bring the people
together and helps to advance national development
and unity.
vii. To reflect and promote local identity, character and
culture by focusing principally on local content. Culture
is how the people of a community talk about their past
and their future, it is what they care about.
viii. To create a diversity of voice and opinions on the air
through its openness to participation from all sectors.
Some discord is present in all communities, but the
acknowledgement of conflict is necessary for
democracy and for democratic communities. Radio
tries to air objectively all sides of a discussion without
itself talking sides, all in attempt to unit people.
ix. To encourage open dialogue and democratic process
by providing an independent platform for interaction
discussion about matters and decisions of importance
to the community. In essence, the core of democratic
process is the ability of people to hear and make
themselves heard. Radio provides the forum for that to
happen. This is consonant with the decentralization
process in many countries that aims to bring
democratic decision-making closer to the people
concerned. And what is happening at the grassroots
level- as portrayed by the radio programming can be
heard by local government and private institutions, as
well as being relayed to policy makers, thus making it

44
 possible to design development initiatives that best
meet the aspirations and needs of the people.
x. To promote social change, unity and development. In
marginalized communities people all have their
individual perceptions about their situation, but what is
required for change and development is a collective
perception of the local reality and of the options for
improving it. This collective perception can only be
achieved through internal discussions to analyze
specific problems, identify possible solutions, and
mobilize the appropriate people or groups for action.
Radio provides the perfect plat form for this internal
discussion.
xi. To promote good governance and civil society by
playing a community watchdog role that makes local
authorities and politicians more conscious of their
public responsibilities. The marginalized and the
oppressed normally have no way to complain when
authorities take advantage of them, but radio gives
them a voice to air their grievance and obtain their due
rights (Collins, 2002).

It could be seen from the foregoing functions that Radio

broadcasting provide information, and education, personal
identify, entertainment and most importantly integration
and social interaction by giving insight into the circumstance
of others as well as by helping with development of social
empathy (Eyiah 2004).

2.8 Radio in the Context of the Globalization of Media

45
 There is much discussion about the effect on local cultures
of the increasingly globalize commercial media output with
its well-tried and standard- if not banal- entertainment
formats. But one thing is clear; they can never respond to
the socio-economic and development needs of the countries
they reach, let alone those of marginalized communities
within those countries. Hence, globalize media and country
media do not compete. The former provides irrelevant
entertainment, while the latter deals with local issues in the
local languages and cultural context, relating to local
problems and concerns, and aiming to help the country
develop socially, culturally and economically and fostering
unity or uniting the people (Paul, 1973).

2.9 Government Policies and Legislation on Radio

Many governments, which were previously allergic to any
form of broadcasting they could not control, have made
sweeping changes in recent years. This is particularly the
case in Africa where, mainly after a conference called
“Freedom for African Radio’s held in Bamako in 1993, many
countries have now normally recognized the important role
that radio can play and legislated in its favour. As a result,
radio stations have mushroomed to the point where some
African countries now have dozens of them. On the other
hand, in several regions of the world, radio suffers because
current legislation is either non-existent, inconsistent, or
basically hostile. For example Asian broadcasting legislation
generally lags behind that of Africa and Latin America
(Collins, 2002).

46
 There have been cases where the appropriate legislation in
favour of radio existed, but, nevertheless, the government
was reluctant to issue the license and employed delaying
tactics for several years, caving in only when the station
announced that it was going on air anyway, license or no
license. In one case, when the license was finally issued, it
had numerous conditions attached to it, such as limiting the
station’s air time to two hours a day. But subsequently the
government was so happy with the results achieved that it
extended its permission first to 13 hours and then to 24
hours of air time daily, and allowed advertising to help the
station towards sustainability. It also approved licenses for
several other stations (Collins, 2002).

2.10 Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework model adopted as a basic for this
study on workers participation in management (WPM) is the
human relations approach to management. This approach is
adopted because it tends to correct some deficiencies in the
classical/ scientific management approach, which is also,
used to compliments the basis of the study.

2.10.1The Classical/Scientific Management Approach

Generally, the scientific management approach laid much
emphasis on the recurring theme of the search for universal
guidelines and principles that are applicable to all
organizational settings. Hence, the approach rests on the
acceptance of universal principles of management like
coordination, hierarchically arrangement of positions with all

47
well defined lines of authority and responsibility,
communication, planning, controlling, organizing etc., which
are chiefly geared to a hierarchical management (Pugh,
1980).
There are three main streams of thought produced, which is
today regarded as the scientific management theory, viz
 The ideal Bureaucratic theory of Max Weber
• The scientific management of Taylor F. W. and
• The Administrative or Principles Theory of Henri
Fayol.
(b) The ideal Bureaucratic theory of Max Weber, a German
Sociologist (1864 - 1920) advocated for the separation of
the means of production from leadership position so as to
make for rational and objective decision making. While
the theory also prescribed the need for the existence of
clearly defined rules for regulating the behavior of
members of any organization, together with clearly
defined spheres of competence or division of labour
among and between the members. The theory therefore
specifies standards, which will determine specific
standards that will determine who is qualified for position
within an organization and such enumeration attached to
such position (Blau, D. 1980) Max Weber further claims
that the ideal bureaucratic theory is capable of attaining
the highest degree of efficiency by providing the rational
means of carrying on imperative control over human
beings..

48
 The major deficiency of this theory is that members of
organization would spend more time muddling through
endless maze of bureaucratic officialdom and redtapism
than achieving cooperative organizational goals and
objectives and objectives.
(b) Scientific Management Theory: f. W. Taylor (1856 -
1915) is regarded as the father of scientific
management; the primary concern was on how to
increase the everyday efficiency of an organization
chiefly at the employee level. To Taylor low productivity
is as a result of either demotivation or that the methods
and tools used were inadequate and inefficient to
enhance productivity. Taylor's main aim therefore, was
on how to find best way of accomplishing a given job
with minimum labour or cost and arriving at maximum
productivity.

The scientific management theory is generally being

criticized for taking a too crude mechanization view of
human problems and perceived human beings as
"automators" stressing the factor of output exclusively
for economic gains.
(c) Administrative or Principles Theory of Henry Fayol (1941
- 1925): The profounder of this theory like the others,
emphasis on the principles of division of work, unity of
command, coordination, and hierarchical arrangement of
functions and authority together with the subordinate of
the individual to institutional authority, thereby
emphasizing that management is a universal activity.

49
 Henri Fayol states that the activity of any organization
can be divided into six functions viz: Technical
production, commercial, Financial, security, Accounting
and managerial, with great emphasis on the pre-
eminence of the managerial function. The above
principles are in consonance with those propounded by
Max Weber but with two additions issue. These are
human initiative and spirit de corps within organization,
which signify an initial recognition of the human element
in organizational behaviour. However, Fayol implied that
centralization as required in the Max Weber ideal
bureaucracy implied that, that type of bureaucracy was
not a necessarily good in all circumstances. Rather that
maximum control over the individual worker can be
gotten through strict rules, regulations and procedures.
The above viewed people as passive instruments who
act in accordance with the laid down rules and
regulations and if their own, people, according to Fayol
and his theories may not behave appropriately.

2.10.2 Human Relations School of Thought

The Human Relations school of thought evolved as a

reaction to deficiencies in the scientific management theory.
The theory is generally associated with Elton Mayo, David
Moore, Frederick Herszberg, Braham Maslow. McGregor and
so on. These theories are considered to be people oriented
and often accused to being concerned with making
employees happy to the extent of sacrificing productivity. As
their approach is based on the group rather than the

50
individual and upon democratic valves rather than
autocratic leadership. (Pugh, 1980) Thus their emphasis is
on the study of informal groups, employee satisfaction and
group decision-making within organizational settings.

The works of Elton Mayo and McGregor will be used to

illustrate the Human Relations school of thought, in order to
show the relevance of the theoretical basis for the study on
workers participation in management.
(a) Elton Mayo is one of the pioneers of the Human Relations
School His famous "Hawthorne Experiments" at the
Hawthorne, Illinois plant of western electric illustrated a
major streams of thought of the Human Relation School
In this study, Mayo emphasized that workers must first
be seen and understood as people, as human beings, if
they are to be understood as members of the
organization they are working for, was more than just a
set of individual man machine system. Lucey, T. (1991)
had that it is apparent that certain social norms set by
groups within the organization to a large extent
determine the level of productivity and not only the
standard set by the management of the organization.
While, furthermore, workers in organizations act or make
decisions as members of groups rather than as
individuals and much of their behaviour is being
conditioned by the norms of the work group. This
approach is a departure from the scientific management
approach. As it emphasis that people at their work places
like the social setting, the style of leadership and the

51
 attention they get from their colleagues and the
supervisory officers apart from the financial aspects of
the job.
(b) McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y: McGregor made
another important contribution to the Human Relations
School by his exposition of two sets of propositions and
assumptions about the nature and behaviour of people
in organization. He termed the two sets as theory X and
theory Y. Theory X is based on the assumption that the
average human being dislikes work and would avoid it if
he can. Consequently, people are lazy and have to be
coerced, controlled and threatened. The theory Y asserts
the opposite of theory X by emphasizing that the
average person under proper conditions, not only
accepts responsibility, but also seeks it.

(McGregor, D. 1983) Theory Y, therefore indicate that

management essentials task is harness the inherent
qualities of people by arranging conditions and methods of
operation so that people can achieve their own goal best by
directing their own efforts towards organizational objectives.

In conclusion, the following are the main arguments behind

the Human Relations School of the thought of management,
which made it relevant to the study of workers participation
in management.
(a) People are not only motivated by financial factors but
by a variety of social and psychological factors as well.
(b) An organization is a social system as well as technical/
economic system.

52
(c) Informal work groups have important roles in
determining the attitudes and performance of individuals.
(d) Management requires social skills as well as technical
ones.
(e) Traditional authoritarian leadership patterns should be
modified substantially to consider psychological and social
factors and should become more democratic' in nature.
(f) Participation in work organization, planning and policy
formulation is an important element in organizations. This meant
establishing effective communications between various levels in
the hierarchy to ensure a free flow of information (Lucey. T.
1991, Sani A.A. 2001).
After looking at the various analysis of the management
theories, the researcher of the management theory of F.W
Taylor which is primary concern was on how to increase
everyday efficiency of an organization chiefly at the
employee level, because to Taylor productivity is as a result
of either demotivation or that the methods and tools used
are inadequate and inefficient to enhance productivity.
Taylor’s main aim therefore, was on how to find the best
way of accomplishing a given job with minimum labour or
cost and arriving at maximum productivity of which the due
process is also concern with prudent management of
resources in the public service (Michael, 2000).

Therefore, after reviewing the different theories, for the

purpose of this research. The researcher decide to adopt the
scientific management theory as the theoretical framework
for the research.

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 END NOTES
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