THE PHOTOVOLTAIC (PVP) WATER PUMPING PROGRAMME IN ZIMBABWE

By Paul J M Mushamba, Department of Energy Resources and Development

P Bag 7758, Causeway, Harare

Abstract—The provision of clean drinking water is a challenge facing the

government institutions that are mandated with the supply of water to rural
communities. Borehole water is a very attractive source in that it is clean and
requires no additional water treatment infrastructure which is costly. However
there is need to identify a means of raising this water from deep down in the
ground to the surface where it becomes available to the consumers. For small
communities comprised of several households, the hand or bush pump has
worked adequately especially for pumping heads not exceeding 60m. Larger
settlements with schools, rural service centres, rural shops and homesteads
result in higher demands of water which the output from a hand pump cannot
meet. It is for some such settlements that the photovoltaic pumping (PVP)
system can provide an answer. The current PVP programme being run by the
Department of Energy and the German Technical Cooperation arm GTZ, seeks
to clarify the conditions under which PVPs should be applied to ensure
maximum benefit and success. Sites for installation of PV pumps were chosen
where there was an indication that PVP had definite advantages over
alternative water lifting technologies. The project also seeks to address the
problem areas that led to the failure of earlier PVP initiatives. Hence a careful
choice of system configuration was made using a mature technology. Right
from the outset, user communities and the local leadership received briefings
about the project and their contribution of ideas was well received. The role of
both the local industry and the rural water supply authorities in ensuring long
term sustainability of the PVPs was not overlooked and hence they were given
a role to play in the project. This programme would be considered a success if
the water supply authorities adopt PVP as a water supply option for those
locations where conditions favour it in preference to other options.

0.0 Introduction

Beginning in 1992, a total of 16 PVP systems have been installed (under the international PVP
programme) in remote settlements in four provinces of Zimbabwe and they provide clean
drinking water to an estimated 20 000 people as well as their livestock. The current PVP
project is targeted at providing clean drinking water to remote rural settlements which are far
away from the electricity grid. These include rural health centres, schools, business centres,
police posts, villages and so on. Quite often these settlements are difficult to approach due to
poor roads as well as long distances, hence the logistics of running diesel powered systems are
very difficult and costly. The PVP programme therefore has well laid down criteria for
selecting a site for equipping with PVP. The PVP systems under the current programme have
performed very well and the right technological environment has been established for the
further dissemination of PVP. Table 1 in appendix A1 summarises the characteristics of the
PVP systems in Zimbabwe.
1.0 History of PV Pumping

PV pumping systems, mainly financed by various donors were introduced into the country as
early as 1982. These were characterised by a whole plethora of system design, configuration
and component type. The most dominant system configuration however consisted of a PV
module generator, a large wet cell battery bank, control electronics such as a time switch or
charge regulator and a mono pump driven by a surface DC motor.

A survey carried out in the first half of 1994 to determine the status of these early PVP pumps
established that of 23 sites visited less than half of the systems were found to be defunct due to
system component failure, lack of proper maintenance, poor management and theft of modules.

The highest percentage of component failure resulted from (i) the storage batteries which in
most cases were inappropriate for the deep discharge cycles associated with solar energy
applications and (ii) the electronic control components which were untested and of poor
quality. Coupled to this inappropriate as well as immature technology, the PV technological
environment of this period was fraught with inadequacies in terms of local expertise,
equipment and spares to match the variety of system components on the field. It is interesting
to note that even at this early stage, the market did offer tested and mature system
configurations such as the one which was installed at Bengale in 1984 and is still in operation
to this day.

Ownership and operational responsibility for the majority of the early PVP systems was
unclear. Although after the installation was completed the donor did hand over the system to
the benefiting community, no prior preparation or training of these communities was offered.
Hence structures such as water committees which are vital for the local management and
operation of the PV pump were lacking and this often led to conflicts between various
categories of the community, such as between the clinic nurses and the people from the village.
Moreover, the target communities were ill equipped to perform some of the management tasks
such as specialised repair and maintenance of their PV system. They also lacked the financial
resources to secure the services of the private sector. Rural District Councils were often the
only recourse for the communities that found themselves facing problems with their PV
pumping systems, but unfortunately RDCs' limited budgets and weak manpower base rendered
them ineffective to help. Systems that remained defunct and idle became targets of theft and
vandalism.

2.0 Site Selection

With the realisation that PVPs are a niche technology, sites were chosen following clearly laid
down criteria. Firstly a site would be chosen if there was a demonstrated need for drinking
water for humans.

2.1. Competitive to Other Options

Sites were chosen where the hydraulic energy requirements could not be met using the hand
pump and where PVP showed a clear cost advantage
compared to grid powered or diesel options. Hence stations with moderate pumping heads and
daily water demand figures proved to be the most attractive costwise as shown in figure 1.

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 WATER UNIT COST(Z$/m^3) FOR
PUMPING SYSTEMS (20m head; 13

10
8
6
4
2
0
Grid

Grid
Diesel
ic

(5km)

(0km)
Pho

Fig.1

Remote sites where fuel deliveries would pose serious logistical problems due to poor roads
and long distances received preference. As a rule of thumb, sites at least 15km away from the
electricity grid were chosen.

2.2 Well Characteristics

The well yield and its rate of drawing down when subjected to pumping are two pieces of
information that were necessary for site selection. These together with the topography of the
whole water reticulation system and the total daily water demand determine system size. Wells
that give an excessively high head were avoided. Since the centrifugal pumps used in the PVP
project are very sensitive to silt, well quality in terms of levels of silt and casing profile became
selection criteria.

2.3 Solar Energy Availability

Save for a few locations in the Eastern Highlands (where incidentally surface water from
springs and perennial streams is in abundance), the rest of the country receives high insolation
with the mean annual solar radiation varying from 2000 kWh/m2 in the east to 2180 kWh/m2 in
the west of the country.

2.4 Social Factors

To ensure effective local management of the PVP systems, preference was given to sites where
there was evidence of vibrant community organisation and cohesion. Coincidentally in a
number of cases, water committee structures (responsible for running hand pump schemes)
were in place within the target communities prior to the introduction of the PVP project.

3.0 Project Implementation

3.1 The DOE and GTZ

The project partners have sought the involvement of a number of other parties/institutions to
expedite the smooth implementation of the project. The Department of Energy Resources and
Development (DOE) together with the German Technical Co-operation arm (GTZ) are tasked
with the day to day planning and running of the project. This involves the gathering of
information about sites targeted for installation with PVP, liaison with the PVP equipment
supplier and installer and other sub-contractors including consultants, making contact with the
target communities and their leadership and overseeing the mobilisation and training of the
consumers. Dissemination of project information to relevant audiences such as the public

3
sector decision makers, academics, and water supply authorities is another key function of
DOE and GTZ in the project. The project partners jointly provide financial sponsorship

3.2 The Equipment Supplier

This is the supplier of PVP systems that comply with well laid down technical specifications
and performance standards. Through a local subcontractor, the equipment supplier does the
installations (which should pass an acceptance test for him to get paid) and offers warranty and
back-up services.

3.3 The Department of Water Development:

DWD plays the double role of (i) subcontractor in charge of executing all civil works of the
whole water reticulation system as well as the gathering of borehole data by carrying out the
necessary capacity tests and other measurements necessary for system design, (ii) taking over
the responsibility of long term operator of the PVP stations. They employ a pump minder at
each water supply station to keep the modules clean, do minor pipe repairs and report major
ones, read water meters and generally liase between the consumers and the DWD.

3.4 The Recipient Communities

The water consumers play a crucial role in project implementation and their involvement
through all the stages of project implementation is vital. Their cash contributions in the form of
payments for water bills, though small in proportion to system costs, help to foster a sense of
ownership of the project. Their co-operation goes a long way in ensuring security of the
modules from theft and vandalism.

4.0 System Configuration

A typical PVP system in the DOE/GTZ programme consists of

i) an array of solar modules (panels)
ii) a DC to AC inverter
iii) a motor and pump which are both submerged in water.

Fig.2 PVP System Layout

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4.1 The PV Module
The photovoltaic (PV) module consists of 40 cells of crystalline silicon encapsulated in
tempered glass. As each module cannot produce sufficient power for the pump, the modules
are connected together both in parallel and in series to produce the required current and
voltage. The interface requirements of the inverter are taken into consideration during the
design of the PV generator.

The modules are mounted on a support structure which is firmly secured to a concrete
foundation, fixed at a tilt angle, oriented to the north and allows maximum ventilation of the
modules.

The use of temper-proof bolts for mounting the modules onto the support is a measure
towards theft prevention. Much more work is required in this area.

Cables are sized adequately to reduce energy losses and switches that are rated for DC
operation are used.

4.2 The Motor

This is a three-phase variable frequency motor which is specifically designed for solar
applications. It is filled with an anti-corrosion liquid to lubricate the bearings and dissipate
heat.

4.3 The Centrifugal Pump

This is the only component with moving parts. It is a state of the art, water lubricated multi-
stage centrifugal pump. It is a nominal 100mm in diameter and requires a minimum internal
borehole casing diameter of 104mm.

4.4 The Inverter

A maximum power point tracking inverter is used in this programme. This inverter is a high
efficiency unit used to convert the DC from the module array to AC required by the motor. In-
built circuits protect the pump and motor from an overload or under load. A system of light
emitting diodes on the face of the inverter display the status of the pumping system. Should the
system develop a malfunction, the pump minder is trained to report the condition of the diodes.

5.0 System Costs

Using 1994 prices, a system designed to pump 35m3 per day through a head of 28m cost
Z$210 000. Compared to a diesel pumping system, this is a very high investment cost. A study
commissioned by the PVP project however shows that for such a system size, the PVP option
works out to be the least cost in the long term if economic consideration are taken into
account.

6.0 Quality Assurance

The project emphasises the concept of quality of both the equipment supplied as well as
workmanship during installation. To this end the modules used undergo rigorous tests and
confirm to the German TÜV standard. A warranty period of 10 years for the modules and two
years for maintenance forms part of the contract with the supplier. After installation, an
acceptance test is performed to determine to what extent the system performance agrees with

5
specifications jointly laid down by the project sponsors and the equipment supplier.
Performance characteristics are summarised in the H-Q-f, P-Q-f and P-Q-H curves provided by
the supplier where:
f is the inverter frequency
H is the pumping head
P is the DC power generated and
Q is the water flow rate per hour
The diagram below summarises the input-output analysis of the system which is performed
during the acceptance testing procedure.

Fig.3 Analysis of a PVP System

Besides the input-output analysis, the physical layout of the whole system is also examined for
quality, that is the suitability of the module mounting frame in terms of tilt angle, orientation
and protection against corrosion, generator wiring, lightning protection measures and piping.

7.0 User Acceptance

7.1 Consumer Mobilisation

The target communities were consulted extensively to solicit their views on how the project
could best be implemented. From the outset, potential water consumers were informed about
the importance of their own cash contributions towards meeting the cost of water pumping.
Figure 4 below summarises the views of one consumer community regarding the issue of
paying for water.

WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR IMPROVED WATER SU

will pay on conditi

13.13%

unwilling to pa
24.24%
willing to pay 62.63

Fig.4

6
The majority of potential consumers appreciated the convenience of a clean water supply close
to their homes, hence they were willing to pay for the service. About 13% of those interviewed
indicated that they would be prepared to pay, if the water point was brought to within half a
kilometer or so from their homes. The post-installation monitoring exercise has shown that in
fact the majority of consumers are paying for their consumption.

7.2 Training of Recipient Communities

Training encourages participation and prepares recipients for changes which may result from
the introduction of a new technology in their lives. Consumer training has contributed towards
a good measure of user acceptance. The consumers received training on the characteristics of a
PVP system, dependency of water output on radiation availability, how to read and interpret
water meters, interpret the water bill, remit money to the Water Authority using stop orders,
hygiene, water conservation and managing a communal water point through a water
committee. Consumers organise themselves into groups headed by a committee that handles
problems and conflicts among consumers, ensures cleanliness of the water point and its
environs, collects money from the consumers to settle water bills and liaises with the water
authority.

8.0 Technology Sustainability

A number of measures were taken to ensure the sustainability of the project both at present as
well as in the long term.

8.1 Local Capacity Building

This is an ongoing process and was partly realised through the transfer of know-how by
training of project personnel in the design, installation and maintenance of PVP systems.
Partnership between an overseas systems manufacturer and a local water pump dealer resulted
in some measure of upgrading of local capacity. The local company keeps spares and is well
equipped to do all installation and maintenance work.

8.2 Use of Local Components and Material

For purposes of cutting on the foreign exchange content of the PVP systems, the project
encouraged the optimum utilisation of locally available equipment and materials as long as
overall system performance, quality and cost were not compromised. Figure 5 shows the
percentage cost of purchasing and installing a PVP system.

PERCENTAGE COST OF PVP SYSTEM

Sundry (7.2%) Trans & Labour

Pump & Inverter (14.2%)
(7.6%)

Pack & Freight (9.3%) Piping (12.1)

Mounting (10%)

PV Modules (39.4%)

Fig.5
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The first four PVP systems installed in Zaka District in 1992 comprised about 87% foreign
content. Subsequent systems were installed using riser main piping, well head fittings, module
mounting structures which were sourced locally. Combined with local transport and labour,
this substitution constituted 36.3% of the total system cost. Locally assembled modules have
been used at one installation but it is too early to make performance comparisons with the
imported product.

8.3 Identification of a Long Term Operator

Through a long process of evaluating the capabilities of the various water supply bodies, the
Department of Water Development (DWD) has been identified as the one water authority that
is best placed in terms of personnel, management, level of decentralisation, function,
infrastructure and technical capacity to take over the operation and management of the PVP
water supply stations. At the moment, they are the only water authority who are successfully
running paid water supply schemes in the rural areas. Relevant personnel have received PVP
training.

8.4 Cost Sharing

All consumers are billed and pay for their monthly water consumption. The unit cost of water
for all water supply stations is the same (Z$6.00 for the first 10m3 consumed per month and
Z$2.35 per m3 thereafter). This is a uniform rate charged by DWD at all their rural water
supply stations country wide. Although such charges fail to meet the total investment cost of
the PVP system, they nevertheless ensure accountability on the part of the consumer who is
compelled to place a value on the service that he/she is receiving.

9.0 Project Impact

9.1 Change in Water Use Patterns

A study carried out in 1992 before the installation of the PVP pumps to determine the water
collection patterns of the community at one of the project sites indicated that 60% of
households had the river as their primary water source. In June of 1995, three years after the
installation of the PVP systems a similar study indicated a reduction of those using river water
to 34%. Water usage per day also increased during the same period, especially so for
consumers with private (as opposed to communal) water connections such as clinics and
shops. Figure A6 shows the variation in the daily water consumption by connected consumers
before and after they began to consume water from the PVP station

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 CHANGES IN HOUSEHOLD WATER CONSUM

BEFORE PVP (
per day)

AFTER PVP( 463

day)

Fig.6

9.2 Improvement in Amenities

For the teachers and nurses working at the institutions within the PVP catchment area, the
advent of clean potable water at the doorstep has contributed to the improvement in the quality
of life as it obviates the drudgery of commuting long distances to the water source. Water from
the tap is considered to be a more dignified source and hence it is an attraction to qualified
staff for the schools and clinics.

9.3 Cost Savings

From the view point of the operator of the PVP stations, that is the Department of Water
Development, the PVP systems have meant greatly reduced running costs in terms of diesel
and oil purchases and transportation to station, as well as expenditure incurred on routine
maintenance and repairs.

10.0 The Way Forward

The existence of a favourable environment, in terms of the capacity within industry, for the
further dissemination of PVP should see the expanded adoption of this option by the water
authorities to equip their new water supply stations. DWD develops an average of 50 borehole
water supply stations country wide per year and up to 80% of these fall in the range where
PVP is more attractive compared to other pumping options as shown in figure 7 below. If PV
pumps are also used to upgrade old water supply stations, then the potential is even greater.
The major constraint that the water authority faces is the high investment cost that is required
upfront. One funding mechanism which is worth considering is where the DWD puts forward
what it would cost to equip a borehole with a diesel pumping system and a donor tops up the
difference of what an equivalent PVP system costs.

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 Cost Comparison of Pumping Systems

20/13
0.50
30/18
0.40 40/20
50/21 Break even point
0.30 60/22
0.20 40/40 40/58
60/66 90/61
0.10 50/46
0.00
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
System Size-Hydraulic Energy Equivalent [m^4/d]

Photovoltaic Diesel Grid (5 km)

Fig.7
 APPENDIX A1

SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

ZAKA DISTRICT
PVP station Chiredzana Chinyabako Zinguwo Veza
Date of October October October 1992 October
commissioning 1992 1992 1992
PV generator 1.4 1.4 1.8 1.8
capacity/kWp
Number of 28 28 36 36
modules
Discharge head/m 50 40 70 36
Water pumped per 16.6 19.8 14.2 28.8
day/m3
Water storage/m3 69 48 60 148
Total volume 9767 9200 8057 13632
delivered 12/94

GOKWE DISTRICT
PVP station Mateta II Mutange Nyarupakwe Lutope Sengwa Chirisa
Date of commissioning March 1994 March 1994 March 1994 March May 1994 August 1994
1994
PV generator 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 3.5
capacity/kWp
Number of modules 32 32 32 32 70
Module Type PQ40D PQ40D PQ40D PQ40D SP47 PQ40D
Inverter Type SA1500 SA1500 SA1500 SA1500 SA1500 Solarveter 3
Pump Type SP 3A-10 SP 3A-10 SP 3A-10 SP 3A-10 SP 3A-10 KSB UPA
100-4/19
Discharge head/m 26 52 35 35 28 68
Water pumped per 20 21 30 21 35 30
day/m3
Water storage/m3 90 70 90 45 90 90
Total volume 5976 4671 5500 5991 3203 3932
delivered 12/94

BINGA MUREWA & MUTOKO DISTRICTS

PVP station Lubimbi Chitate Kadenge Madamombe Muchinjike Nyamuzizi
Date of commissioning * June 1995 July 1995 July 1995 July 1995 *
PV generator * 0.8 1.05 1.05 1.05 *
capacity/kWp
Number of modules * 16 21 21 21 *
Module Type * Q40D-C Q40D-C PQ40D PQ40D *
Inverter Type * SA 1500 SA 1500 SA 1500 SA 1500 *
Pump Type * SP 3A-10 SP 3A-10 SP 5A SP 5A *
Discharge head/m * *
Water pumped per * 13 ?? ?? 13 18 *
day/m3
Water storage/m3 * 46 46 69 69 *
*Data for Lubimbi and Muchinjike is still pending
Table 1

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