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Aviation
Weather
Weather
plays
a
pivotal
role
in
each
and
every
flight.
It
is
important
as
the
pilot,
that
you
understand
how
weather
systems
and
storms
move
and
develop
and
how
to
read
and
interpret
weather
charts
and
reports
in
order
to
make
your
go/no-‐go
decision
before
and
during
any
flight.
The
atmosphere
is
made
up
of
5
layers
which
contain
all
the
gasses
that
protect
us
from
the
dangers
of
outer
space.
The
lowest
layer
of
the
atmosphere
is
called
the
troposphere.
This
is
where
almost
all
weather
occurs.
The
troposphere
begins
at
the
Earth’s
surface
and
extends
to
anywhere
from
4
to
12
miles
high.
The
varying
height
gives
this
layer
more
of
an
egg
shape
with
a
height
of
4
miles
at
the
poles
and
closer
to
12
miles
at
the
equator.
In
the
troposphere,
density
decreases
with
height,
meaning,
as
you
go
up
in
altitude,
the
temperature
decreases
and
the
air
becomes
thinner.
Just
to
give
you
an
idea
of
temperature
change,
by
the
time
you
reach
the
top
of
the
troposphere,
or,
tropopause
the
temperatures
will
decrease
to
about
-‐60°
Fahrenheit
or
-‐51°
Celsius.
The
stratosphere
extends
from
the
tropopause
up
to
around
31
miles
from
the
Earth’s
surface.
In
this
layer,
temperature
increases
with
height
due
to
the
creation
of
Ozone
that’s
present
in
this
layer.
The
increased
temperatures
make
the
stratosphere
a
very
stable
atmospheric
layer
and
give
anvil
clouds
their
famous
flat
tops.
The
next
layer
of
the
atmosphere
is
called
the
mesosphere.
The
mesosphere
extends
from
31
miles
to
53
miles
above
the
surface
of
Earth.
This
layer
is
where
most
of
the
meteors
burn
up
in
the
atmosphere.
Temperatures
once
again
decrease
as
altitude
increases,
similar
to
what
happens
in
the
troposphere.
The
thermosphere
is
next
and
extends
from
53
miles
up
to
375
miles
above
the
Earth.
Being
one
of
the
outermost
layers,
the
air
here
gets
bombarded
with
ultraviolet
and
x-‐ray
radiation
from
the
sun,
which,
in
turn,
causes
a
large
temperature
increase…as
high
as
3,600°
Fahrenheit
at
the
top.
The
last
layer
of
the
atmosphere
is
called
the
exosphere
and
is
the
outermost
layer.
It
extends
from
the
top
of
the
thermosphere
to
6,200
miles
above
the
Earth.
In
this
layer,
atoms
and
molecules
of
the
atmosphere
escape
into
space.
2
In
the
northern
hemisphere,
the
Coriolis
force
acts
to
turn
the
wind
to
the
left.
The
circulation
pattern
is
what
gives
rise
to
the
westerly
flow
over
much
of
the
US
from
30N
latitude
to
60N
latitude
and
the
easterly
flow
from
the
equator
to
30N
latitude.
There
are
several
other
factors
that
can
also
affect
the
circulation
of
air.
Things
like:
seasonal
changes,
topography,
and
friction
from
objects
on
the
surface.
The
Earth
circulation
patterns
always
try
to
maintain
a
balance.
This
means
that
air
flows
from
areas
of
high
pressure
into
areas
of
low
pressure.
This
causes
both
horizontal
movements
of
air,
called
wind,
and
vertical
movements
of
ascending
and
descending
air.
In
the
northern
hemisphere,
a
low-‐pressure
system
will
have
air
circulating
counter-‐clockwise
as
it
flows
into
the
center.
A
high
pressure
system
will
circulate
clockwise
as
it
flows
away
from
the
center.
Fronts
are
labeled
in
reference
to
the
relative
temperature
of
the
air
that
is
approaching
and
replacing
the
existing
air
mass.
There
are
four
types
of
fronts:
warm
fronts,
cold
fronts,
stationary
fronts,
and
occluded
fronts.
A
warm
front
occurs
when
a
warm
air
mass
overtakes
an
air
mass
of
a
colder
temperature.
Warm
fronts
usually
move
slowly,
around
10
to
25
miles
per
hour,
and
have
a
gradual
slope
that
will
slide
over
the
top
of
a
cooler
air
mass
and
move
it
out
of
the
area.
Warm
fronts
usually
contain
high
humidity
and
have
more
“stratoform”,
or
layered,
clouds
along
the
frontal
boundary.
Drizzle
and
decreasing
visibility
will
be
present
as
temperatures
rise.
Once
the
front
passes,
rain
showers
are
possible,
followed
by
a
gradual
clearing.
A
cold
front
occurs
when
cold,
dense
air
overtakes
warmer
air.
Cold
fronts
move
faster
than
warm
fronts,
averaging
around
25
to
30
miles
per
hour,
but
can
go
as
fast
as
60
miles
per
hour.
Cold
fronts
stay
close
to
the
ground
and
have
a
steeper
angle
than
a
warm
front.
They
will
move
across
the
ground
and
lift
existing
air
at
a
very
rapid
rate.
This
rapid
upward
motion
will
cool
the
air
and
form
cumulus
3
clouds,
which
could
eventually
develop
into
thunderstorms
or
even
form
a
squall
line.
Once
the
front
passes,
the
weather
will
clear
and
improve
with
general
wind
flow
from
the
west-‐northwest.
A
stationary
front
occurs
when
two
air
masses
meet,
but
neither
one
moves
the
other
out
of
the
way.
Stationary
fronts
can
have
a
combination
of
weather
from
both
a
warm
and
cold
front.
These
fronts
can
oscillate,
but
will
generally
linger
around
for
several
days
before
one
of
the
air
masses
pushes
the
other
air
mass
out
of
the
way.
The
last
type
of
front
is
called
an
occluded
front.
Occluded
fronts
form
when
a
fast-‐moving
cold
front
catches
up
to
a
slower-‐moving
warm
front.
The
cold
front
will
then
lift
up
the
warm
front
and
eventually
interact
with
air
that
is
in
front
of
the
warm
front.
This
stacking
of
fronts
can
give
rise
to
a
variety
of
weather
conditions
from
fog
to
thunderstorms.
Stability
Stability
is
how
the
atmosphere
will
react
when
there
is
vertical
motion
of
air.
There
are
three
types
of
stability:
stable,
neutral,
and
unstable.
A
stable
atmosphere
is
one
where,
when
the
air
is
lifted,
that
air
will
return
to
its
original
position.
In
a
neutral
atmosphere,
air
that
is
moved
will
remain
in
its
new
location.
Finally,
an
unstable
atmosphere
is
one
that
when
air
lifted,
will
continue
to
rise
freely
up
in
the
atmosphere.
An
unstable
atmosphere
is
a
key
ingredient
in
the
formation
of
large
cumulonimbus
clouds
and
thunderstorms.
Hazards
While
poor
visibility
and
low
clouds
can
be
a
hazard
to
pilots,
one
of
the
most
dangerous
weather
events
is
a
thunderstorm.
Thunderstorms
need
three
main
ingredients
to
form:
sufficient
moisture,
an
unstable
atmosphere,
and
a
lifting
mechanism
(like
a
front)
to
start
it
all.
Thunderstorms
contain
several
of
the
biggest
hazards
to
aircraft,
including
such
things
as
turbulence,
wind
shear,
hail,
tornadoes,
lightning,
and
icing.
Some
of
these
hazards
can
occur
outside
thunderstorms
as
well.
[Turbulence]
Air
doesn’t
always
flow
smoothly
and
can
develop
into
areas
of
flow
that
can
be
rough
to
fly
through.
Areas
of
severe
turbulence
can
damage
aircraft
and
injure
occupants
due
to
the
abrupt
movements.
[Wind
Shear]
Wind
shear
is
any
change
in
wind
direction
or
speed
over
a
short
distance.
This
can
cause
turbulence
in
the
air
and
is
especially
dangerous
near
the
ground.
As
an
airplane
is
taking
off
or
landing,
the
sudden
change
in
wind
direction
or
speed
can
suddenly
affect
the
performance
of
the
airplane.
A
sudden
shift
from
a
headwind
to
a
tailwind
can
cause
an
abrupt
and
dangerous
drop
in
airspeed
and
could
cause
the
airplane
to
stall.
If
there
is
not
enough
altitude
to
recover,
the
airplane
could
impact
the
ground
before
stall
recovery
occurs.
[Icing]
Icing
is
a
very
dangerous
condition
that
can
drastically
affect
the
performance
of
the
aircraft.
Only
approved
and
properly-‐equipped
aircraft
can
fly
into
areas
of
known
icing
conditions.
Icing
occurs
4
when
an
airplane
flies
through
an
area
of
visible
moisture,
like
rain
or
a
cloud,
where
the
temperature
is
below
freezing.
These
water
droplets
are
called
“supercooled
droplets”
because
they
exist
as
liquid
water
at
a
temperature
below
freezing
and
will
freeze
upon
impacting
the
surface
of
the
airplane.
Ice
can
form
on
any
surface
of
the
airplane,
from
the
wings,
to
the
pitot
tube,
and
even
the
windshield
and
propeller.
The
addition
of
ice
to
an
aircraft
will
increase
the
overall
weight
of
the
airplane
and
the
ice
on
the
leading
edge
of
the
wings
will
affect
the
airflow
over
the
wing
and
create
drag,
both
of
which
negatively
affect
the
airplane.
Aircraft
use
a
variety
of
methods
to
combat
inflight
icing.
Smaller
propeller-‐driven
aircraft
can
use
pneumatic
inflatable
boots
on
the
front
of
the
wing
to
“pop”
off
the
ice
once
it
forms.
Propellers
and
windshields
can
be
heated
to
remove
and
prevent
ice
from
forming.
Some
airplanes
will
spray
alcohol
on
the
surfaces
to
keep
the
ice
from
sticking
to
the
airplane.
Larger
aircraft
that
use
jet
engines
will
actually
divert
heat
from
the
jet
exhaust
to
heat
the
surfaces
of
the
aircraft
to
melt
and
keep
ice
from
forming.
There
are
three
different
types
of
icing:
rime
ice,
clear
ice,
and
mixed
ice.
Icing
detail
The
size
of
water
droplets
determine
the
kind
of
ice
that
will
form.
Rime
ice
forms
when
small
water
droplets
impact
and
freeze
on
the
airplane.
These
smaller
water
droplets
are
usually
found
in
stratus
or
layered
clouds
with
no
vertical
development.
Rime
ice
is
rough
and
whitish
in
color
and
will
form
protrusions
on
the
front
edge
of
the
aircraft
surfaces.
In
extreme
cases,
rime
ice
can
form
“horns”
on
the
leading
edge
of
the
wing
that
interfere
with
the
production
of
lift.
Clear
ice
is
formed
when
larger
water
droplets
impact
and
freeze
on
the
airplane.
These
larger
water
droplets
are
found
in
cumulous
or
cumulonimbus
clouds
where
there
is
a
lot
of
vertical
development.
When
these
large
water
droplets
impact
the
airplane
they
freeze
and
spread
out
over
the
surface.
This
gives
clear
ice
a
clear
color
and
smooth
finish.
Clear
ice
is
most
commonly
found
on
the
leading
edge
of
the
wings
where
it
will
conform
to
the
curve
of
the
wing.
This
will
interfere
with
the
airflow
over
the
wing
but
its
main
hazard
is
the
additional
weight
that
is
added
to
the
airplane.
The
third
kind
of
icing
is
called
mixed
icing.
Areas
with
mixed
icing
are
simply
areas
that
have
a
combination
of
both
rime
and
clear
icing.
Visibility
Obstructions
to
visibility
can
also
pose
a
hazard
to
aircraft.
Low
visibility
can
make
it
difficult
to
see
runways
when
landing,
ground
checkpoints
while
navigating
on
a
cross
country,
and
even
other
traffic
inflight.
Haze,
mist,
fog,
smoke,
and
dust
can
all
get
into
the
air
and
reduce
the
visibility.
Any
visibility
less
than
three
miles
requires
aircraft
to
perform
instrument
approaches
to
land
at
the
airport.
In
extreme
cases,
the
visibility
can
drop
to
zero,
making
it
nearly
impossible
to
land
in
most
aircraft.
There
are
many
different
weather
hazards
in
aviation
to
be
aware
of,
but
even
simple
things
like
the
wind
direction
can
play
a
big
role
in
flight
planning.
In
fact,
Federal
Regulations
require
that
“Each
pilot
in
command
shall,
before
beginning
a
flight,
become
familiar
with
all
available
information
concerning
that
flight,
including
weather
reports
and
forecasts.”
5
Weather
Briefings
There
are
many
different
ways
to
obtain
weather
information
before
a
flight.
The
FAA
maintains
a
nationwide
network
of
Automated
Flight
Service
Stations
to
serve
the
weather
needs
of
pilots.
An
official
weather
briefing
can
be
obtained
by
calling
1-‐800-‐WX-‐BRIEF.
Another
way
is
using
an
online
system
called
DUAT,
which
stands
for
Direct
User
Access
Terminal
Service.
This
is
a
program
funded
by
the
FAA
to
allow
any
pilot
to
use
a
computer
to
access
weather
information,
or
even
file
flight
plans.
There
are
two
companies
that
provide
this
service:
CSC,
which
is
found
at
duats.com,
or
DTC,
found
at
duat.com.
Weather
information
can
also
be
obtained
from
the
Aviation
Digital
Data
Service,
or
ADDS.
This
is
found
at
aviationweather.gov/adds.
Make
sure,
no
matter
where
you
get
your
weather
information,
that
on
every
product
or
image,
you
check
the
date
and
time
it
was
published
to
make
sure
it’s
the
most
up-‐to-‐
date
information
you
can
get.
There
are
several
types
of
weather
products
that
pilots
can
use
to
make
their
go/no-‐go
decision
before
a
flight.
Many
of
the
weather
products
contain
abbreviations
and
codes,
which
give
pilots
a
lot
of
information
in
a
little
bit
of
space.
If
you
need
help
decoding
the
reports,
try
checking
out
the
latest
copy
of
the
FAA’s
Aviation
Weather
Services
Advisory
Circular
from
the
FAA’s
website.
Weather
Products
Here
is
just
a
quick
overview
of
some
of
the
weather
products.
We’ll
start
with
weather
products
that
tell
us
what
is
happening
right
now.
METAR
The
basic
surface
observation
of
weather
conditions
is
called
a
METAR.
A
METAR
is
an
hourly
weather
report
that
includes
the
airport
identifier,
time
of
observation,
wind,
visibility,
runway
visual
range,
present
weather
phenomena,
sky
conditions,
temperature,
dew
point,
and
altimeter
setting.
There
will
also
be
some
“remarks”
added
to
the
end
of
the
report
to
give
additional
information.
METARS
are
created
once
an
hour,
usually
at
53
minutes
after
the
hour.
If
the
weather
changes
significantly,
a
special
METAR
called
a
SPECI
is
produced
to
make
sure
that
pilots
have
the
latest
weather
information.
PIREPS
A
PIREP,
or
pilot
report,
is
a
type
of
weather
report
made
by
pilots
themselves,
recording
actual
weather
conditions
that
he
or
she
is
experiencing.
Pilots
should
report
any
observation,
good
or
bad,
to
assist
other
pilots
with
flight
planning
and
preparation.
If
conditions
were
forecasted
to
occur,
but
not
encountered,
a
pilot
should
also
report
this
inaccuracy.
There
are
two
types
of
PIREPs:
Routine
and
Urgent.
The
Required
elements
for
all
PIREPs
are
the
message
type,
location,
time,
altitude,
type
of
aircraft
making
the
report,
and
at
least
one
other
element
describing
the
reported
weather
conditions.
Some
of
the
items
that
can
be
reported
are
the
sky
condition
and
cloud
levels,
flight
visibility
and
weather,
air
temperature,
winds
aloft,
turbulence
level,
icing
conditions,
or
any
other
remarks
the
pilot
wishes
to
add.
6
Satellite
Imagery
There
are
several
satellites
in
orbit
around
Earth
that
give
us
imagery
of
the
clouds
around
the
Earth.
There
are
three
types
of
imagery
commonly
used
by
pilots:
visible,
infrared,
and
water
vapor.
Each
image
is
updated
about
every
15
minutes.
Visible
satellite
images
display
reflected
sunlight
from
the
Earth’s
surface,
clouds,
and
particulate
matter
in
the
atmosphere.
It
creates
black
and
white
images
that
are
only
useful
during
daylight
hours.
This
image
uses
the
highest
resolution
and
approximates
what
is
seen
with
the
human
eye.
You
can
even
see
features
like
snow
or
bodies
of
water.
Infrared
(IR)
images
display
temperatures
of
the
Earth’s
surface,
clouds,
and
particulate
matter.
The
warmer
an
object
is,
the
more
infrared
energy
it
emits.
The
satellite
sensor
measures
this
energy
and
the
higher
something
is
in
the
atmosphere,
the
colder
it
is,
while
the
lower
something
is
in
the
atmosphere
the
warmer
it
is.
This
information
can
then
be
displayed
on
a
map
either
in
color
code
or
in
black
and
white.
The
colors
help
enhance
the
image
and
make
it
easier
to
see
the
temperature
changes.
The
water
vapor
imagery
displays
the
quantity
of
water
vapor
in
the
air.
This
generally
only
measures
water
vapor
located
in
the
middle
and
upper
troposphere
between
FL100
to
FL390.
Water
vapor
imagery
does
not
really
"see"
clouds
but
"sees"
high-‐level
water
vapor
instead.
The
water
vapor
imagery
is
very
useful
to
see
the
motion
of
the
upper
atmosphere
and
features
like
fronts,
highs
and
lows,
for
example.
Radar
Imagery
Radar
images
are
graphical
displays
of
precipitation
and
non-‐precipitation
targets
detected
by
weather
radar.
Under
the
dome,
a
radar
station
is
composed
of
a
rotating
dish
that
sends
pulses
of
radio
waves
out
into
space.
When
the
pulse
hits
a
target
such
as
rain,
airplanes,
or
any
solid
object,
it
is
scattered
in
all
directions,
even
continuing
through
the
rain
away
from
the
radar.
However,
a
small
amount
of
energy
does
return
back
to
the
radar
station.
By
determining
the
length
of
time
it
took
for
the
signal
to
return
to
the
dish,
the
amount
of
energy
returned
(in
other
words,
its
reflectivity)
and
the
position
of
the
radar,
computers
can
generate
an
image
to
display
precipitation.
Once
a
full
360
degree
revolution
is
complete,
the
radar
dish
will
tilt
up
and
scan
the
area
again.
The
station
will
do
this
a
few
times,
which
accounts
for
the
delay
in
updated
radar
images.
The
radar
is
able
to
make
different
images
to
show
different
parameters
of
storms.
The
most
common
radar
images
are
base
reflectivity
and
composite
reflectivity.
Base
Reflectivity
shows
radar
returns
at
the
lowest
radar
scan
level
above
the
horizon.
This
image
is
useful
for
seeing
the
precipitation
that
is
lower
to
the
surface.
Composite
Reflectivity
shows
the
maximum
echo
intensity
or
reflectivity
detected
within
a
column
of
the
atmosphere
above
a
location.
The
station
scans
through
all
of
the
elevation
slices
to
determine
the
highest
value
in
the
vertical
column
then
displays
that
value
on
the
product.
When
compared
with
Base
7
Reflectivity,
the
Composite
Reflectivity
can
reveal
important
storm
structure
features
and
intensity
trends
of
storms.
The
maximum
range
of
a
single
radar
site
is
approximately
124
nm.
This
means
you
may
have
to
look
at
multiple
radar
sites
to
cover
a
longer
flight.
It’s
also
a
good
idea
to
check
out
any
available
radar
mosaics.
A
radar
mosaic
is
an
image
composed
of
multiple
single-‐site
radar
pictures
on
one
map
to
get
a
large-‐scale
view
of
where
precipitation
is
falling.
It’s
also
always
best
to
animate
the
images
too;
that
way,
you
can
see
trends
of
motion,
and
if
storms
are
building
or
deteriorating.
Charts
Surface
Analysis
Charts
are
analyzed
charts
of
surface
weather
observations.
The
chart
shows
sea
level
pressure
in
millibars,
the
positions
of
highs,
lows,
the
location
and
type
of
fronts,
and
various
boundaries
such
as
drylines,
outflow
boundaries,
sea-‐breeze
fronts,
and
convergence
lines.
Freezing
level
graphics
show
where
the
temperature
is
below
freezing
and
can
give
pilots
an
idea
of
where
to
possibly
expect
icing
conditions.
Be
aware
that
there
can
be
multiple
freezing
layers
of
air
over
a
given
point.
This
usually
implies
that
different
air
masses
are
stacked
on
top
of
each
other.
These
charts
are
issued
hourly
and
are
based
off
of
computer
models.
Significant
meteorological
information,
or
SIGMET,
is
a
weather
advisory
which
is
disseminated
when
weather
phenomena
which
may
affect
the
safety
of
aircraft
operations
is
expected
or
occurring
en
route.
SIGMETS
are
issued
for
conditions
of
severe
or
greater
turbulence,
severe
icing,
a
widespread
dust
storm,
or
a
widespread
sandstorm.
These
SIGMETs
are
valid
for
4
hours.
For
thunderstorm-‐related
activity,
Convective
SIGMETs
are
issued.
These
will
be
disseminated
for
such
things
as:
thunderstorms,
lines
of
thunderstorms,
embedded
thunderstorms,
tornados,
hail
greater
than
or
equal
to
¾
of
an
inch,
or
when
wind
gusts
of
greater
than
or
equal
to
50
knots
(at
the
surface)
are
reported.
Any
Convective
SIGMET
implies
severe
or
greater
turbulence,
severe
icing,
and
low
level
wind
shear
conditions.
Convective
SIGMETs
are
only
valid
for
2
hours.
All
airmets,
sigmets,
and
convective
sigmets
are
shown
on
maps
with
boxes
that
show
the
different
types
of
weather
conditions
and
the
altitudes
that
are
affected.
Now
that
we’ve
taken
a
look
at
the
most
popular
weather
reports,
let’s
look
at
some
Forecast
products,
which
help
determine
what
the
weather
will
be
in
the
future.
8
TAF
A
Terminal
Aerodrome
Forecast,
or
TAF,
is
a
forecast
of
the
expected
weather
conditions
within
five
statute
miles
of
the
center
of
the
airport.
However,
not
every
airport
has
a
TAF.
These
are
only
available
at
the
larger
airports
around
the
country.
TAFs
use
the
same
weather
codes
found
in
METAR
weather
reports
and
are
valid
for
24
or
30
hours
depending
on
the
airport.
TAFs
will
forecast
for
wind
direction
and
speed,
visibility,
significant
weather,
and
cloud
types
and
heights.
Prog
Charts
Short-‐Range
Surface
Prognostic
Charts,
or
Prog
charts,
provide
a
forecast
of
surface
pressure
systems,
fronts
and
precipitation
locations
in
the
future.
The
forecast
charts
cover
the
48-‐contiguous
states
and
are
divided
in
to
four
forecast
periods,
12-‐,
24-‐,
36-‐,
and
48-‐hours.
Each
one
of
the
prog
charts
depict
a
“snapshot”
of
weather
elements
expected
at
the
specified
valid
time.
Conclusion
Weather
is
a
complex
topic
to
fully
cover
in
a
short
video.
It
is
important
that
pilots
understand
all
the
weather
products
available
to
them
and
how
weather
patterns
and
storms
move
and
develop.
Pilots
need
to
know
how
to
obtain
and
use
those
products
to
make
a
competent
and
correct
go/no-‐go
decision
before
every
flight.
Remember
to
always
call
a
Flight
Service
Station
Weather
Briefer
or
get
a
DUAT
weather
briefing
before
each
flight
and
use
reputable
weather
websites
such
as
ADDS
to
get
all
the
information
you
need
before
you
head
into
the
blue
skies.