ME2300: Manufacturing Processes

Jan-May 2018
Shaping by joining (Introduction)

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Introduction

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Can you think of some single component
product

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Products are usually made up of multiple
parts

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Products are usually made up of multiple
parts

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Joining finite shapes
• Make finite shapes separately using primary
manufacturing methods (phase change, deformation, mass
change etc.) and then join them
• Why do this? Can we not make one comprehensive shape?
– Many times different materials are needed for different
functions and applications in the same product
– It may not be possible to make an integral big complex
shape
• Joining or assembly of finite shapes may be done
– To completely arrest movement of the joined parts - e.g in
all 6 degrees of freedom (DoF)
– To arrest movement in only some DoF while permitting
motion in others
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Joining powders
• Powders are tiny (could be mm or µm) random shaped
particles
• There are two problems to solve here:
– How to join such teeny-tiny powders together strongly ?
– How to form a macro-sized geometrical shape from such
numerous joined powders?

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Where to join?
• Two conforming surfaces have to be brought together
to effect a joint – many possible joint configurations

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Forces needed to bring and keep two
surface together

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Basically three ways to join materials

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Joining mechanical forces

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Joining (threaded fasteners)

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Do you know?

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Joining (Plastic deformation)

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Joining (Plastic deformation)

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Joining using surface forces
• Using surface force – provided by a 3rd
material ‘C’ in between the two surfaces
– A joins to C and C holds on to B; so A
is joined to B!
• Different types of materials available for
‘C’ to create the joint. ‘C’ can be:
– (i): Polymers (adhesive joint)
– (ii): Metallic alloys
• (iii): High-temperature melting
alloys (brazing)
• (iv): Low-temperature melting alloys
(soldering)
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Material “C”
• Adhesive or glue
• Many types
– Natural
• Starch, soy
flour
– Inorganic
• Sodium
Silicate,
Magnesium
Oxychloride
– Synthetic
• Most popular
• See table
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Adhesive joints: surface preparation
Surface preparation is important.
For adhesive bonding to succeed, part surfaces must be
extremely clean
Bond strength depends on adhesion between adhesive (C) and
adhered (A or B), which depends on clean surfaces
For metals, solvent wiping often used for cleaning, and
sandblasting improves surface adhesion
For non-metallic parts, surfaces can be mechanically abraded
or chemically etched to increase roughness

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Adhesive joints (curing)

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Adhesion vs. cohesion

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Adhesion vs. cohesion
Cohesion (welding): The joining of two or more
pieces of material by means of heat, pressure, or both,
with or without a filler metal, to produce bonding
through fusion or recrystallization. The force of
attraction in the bond is primarily cohesion. A few of
the cohesion processes are arc welding, laser welding,
diffusion bonding, and forge welding.
Adhesion (gluing): The joining of two or more pieces
of material by the forces of attraction between the
adhesive and the materials being joined (adherends).
Gluing processes depend primarily upon adhesive
bonding. It includes processes such as brazing,
soldering, and epoxy bonding. 22
Adhesive joints advantages
• Applicable to a wide variety of materials
• Bonding occurs over entire surface area of joint
• Low temperature curing avoids damage to parts
being joined
• Can be used for sealing as well as bonding
• Joint design is often simplified, e.g., two flat
surfaces can be joined without providing special part
features such as screw holes

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Material ‘C’ is a high-melting metallic
alloy - BRAZING

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Brazing
• ‘C’ can be in the form of
powder/paste, solid bulk form
(wire, rod, sheet/foil, preformed
shape)
• Heat sources (to melt ‘C’):
– Torch (flame)
– Furnace
– Induction heating
– Resistance heating
– Dip in molten salt or molten
metal bath
– Infrared heating
• “Flux” material is added to
the joint during melting to
prevent oxidation of the
molten metal 25
Brazing: clearance and capillary action
• ‘C’ melts and flows into the joint by
capillary action in the thin
clearance area between ‘A’ and ‘B’
• If clearance is too small – ‘C’
cannot flow into joint area
• If clearance is too large – capillary
action will fail and result in a poor
joint
• Typical clearance ranges from
0.025 mm to 0.25 mm
• Surfaces must be cleaned properly
to promote wetting and capillary
attraction

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Material ‘C’ is a low-melting
metallic alloy - SOLDERING

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Brazing/soldering applications

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Joining by direct molecular forces

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Microscopic interlock (friction)

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Microscopic interlock (friction)

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Welding process
Welding is a process in which materials of the same
fundamental type or class are brought together and
cause to join by heating them to the melting
temperature with or without the application of pressure
and filler metal.
Welding processes based on state of base material

Liquid state welding Solid state welding

(Fusion welding)
•  Diffusion welding
•  Oxyacetylene welding
•  Friction welding
•  Arc welding
•  Resistance welding

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Types of joints and welding positions
Weld-joint variations

Weld joint designs

• The surface of the weld is called the face.

• The two junctions between the face and the
workpiece surface are called the toes.
• The portion of the weld beyond the workpiece
Welding positions 33
surface is called the reinforcement.
Gas welding
• Gas welding is a welding process that
melts and joints metals by heating
them with a flame caused by a reaction
of fuel gas and oxygen.

• The most commonly used method is

oxyacetylene welding, due to its high
flame temperature.

• The flux melts, solidifies and forms a

slag skin on the resultant weld metal.

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Gas welding

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Gas welding

1. Fusion Zone
Material that was molten during the welding process

2. Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ)

Heating above some critical temperature will almost always induce some
undesirable changes in structure and properties of the materials
The zone is usually described by its width
Typically want to minimize
Often hard to control
3. Unaffected base material
The region where the temperature did not reach the critical 36
Oxyacetylene welding (types of flames)
Neutral flame
Acetylene (C2H2) and O2 are mixed in
equal amounts and burn at the tip of
the welding torch. The inner cone
gives 2/3 of heat whereas the outer
envelope provides 1/3 of the energy.
Reducing flame
The excess amount of acetylene is
used, giving a reducing flame. The
combustion of acetylene is incomplete
(greenish) between the inner cone and
the outer envelope. Good for welding
aluminium alloys, high carbon steels.

Oxidizing flame
The excess amount of O2 is used, giving
an oxidizing flame. Good for welding brass.

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Oxyacetylene welding

The secondary combustion is also called the protection

envelope since CO and H2 here consume the O2 entering from
surrounding air, thereby protecting the weld from oxidation.

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Oxyacetylene welding
Advantages Disadvantages
• Simple equipment • Limited power density
• Portable • Very low welding speed
• Inexpensive • High total heat input per unit
• Easy for maintenance and length
repair • Large heat affected zone
• Severe distortion
• Not recommended for welding
reactive metals such as titanium
and zirconium.

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Pressure gas welding

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Heat transfer in welding

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Heat transfer in welding

H VI H = u (volume ) = uAl
=e
l v
VI
v=e
H is the heat input in J uA
l is the weld length
V is voltage applied
I is the current in amperes u is the specific energy
v is the welding speed required for melting
e is the efficiency

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Example
Q: Consider a situation where a welding operation is
performed with V=20 volts, I=200 A, and the cross
sectional area of the weld bead is 30 mm2. Estimate
the welding speed if the workpiece and electrode are
made of aluminium. Use an efficiency of 75% and
specific energy required is 2.9 J/mm3.

Answer: 34.5 mm/s

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Fusion welding: heat sources

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Fusion welding: flux and its application

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Arc Welding: The most common fusion welding

•  A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode tip, and as

electrode is moved along joint, molten weld pool solidifies in
its wake

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Arc welding

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Two Basic Types of Arc Welding Electrodes

•  Consumable – consumed during welding process

–  Source of filler metal in arc welding
•  Non-consumable – not consumed during welding
process (e.g. Tungsten)
–  Filler metal must be added separately if it is added

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Consumable Electrode Arc Welding Processes
•  Shielded Metal Arc Welding
•  Gas Metal Arc Welding
•  Flux‑Cored Arc Welding
•  Submerged Arc Welding

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 click
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler

metal rod coated with chemicals that provide flux
and shielding

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SMAW
•  Composition of filler metal usually close to base metal
•  Coating: powdered cellulose mixed with oxides and
carbonates, and held together by a silicate binder
•  Disadvantages of stick welding:
–  Sticks must be periodically changed
–  High current levels may melt coating prematurely

Applications
•  Used for steels, stainless steels, cast irons, and certain
nonferrous alloys
•  Not used or rarely used for aluminum and its alloys,
copper alloys, and titanium 51
Gas Metal Arc Welding click

Uses a consumable bare metal wire as electrode

with shielding by flooding arc with a gas

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GMAW Advantages over SMAW

•  Better arc time because of continuous wire electrode

–  Sticks must be periodically changed in SMAW
•  Better use of electrode filler metal than SMAW
–  End of stick cannot be used in SMAW
•  Higher deposition rates
•  Eliminates problem of slag removal
•  Can be readily automated

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Flux-Cored Arc Welding click

Presence or absence of externally supplied shielding gas

distinguishes: (1) self‑shielded - core provides ingredients for
shielding, (2) gas‑shielded - uses external shielding gases

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Flux-Cored Arc Welding
Adaptation of shielded metal arc welding, to overcome
limitations of stick electrodes - two versions
–  Self‑shielded FCAW - core includes compounds that
produce shielding gases
–  Gas‑shielded FCAW - uses externally applied
shielding gases
•  Electrode is a continuous consumable tubing (in coils)
containing flux and other ingredients (e.g., alloying
elements) in its core

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 click
Submerged Arc Welding

§ Steel fabrication of structural shapes (e.g., I‑beams)

§ Seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and pressure
vessels
§ Welded components for heavy machinery
§ Most steels (except hi C steel)
§ Not good for nonferrous metals
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Non-consumable Electrode Arc Welding Processes
•  Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
•  Plasma Arc Welding

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 click
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)

Uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and an inert gas for arc

shielding
• Melting point of tungsten = 3410°C (6170°F)
• A.k.a. Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding
– In Europe, called "WIG welding"
• Used with or without a filler metal
– When filler metal used, it is added to weld pool from
separate rod or wire
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• Applications: aluminum and stainless steel mostly
Plasma arc welding (PAW)

Special form of GTAW in which a constricted plasma arc is directed at

weld area
•  Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle that focuses a high velocity
stream of inert gas (argon) into arc region to form a high velocity,
intensely hot plasma arc stream
•  Temperatures in PAW reach 28,000°C (50,000°F), due to constriction
of arc, producing a plasma jet of small diameter and very high energy
density
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Weld bead comparisons

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Gas tungsten arc welding

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Defects in welded joints

click

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Fusion welding: electrical

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Resistance welding

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Resistance welding processes

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Solid state welding (SSW)

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Ultrasonic welding

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Friction welding

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 click
Diffusion bonding

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