Evaluating Installation of Vibration Monitoring Equipment For Gas Turbines PDF

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
EVALUATING INSTALLATION OF VIBRATION

MONITORING EQUIPMENT FOR GAS TURBINES
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Mechanical For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: MEX-214.05 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
Engineering Encyclopedia Gas Turbines
Evaluating Installation of Vibration
Monitoring Equipment for Gas Turbines
Section Page
INFORMATION ............................................................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 3
VIBRATION MONITORING EQUIPMENT ...................................................................... 5
VIBRATION MONITORING .................................................................................... 5
Basic Vibration ................................................................................................ 5
Transducers for Vibration Variables .............................................................. 12
Seismic Probes ............................................................................................. 19
TEMPERATURE MONITORING INSTRUMENTS ................................................ 23
Resistance Temperature Detector ................................................................ 23
Thermocouples ............................................................................................. 25
TYPICAL VIBRATION MONITORING ARRANGEMENTS............................................ 30
HEAVY-DUTY GAS TURBINES ........................................................................... 31
Vibration Monitoring ...................................................................................... 31
Temperature Monitoring ................................................................................ 41
AERO-DERIVATIVE GAS TURBINES .................................................................. 43
Vibration Monitoring ...................................................................................... 43
Temperature Monitoring ................................................................................ 44
GAS TURBINE THERMODYNAMIC PERFORMANCE MONITORING ........................ 45
COMPRESSOR DISCHARGE TEMPERATURE .................................................. 45
TURBINE INLET TEMPERATURE ....................................................................... 47
TURBINE EXHAUST TEMPERATURE................................................................. 48
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 49
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Basic Relationship of Measured Parameters with a Simple Harmonic

Motion ............................................................................................................ 9
Figure 2. Formation of a Complex Harmonic Signal........................................................ 9
Figure 3. Views from the Time and Frequency Domain ................................................ 10
Figure 4. Range and Limitations on Machinery Vibration Analysis Systems and
Transducers................................................................................................. 14
Figure 5. Eddy Current Proximity Probe........................................................................ 18
Figure 6. Velocity Transducer ....................................................................................... 20
Figure 7. Piezoelectric Accelerometer........................................................................... 21
Figure 8. Noncontact Eddy Current Probe Orientation .................................................. 34
Figure 9. API 670 Axial Position Probe Installation for a Shaft with an Integral
Thrust Collar ................................................................................................ 37
Figure 10. API 670 Standard Axial Position Probe Installation Arrangement ................ 38
Figure 11. Typical Vibration and Axial Position System Arrangement for a Heavy
Duty Gas Turbine......................................................................................... 40
Figure 12. Oil Drain Line Thermocouple Installation...................................................... 42
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Advantages, Disadvantages, and Useful Ranges of Transducer Types.......... 13
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
A vibration, axial-position, and bearing-temperature monitoring
system consists of probes, accelerometers, and temperature
sensors; signal conditioning devices, interconnecting cables,
power supplies, monitors, and communication devices. As
defined by Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-J-604,
the “Vibration, Axial Position and Bearing Temperature
Monitoring System” will be referred to simply as the “Vibration
Monitoring System.”
For heavy duty, industrial gas turbines, vibration and axial
position information is acquired by transducers and proximity
probes positioned at optimal locations on a gas turbine.
Transducers convert mechanical responses to electric signals
that are conditioned and processed by electronic instruments.
For aero-derivative gas turbines, accelerometers measure
casing vibration and supply signals to dedicated filters that
continuously read 1× (running speed) vibration for each rotor,
and they can supply a frequency versus amplitude spectrum
when required. Axial displacement is not monitored since the
axial float is restricted by an anti-friction thrust bearing.
Gas turbine bearing temperature information is acquired by
temperature detectors positioned at the bearings.
The vibration monitoring system provides the information
necessary to monitor gas turbine condition and to diagnose
faults. Vibration monitoring systems provide the electrical
signals to the Rotating Machinery Protection System (RMPS)
and the condition monitoring system. The RMPS automatically
sends shutdown commands to the turbine control system if a
turbine vibration, axial position, or monitored temperature
exceeds a specified limit. The condition monitoring system is a
computer-based data collection system that communicates
directly to the vibration monitoring system. The condition
monitoring system will also accept process data from
communication links to the Distributed Control System (DCS) or
directly from process instruments. The condition monitoring
system collects, stores, processes, displays and prints the gas
turbine operating data in a variety of formats. The condition
monitoring system data will typically be used for historical
trending, machinery diagnostics, and predictive maintenance
purposes but not for shutdown protection.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

Additional temperature measuring instrumentation outside of the

scope of the vibration monitoring system is used for monitoring
and protection of the gas turbine. This instrumentation includes
measurement of gas turbine compressor discharge
temperature, turbine exhaust temperature, and wheelspace
temperatures.
This module describes the types of vibration monitoring system
equipment that are used for gas turbines and the installation
arrangements that are used at Saudi Aramco installations.

VIBRATION MONITORING EQUIPMENT

This section of the manual describes the following processes
and the equipment that are used for condition monitoring:
• Vibration Monitoring
• Temperature Monitoring
Vibration Monitoring
Vibration monitoring is a monitoring method and process.
Vibration monitoring measures the condition of the machine
from the initial vibration signature after installation and then at
periodic intervals throughout the machine’s life. This monitoring
method and process enables an accurate accrual or trend of
information by which problems may be diagnosed at an early
stage.
Because vibration is the most sensitive and accurate of the
indicators that are used for monitoring machinery condition, the
information from the vibration sensors is typically used to
prevent unscheduled downtime and/or equipment failure. Saudi
Aramco requires automatic vibration shutdown at preset levels
on all critical equipment. Vibration sensors can identify a
machinery defect earlier than can other types of sensors, and
they can also be used to pinpoint the specific source or
machinery component that is defective; therefore, vibration
analysis is frequently used in predictive-maintenance programs
to provide the basic guidance for performance of maintenance
and overhauls.
Basic Vibration
Vibration is the back and forth motion across a point of

equilibrium. Rotating equipment vibration is usually periodic, that
is, it is related in some manner to the action of the rotating
element. At times, there are nonperiodic vibrations in rotating
equipment, but such vibrations are normally from external
sources. The vibration motion is described by the variables of
frequency, displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
The terms and expressions that are used in this discussion of
vibration monitoring are presented in the text that follows.

Vibration is defined as the oscillation of an object about its

position of rest. When the mass of an object is set in motion, it
will move back and forth between some upper and lower limits.
This movement of the mass through all of its positions and back
to the point where it is ready to repeat the motion is defined as
one cycle of vibration. The time that it takes to complete this
cycle is the period of vibration.
Frequency is the number of cycles in a given time period.
Frequency is occasionally stated in cycles per minute (cpm) or
cycles per second (cps), and it is also referred to as “hertz” (Hz).
More frequently, however, frequency is expressed in multiples
of rotative speed of the machine because of the tendency of
machine vibration frequencies to occur at direct multiples or
sub-multiples of the rotative speed of the machine. Frequency of
vibration is expressed in terms as one times rpm, two times
rpm, or 43 percent of rpm, rather than being expressed in terms
of cycles-per-minute or hertz. Frequency is one of the basic
characteristics that is used to measure and describe vibration.
The force that causes the vibration is the first event that occurs
in time. The responses to these forces are the other basic
characteristics or movements, such as displacement, velocity,
and acceleration. The magnitude of each of these
characteristics describes the severity of vibration.
The magnitude, or severity, is described by the amplitude of the
movement. Amplitude of vibration on most heavy-duty, industrial
gas turbines is expressed in peak-to-peak mils while vibration
on aero-derivative and smaller industrial gas turbines is
measured by accelerometers. Signals from accelerometers are
typically integrated to read in inches per second with typical
allowable values less than 0.35 inches per second zero to peak.
Vibration probes that are mounted near bearings or on casings
can sense the maximum excursion (amplitude) of the shaft or
the high frequency casing vibrations. A normal operating gas
turbine will generally have a stable amplitude reading of an
acceptable low level less than 2.0 mil (50 microns). Any change
in this amplitude reading indicates a change of the machine
condition. Increases or decreases in amplitude should be
considered justification for further investigation of the particular
machine condition.

Phase, or phase angle, is another characteristic of vibration that

is important to diagnose and correct machinery problems.
Phase angle is used to compare the motion of a vibrating part to
a fixed reference or to compare two parts of a machine structure
that vibrate at the same frequency. Phase angle can be defined
as the angular difference at a given instant between two parts
with respect to a complete vibration cycle. Phase angle is
usually expressed in degrees. The phase angle measurement is
a means of describing the location of the rotor at a particular
instant in time. Phase angle is also valuable in determining the
rpm location of the natural rotor balance resonance or critical
speeds. Furthermore, a good phase angle measuring system
will define the location of a high spot on the rotor at each
transducer location relative to some fixed point on the machine
train. Through determination of these high spot locations on the
rotor, the amount and the locations of the residual unbalances
on a rotor can be determined. Changes in the balance condition
of a rotor may cause a change in phase angle. Accurate phase
angle measurements are important in the balancing of rotors,
and they can be extremely important in the analysis of a
particular machine malfunction. Determination of phase angle
requires use of portable analysis or of the computer-based
condition monitoring systems.
In measurements of radial vibration with displacement probes,
amplitude of displacement is labeled “peak-to-peak”
displacement and is measured in units of “mils peak to peak.”
Velocity indicates the speed at which the object is vibrating. It is
highest where the object passes through its position of rest, and
it is zero at the upper and lower maximum displacement limits of
a harmonic vibration. The maximum value is usually the value
that is recorded when measurements are taken. Velocity is
measured in units of “inches per second peak.” Saudi Aramco
standards specify Root mean square (rms) for velocity
measurements. Velocity is usually the best parameter for
machinery-vibration analysis, particularly where important
frequencies lie in the 600 to 60,000 cpm range (low and mid
frequencies). Velocity is always used to monitor antifriction (ball
and roller) bearing systems. Velocity is also the best method for
detecting a wide variety of different machinery defects that
occur at low, mid, and high frequencies. Displacement primarily
senses low-frequency problems, and acceleration primarily
senses high-frequency defects.

The acceleration of the object is related to the forces that cause

the vibration. Acceleration reaches a maximum value as the
object reaches its maximum limits of displacement or when it
begins to move in the opposite direction. The maximum or
“peak” acceleration that is measured is usually the recorded
value. Acceleration is measured in units of “g peak” (1 g = 386
in/sec2) or rms. Acceleration monitors are typically used to
monitor antifriction (ball and roller) bearing systems; however,
because of their large range, they are also used to monitor other
sources of vibration.
Simple harmonic motion provides an illustration of the
relationship between displacement, velocity, and acceleration. In
simple harmonic motion, vibration occurs at a single frequency,
with acceleration being proportional to displacement and
occurring in a direction opposite to displacement. Simple
harmonic motion can be represented by a sine wave, and it can
be illustrated as the linear vertical motion of a weight that is
suspended or supported on a coiled spring. The displacement of
the weight below and above its point of rest and its return to the
point of rest, as a function of time, is the frequency variable. The
change in the amount of displacement as a function of time is
the velocity variable. During a single cycle, this velocity
constantly changes from a value of zero at the peak
displacement above and below the rest or equilibrium point, to a
maximum velocity value as the weight passes through the
equilibrium point at zero displacement. The rate of change in the
velocity is the acceleration variable. The acceleration variable is
a negative value as the velocity slows down and the
displacement approaches maximum.

The phase relationships between the variables for vibration

measurement (displacement, velocity, and acceleration) are
shown on a simple sine wave in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Basic Relationship of Measured Parameters with a

Simple Harmonic Motion
Typical vibration signatures are not as simple as a single sine
wave. Most machinery vibration consists of complex harmonic
signals. A complex harmonic signal can be described as many
sine waves mixed together. Figure 2 shows a basic example of
a complex harmonic signal that consists of two pure sine waves.
The upper sine wave is four times the frequency and one-fourth
the amplitude of the lower sine wave. The resulting complex
harmonic signal results when the two sine waves are mixed
together.
Figure 2. Formation of a Complex Harmonic Signal

The vibration signals shown in Figures 1 and 2 are shown as

amplitude verses time, which is also known as the “time
domain.” Amplitude is on the vertical axis, and time is on the
horizontal axis. If a vibration transducer is connected to an
oscilloscope, the oscilloscope display is in the time domain.
Another method to view vibration signals is to plot the amplitude
verses the frequency, which is called the frequency domain.
Figure 3 shows the same two sine waves that were previously
shown in Figure 2, but it shows them as a three-dimensional
plot illustrating the views from the time and frequency domain.
Figure 3. Views from the Time and Frequency Domain

The French mathematician, Jean Babtiste Fourier, discovered

that all complex harmonic signals can be broken down into a
series of simple sine waves by means of a mathematical
method. The mathematical method can be used to break down
periodic signals into discrete waves (sine waves, square waves,
and triangular waves) as long as the waves repeat themselves.
An FFT spectrum analyzer takes a complex waveform from a
vibration transducer, calculates, by means of Fourier’s
mathematical method, the discrete waves that form that signal,
and displays the individual waves in the frequency domain.
Through digital technology, the process has been made “fast,”
leading to the term “fast Fourier transformation” or FFT.
In addition to sine waves, which are pure tones, there are
random vibrations. Random vibrations look similar to a complex
vibration signal except that the vibrations do not repeat regularly
or on a cycle. It is difficult to assign a frequency to random
vibrations. Random vibrations can occur in gas turbines when
the moving gas encounters stationary objects, such as stage
nozzles, which create vortices and turbulence. Shock waves in
transonic compressor stages and friction can also cause
random vibrations.
In rotary equipment, mechanical sources of vibration such as
rotor unbalance, misalignment, critical speeds, associated
gearing, and looseness in parts, are only partially responsible
for any vibration. Process-type sources that also contribute to
vibration may come from the high velocity and turbulence of the
air flow through the ducting, the compressor and gas flow
through the exhaust, and vibration sources from the driven
equipment.

Transducers for
Vibration Variables
There are two general applications for vibration sensors that are
used on rotating equipment. Both applications are used by
Saudi Aramco.
One application is used to detect the actual vibrations of the
rotating shaft within a hydrodynamic radial bearing and to
provide a signal to the appropriate monitoring equipment. Saudi
Aramco uses a noncontacting proximity sensor for the detection
part of the vibration system in this type of application.
Noncontacting proximity sensors are used for most large
(greater than 10 MW) gas turbines.
The second application is used to detect the effects of the
rotating element vibrations on the static equipment casing
and/or bearing housings. The seismic-type sensor is used in this
application, and it is directly mounted on the surface of the body
to be monitored. When antifriction bearings are used in a
machine, the seismic sensor gives a good indication of rotor
motion because antifriction bearings have essentially zero
clearance, and the dynamic force of rotor vibration is directly
transmitted to the bearing bracket through the bearings. Seismic
sensors are used for all aero-derivative gas turbines and for
small-to-medium-sized industrial gas turbines (less than 10
MW).
Vibration information is acquired through the use of transducers
that are strategically located in various positions on the gas
turbine or the auxiliary equipment. The vibration transducers
convert the mechanical motion of the equipment to an electrical
signal that is sent to a monitoring/control unit. Table 1 describes
the advantages, the disadvantages, and the useful ranges of the
transducer types. The selection and positioning of the proper
transducers are discussed later in various parts of this module.

Useful
Transducer Measure-
Frequency Advantages Disadvantages
Type ment
Range
Radial shaft 0-1 kHz Displacement · Sensor observes · Senses surface
vibration shaft directly imperfections
transducer
· Conductive parts only
· Mounting difficulty
· Frequency limits
Velocity pickup 1-4 kHz Velocity · Self-generating · Moving parts
· Good indicator of · Large
machine condition
· Senses EMFs
· Hand-held
· Frequency limits
Accelerometer With Acceleration · High frequency · Temperature limits
acceleration capability
output = 10-
20 kHz · Rugged
With velocity · Small size

output = 2.5-
20 kHz
Table 1. Advantages, Disadvantages, and Useful Ranges of Transducer Types
Figure 4 shows the range and the limitations on machinery

vibration analysis systems and transducers. The acceleration
line shows that the signal strength (vibration amplitude) is low at
low frequencies. The displacement line shows that displacement
probes have a low signal strength at high frequencies, but the
frequency response of displacement probe is flat at frequencies
where signal strength is good. The velocity sensor line indicates
that the signal strength is good throughout a range of
frequencies, but frequency response rolls off at high or low
frequencies.

100
10
1.0
0.1
00.1
1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
Figure 4. Range and Limitations on Machinery Vibration Analysis

Systems and Transducers
Displacement Probes - Displacement is generally the best

parameter to use for very low-frequency measurements (i.e.,
less than 600 cpm) in which velocity and acceleration
amplitudes are extremely low. Displacement is traditionally used
for machinery balancing at speeds up to 10,000 or 20,000 rpm,
and it should also be used where stress levels or clearances are
the important criteria. Displacement probes are available for a
variety of applications, and they are sometimes referred to as
transducers. Saudi Aramco uses noncontacting proximity
systems for displacement probes.

The noncontacting proximity systems, as used by Saudi

Aramco, have the following basic applications that are related to
the proximity probe installations: radial to the rotating shaft, axial
to the rotating shaft, shaft speed, and phase reference.
Regardless of the application, the same types of proximity
systems are used. Each type consists of the noncontact
proximity probe that is connected with a precise impedance
cable to an oscillator/demodulator unit, which is also known as a
proximitor. Typically, the outputs from the proximitors that are
mounted on a single piece of equipment are instrument wired to
a common plug-in module installed in a rack that houses plug-in
modules for one or more than one machine train.
Noncontacting Proximity Sensor Probes - Noncontacting
proximity sensor probes do not contact the rotating element;
however, they are rigidly positioned so that the probe tip is in
close proximity to the rotating surface. The sensor measures the
gap between the probe tip and the surface. Such measurement
makes the sensor very suitable to detect and to measure the
radial displacement of the shaft within its radial bearing. A
number of different types of proximity probes are made that
operate on different principles to achieve basically the same
result. The following are types of proximitors:
• Optical Light Proximity Probe
• Inductance Proximity Probe
• Capacitance Proximity Probe
• Eddy Current Proximity Probe
Although Saudi Aramco only uses the eddy current-type probes
and some light proximity probes, a brief description of each type
is presented below.
The optical proximity probe consists of a light source, a two-way
light-conducting fiber-optic lead and probe, and a photo-electric
sensor. Light is conducted to the probe tip through use of half of
a fiber-optic bundle. This light is directed at the surface of the
rotating element. Light that is reflected back by this surface is
conducted to the photo-electric sensor by the other half of the
fiber-optic bundle, and it is converted to a voltage. The light
intensity at the photo-sensor is proportional to the gap between
the sensed surface and the probe tip.
This system has high sensitivity, resolution, and frequency
response, and the system can be used to observe any type of

surface that is reflective or that can be made reflective.

However, industrial application is limited by the following two
problems:
• Circumferential variations in surface finish and reflectivity of
most shafts cause significant noise and errors when
observing rotating shafts.
• Oil mist or process-fluid vapors may distort the light in the
probe-to-shaft gap and cause noise and errors due to the
variations in gap transmittance.
Due to the erratic responses, the optical proximity probe is used
only as a phase reference transducer by Saudi Aramco.
The inductance proximity probe consists of a ferromagnetic core
inside a coil of wire. A high frequency alternating current is
supplied to the coil, which establishes an alternating magnetic
field at the tip of the probe. The proximity of a metallic surface
near the probe tip varies the strength of the magnetic field and
changes the probe inductance, which modulates the amplitude
of the high frequency alternating current.
The rotating element under the inductance probe tip does not
have to be made of a magnetic material, but it must be
conductive and magnetically permeable. The probe will not
sense nonconducting materials; therefore, if the conducting
material has a nonconducting coating applied to it, the probe will
only respond to the underlying metal. Any defects or eccentricity
of the underlying surface will cause noise and erratic false
readings even though the actual finished shaft surface is
running true. Because the probe calibration curves are relatively
nonlinear and vary with different materials, the inductance
proximity probe is not satisfactory for use on Saudi Aramco
rotating equipment.

The capacitance probe is basically only one plate of a capacitor.

The rotating element forms the other plate, and the air in the
gap is the dielectric material. The variable capacitance of the
probe is generally placed in the feedback loop of an operational
amplifier with a high frequency ac excitation signal. Variations in
the probe-to-shaft gap size vary the capacitance of this circuit
element, which changes the excitation signal. The readout
circuitry transforms this signal to a dc voltage that is proportional
to the instantaneous gap.
The capacitance system offers the greatest accuracy, linearity,
and freedom from drift and temperature effects of all the
proximity systems. However, the capacitance system is not
applicable for many industrial uses because the type of material
in the probe-to-shaft gap affects the output signal. Water vapor
that passes through the probe tip gap will change the dielectric
and output signal or will short-circuit the output completely.
When the rotating shaft is coated with dielectric materials, such
as plasma-sprayed ceramics, the probe senses only the metallic
substrate.
The eddy current probe consists of a small coil, usually a flat
“pancake” shape, at the tip of the probe. A high-frequency ac (in
the frequency range for radio transmission) is applied to this coil
from an oscillator circuit. The proximity probe sets up a
magnetic field in the gap between the end of the probe and the
rotating shaft. In turn, the magnetic flux induces eddy current in
the portion of the shaft that is exposed to this flux. Loss of
energy in the returning signal is detected through use of the
proximitor. Relative distance or displacement is measured
between the probe tip and the surface by sensing the change in
the gap. The eddy current probe is useful for gaps from about
10 to 120 mils (depending on dc voltage supplied to the probe),
which is the approximate linear range of the eddy current probe.
The sensitivity of most eddy current probes is 200 mV/1 mil. The
demodulator circuit in the proximitor converts the amplitude-
modulated ac to a varying dc signal (along a scale of 0 to -24V
or 0 to -18 Vdc).

The eddy current type of noncontact proximity probe is shown in

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Eddy Current Proximity Probe
The eddy current system is not affected by water vapor in the

probe tip gap. The output signal provides an indication (in mV)
of the varying gap between the sensor and the “observed” shaft
surface.
The impedance of the probe to proximitor system is a critical
item as the proximitors are “tuned” to a matching impedance in
the connecting wire cable. Impedance matching prevents errors
in measurement. Tuning is controlled through the use of only
certain equivalent electrical lengths of cable that match the
required impedance. During field installation, this cable length
must never be cut to make an attractive installation. The excess
cable should be rolled and neatly installed. If the cable length is
changed, the system will require recalibration. If the system is
ever replaced, it should be replaced with a cable of the same
impedance or equivalent electrical length.

Seismic Probes
Seismic (mass-spring) transducers use the response of a mass-

spring system to measure vibration. The seismic transducer
consists of a mass that is suspended from the transducer case
through the use of a spring of specific stiffness. The motion of
the mass within the case may be damped by a viscous fluid, a
spring, or an electric current. When the transducer case is
contact mounted to the moving part, the transducer may be
used to measure velocity or acceleration, depending on the
frequency range of interest.
Velocity transducers are being used less by Saudi Aramco.
Velocity measurements (usually required for all structural
vibrations with the exception of high frequency gear mesh
vibrations) are obtained through the use of an accelerometer
with signal integration to velocity. This type of transducer
configuration is sometimes called a piezoelectric velocity
transducer.
Velocity Transducers - The velocity transducer is an adaptation
from a voice coil in a speaker, and it is shown in Figure 6. There
are two configurations of velocity transducers: stationary
magnet/moving coil and stationary coil/moving magnet. Figure 6
represents a stationary magnet/moving coil configuration. The
velocity transducer consists of an internal mass (in the form of a
permanent magnet or coil) that is suspended on springs. A
damping material, usually ribbon, surrounds the mass. A coil of
wire or magnet is attached to the pickup case. The case is held
against the vibrating object. The pickup case moves with the
vibrating object while the internal mass remains stationary
suspended on the springs. The relative motion between the
permanent magnet and the coil generates a voltage that is
proportional to the velocity of motion.

Figure 6. Velocity Transducer
The velocity transducer is self-generating and produces an

output that can be fed to the monitoring system channel without
any further signal conditioning. The raw (unfiltered) output signal
from a velocity transducer can be transmitted to an oscilloscope
or other analyzer instrument. The measurement processed from
a velocity transducer’s output is a seismic measurement
(referenced to inertial space). For this reason, a velocity
transducer is also called a seismic transducer.

The velocity transducer has an internal natural frequency

(referred to as mounted resonance) of about 8 Hz (those types
that are used for machine monitoring). This natural frequency is
simply the resonance of the single degree of freedom of the
internal mass suspended on springs. The response at
resonance is highly damped. The upper high frequency is
limited to approximately 2.5 kHz. This transducer produces a
linear output only above this resonant frequency.
Accelerometers - The most common acceleration transducer is
the piezoelectric accelerometer, as shown in Figure 7.
Accelerometers are used to measure the casing vibration of all
aero-derivative gas turbines and some industrial gas turbines.
The piezoelectric accelerometer consists of piezoelectric disks
that are made of a quartz crystal (or barium titanate, an
industrial ceramic) with a mass bolted on top and a spring that
compresses the quartz. A piezoelectric material generates an
electric charge (voltage) output when it is compressed.
Figure 7. Piezoelectric Accelerometer

In operation, the accelerometer base is contact mounted to the

vibrating object and the mass wants to stay stationary in space.
With the mass stationary and the base moving with the
vibration, the piezoelectric disks get compressed and relaxed. In
the most typically used compression-type models, the seismic
mass and the base alternately exert compression in the
piezoelectric discs. The piezoelectric disks generate a charge
(voltage) output going positive and negative as the disks are
alternately compressed tighter and relaxed. The charge output
follows the motion of the surface in the direction of the
accelerometer’s sensitive axis. The immediate millivolt output of
this transducer is proportional to the acceleration of the vibrating
subject; if the acceleration level is high, then the force
transmitted from the shaft to its supporting radial bearing is high.
This force is the cause of excessive wear and premature failure
in a radial bearing.
The measurement processed from an accelerometer’s output
signal is seismic (absolute motion relative to inertial space).
Unlike the velocity pickup, it is practically unaffected by external
electrical or magnetic fields. Accelerometers are as sensitive to
ground loops as other pickups. Ground loops can be easily
eliminated by providing ground isolating washers at the
accelerometer base.
As specified in API Standard 670, the accelerometer channel
accuracy for measuring casing vibration must be within ±5
percent of 100 millivolts per g (mV/g) over a minimum range of
0.1 g to 75 g, peak, and over the frequency range of 10 Hz to 10
kHz. To avoid problems from noise and cable whip and to
minimize error in measurement, the electrical impedance of the
cable that links the accelerometer to the signal conditioner and
to the channel plug-in module is matched to the electrical
impedance of the accelerometer case.

The accelerometer has a very high mounted resonance,

typically 25,000 kHz, because it has no moving parts. The
response is linear for the first third of the accelerometer’s range,
and it is used below its mounted resonance. The range is 5 to
about 10,000 kHz, depending on its size. Small accelerometers
have low sensitivities but higher operating frequencies. Some
small accelerometers are useful above 50,000 kHz. Large
accelerometers have high sensitivities but lower high-frequency
limits (800 to 1000 kHz). In gas turbine applications, the
accelerometer output signal is usually modified (integrated) to a
velocity signal.
Temperature Monitoring Instruments

Temperature monitoring instruments are used to monitor
bearing conditions on gas turbines, as well as compressor
discharge, first stage turbine inlet, and turbine exhaust
temperatures.
Resistance
Temperature Detector
A Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) is a general term for

any device that senses temperature through a measurement of
the change in resistance of a material. All metals produce a
positive change in resistance for a positive change in
temperature. RTDs are available in many forms; however, they
usually appear in sheathed form. An RTD probe is an assembly
that consists of a resistance element, a sheath, a lead wire, and
a termination connection. The sheath, which is a closed end
probe that immobilizes the element, protects the element
against moisture and the measured environment. The sheath
also provides protection and stability to the transition lead wires
from the fragile element wires. Some RTD probes can be
combined with thermowells for additional protection. In this type
of application, the thermowell will also isolate the system gas
from the RTD.
When the nominal value of the RTD resistance is large, system
error is minimized. To obtain a high RTD resistance, a metal
wire with high resistivity must be chosen. Platinum has the
highest resistivity of the selected metals that are commonly
used for RTD construction.

RTDs can be constructed of several different types of metal.

Gold and silver are rarely used as RTD elements because of
their lower resistivities. Tungsten has a relatively high resistivity,
but it is reserved for very high temperature applications because
it is extremely brittle and difficult to work. Tungsten would also
suffer in an oxidizing environment because of the high reaction
rates. Copper is occasionally used as an RTD element.
Copper’s low resistivity forces the element to be longer than a
platinum element, but its linearity and very low cost make it an
economical alternative. Copper RTDs have an upper
temperature limit of 120ºC (248ºF).
The most common RTDs are made of platinum, nickel, or nickel
alloys. The economical nickel derivative wires are used over a
limited temperature range. Nickel wire output is nonlinear and
tends to drift with time. For the best measurement integrity,
platinum is the metal of choice. Platinum is used at the primary
element in all high-accuracy resistance thermometers. Platinum
is especially suited for widely varying degrees as it can
withstand high temperatures while maintaining excellent
stability. As a noble metal, platinum shows limited susceptibility
to contamination. Saudi Aramco 34-SAMSS-625 specifies three-
wire platinum RTDs, calibrated to 100 ohm at 0ºC (32ºF), with a
temperature coefficient of resistance equal to 0.00385
ohm/ohm/degree C from 0ºC to 100ºC, as the standard
temperature sensor for thrust and journal bearing temperature
channels.
Although the RTD is an accurate temperature measurement
device, some errors may develop. The RTD is a passive
resistance element, and a current must be applied to the RTD to
develop an output signal. This current generates heat, which
becomes objectionable when the heat is sufficient to
significantly change the temperature to be measured. This self-
heating effect causes minor errors. A limited amount of power
used to produce the output signal should minimize the error.

Another error that may affect the accuracy of the temperature

measurement can be caused by the lead wire. The copper lead
wire for connection of the RTD to the transducer, although a
satisfactory trade-off between cost and resistance, represents a
resistance in series with the RTD and thus is a source of
inaccuracy. For long transmission distances, ambient
temperature effects can cause appreciable errors; however,
these errors can be compensated for by designing the RTD as a
three- or four-terminal device.
Lack of standardization among manufacturers concerning the
relationships between resistance and temperature may cause
an accuracy problem. Errors can occur when RTDs of several
manufacturers are used in a single system, or when the element
of one manufacturer is replaced with the element of another
manufacturer. These errors can be avoided by not mixing RTDs
with different temperature versus resistance curves.
Inaccuracy of an RTD may also result from slow dynamic
response. Slow response may be caused by the RTD
construction; the RTD sensing element consists of an
encapsulated wire that is cut to a length that provides a
predetermined resistance at 0ºC. The temperature-sensitive
portion of the probe, which depends on the length of the sensing
element, is from 0.5 to 2.5 in. The RTD is thus considered to be
an area-sensitive device, and it has a significantly slower
dynamic response than point-sensitive devices like
thermocouples. Because RTDs are invariably installed in
thermowells, the thermowells represent a much larger
contribution to the slowing of the dynamic response; therefore,
the error is of little significance.
Thermocouples
Thermocouples are another reliable method of temperature

measurement. Thermocouples function very differently from
RTDs, but they generally appear in the same configuration.
Thermocouples are usually sheathed, and they can be used in
conjunction with a thermowell. Thermocouple-type instruments
have a range of -280 to +2750ºC (-440 to +5000ºF) and an
accuracy of 0.1ºC (0.2ºF).

The thermocouple (T/C) consists of two dissimilar metal or alloy

wires that are joined at one end, the so-called measuring (or
"hot") junction. The free ends of the two wires are connected to
the measuring instrument to form a closed path in which current
can flow. The point at which the T/C wires connect to the
measuring instrument is designated as the "reference" (or
"cold") junction.
Application of heat to the measuring junction causes a small
electromotive force (EMF or voltage) to be generated at the
reference junction. When a readout device is employed, it
converts the EMF that is produced by the temperature
difference between the measuring and the reference junctions
to record or otherwise display the temperature of the measuring
junction. When the reference temperature is known (usually
0ºC), and when the measuring junction is exposed to an
unknown temperature, the EMF that is developed will vary
directly with changes in the unknown temperature.
The noble metal T/C, Types B, R, and S, are all platinum or
platinum-rhodium T/C and share many of the same
characteristics. Platinum wire T/C should only be used inside a
nonmetallic sheath, such as high-purity alumina, due to metallic
vapor diffusion at high temperatures that can readily change the
platinum wire calibration. The only other acceptable sheath
would be one made from platinum, which would rather
expensive.
The platinum-based T/C is the most stable of all the common
T/C. Type S is so stable that it is specified as the standard for
temperature calibration between the antimony point
(630.74ºC/1167.33ºF) and the gold point
(1064.43ºC/1947.97ºF). Type R is similar to the type S; the only
difference is that the rhodium makes up 10 percent instead of
13 percent of the positive leg wire.
The Type B T/C is the only common thermocouple that exhibits
a double-valued ambiguity. Due to the double-valued curve,
Type B is not used below 50ºC (122ºF). Because the output is
nearly zero from 0ºC (32ºF) to 42ºC (107.6ºF), Type B has the
unique advantage that the reference junction temperature is
almost immaterial when it is between 0ºC (32ºF) and 40ºC
(104ºF). However, the measuring junction temperature is
typically very high.
Due to their high costs, the noble metal thermocouples are
typically used only for measuring very high temperatures or

where other factors justify the cost. For most applications, base
metal T/C, Types T, J, E, or K, is used. Types E, J, and K are
typically used in Saudi Aramco facilities, depending on the
application.
The Type E T/C positive element is made from a nickel-
chromium alloy generally referred to by the trade name
Chromel. The negative leg is made from a copper-nickel alloy
called Constantan. The Type E is ideally suited for low
temperature measurements because of its low thermal
conductivity and high corrosion resistance. The Type E
thermocouple is useful for detecting small temperature changes.
Iron is the positive element in a Type J T/C, with the negative
leg being Constantan. Iron is an inexpensive metal and is rarely
manufactured in pure form, which contributes to the poor
conformance characteristics. Although the impurities in the iron
are high, the Type J T/C is popular because of its low price. The
Type J T/C has a more restrictive temperature limitation than
most T/C. At 760ºC (1400ºF), an abrupt magnetic
transformation occurs that can cause decalibration even when
the T/C is returned to lower temperatures. Saudi Aramco
Standard 34-SAMSS-625 specifies grounded, Type J
thermocouples manufactured in accordance with ANSI MC96.1
(IEC 584-1) as the standard optional temperature sensor for
journal and thrust bearing temperature channels.
The Type K T/C is similar to the type E with the exception that
the negative element is made from a nickel alloy instead of
Constantan. Type K has a higher temperature range than Types
E or J.
The measuring instrument usually is located away from the
point at which the temperature is measured; therefore, an
extension is needed. Because the temperature-sensing resistor
for maintaining a constant reference junction EMF can be most
conveniently located in the instrument as a part of its circuit, the
reference junction itself must be located in the instrument;
therefore, the thermoelectric circuit must be extended from the
measuring junction, at the point where the temperature
measurement is desired, to the reference junction in the
instrument. This extension is done through the use of extension
wires.
Extension wires theoretically extend the T/C to the reference
junction in the instrument. This wire is generally furnished in the
form of a matched pair of conductors. The simplest procedure is

to use the same types of wire from which the T/C itself is made.
However, in installations with noble-metal T/C where several
hundred feet of extension wire must be used, or where
numerous T/C are employed, such a procedure may become
too expensive. In such cases, alternative lower-cost materials
with similar characteristics at lower temperatures are available.
Thermocouples, much like RTDs, suffer from errors in their
measurement. Static electrical noise may be introduced into T/C
circuits by adjacent wires carrying ac power or rapidly varying
(pulsating) dc. Static electrical noise may also be introduced if
the T/C extension wires are capacitively coupled to an electric
field. These noises can be minimized or avoided by shielding
each pair of extension wires and by grounding the wire shields.
T/C wires must never run in the same conduit with electric
power wires.
Magnetic noise may be induced into a T/C circuit any time the
extension wires are subjected to a magnetic field, and a current
is produced to oppose the magnetic field. This magnetic noise
can be minimized by twisting each pair of T/C extension wires.
Crosstalk noise between adjacent wire pairs in the same conduit
may also occur. Crosstalk can be avoided by shielding each pair
of extension wires.
Common-mode noise in the circuit between the measuring
junction and the transducer may occur when the circuit is
grounded in more than one place, or when different grounding
potentials exist along the wire path. Three different approaches
can avoid these problems: the noise can be minimized by
proper grounding (T/C circuits are usually grounded at the
measuring junction only), by shielding each pair of extension
wires and grounding the shields at the T/C only, or by using
differential input measuring devices.
The monitor/control unit should be the same as the general
control instrumentation. Monitors must consist of a separate
alarm unit for each point and a single, time-shared temperature
indicator. The alarm units must have dual setpoints and outputs,
and they must accept the signal directly from the element. The
alarm units must be suitable for back-of-panel rack mounting, or
for mounting at a remote location. The alarms must be
displayed on a separate annunciator.

The monitor must provide a fault alarm for open or short circuits
in the control wiring between the detector and the monitor.
Monitor relays that are used for prealarm and shutdown output
functions must be the hermetically sealed, plug-in type. The trip
settings must be in accordance with the recommendations of
the turbine manufacturer.
In accordance with SAES-J-601, Recommended Temperature
Alarms and Input Shutdown Devices, 100-ohm platinum RTDs
or thermocouples that are wired directly into a Triple Modular
Redundant Emergency Shutdown (TMR ESD) system, or
analog 4-20 mA dc, or digital signals from ambient temperature-
compensated temperature transmitters/transducer are
recommended for measuring and inputting ESD temperature
signals. Capillary or bimetallic type, direct process actuated
temperature switches with an associated indicating gauge must
not be used unless thermocouple or RTD measurements are
not practical or feasible.

TYPICAL VIBRATION MONITORING ARRANGEMENTS

Vibration monitoring arrangements describe the type of
monitoring instruments and the locations of the monitoring
instruments on a gas turbine and other elements of the
machinery train. API 670 requires that a monitoring
arrangement plan be furnished for each machinery train.
Monitoring arrangement plans typically illustrate the following:
• The position of each vibration detector.
• The direction of active thrust for the gas turbine (heavy duty,
industrial type only).
• The direction of turbine rotation as viewed from the drive end
of the turbine.
• A complete description of the monitoring system that
includes the following:
1. The number, type, and position of vibration detectors.
2. The type of bearings.
3. The radial clock position of the vibration detectors, with
degrees referenced to the vertical top dead center (TDC)
as zero.
4. The location of axial position detectors (if applicable).
5. The arrangement of the gas turbine/oscillator-
demodulator box.
6. The layout of the radial shaft vibration, axial position,
casing vibration, and bearing temperature monitors and
all signal locations on the monitor.
7. The location and orientation of the key phaser probe and
the location of the target relative to the numbered
valance holes.
The following section will describe the monitoring equipment
requirements and arrangements for heavy-duty and aero-
derivative turbines as defined by industry and Saudi Aramco
standards.

Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines

In accordance with SAES-K-502, vibration and temperature
monitoring systems must be installed in accordance with the
following standards:
• 34-SAMSS-625, Vibration, Axial Position, and Bearing
Temperature Monitoring Systems
• API 616, Gas Turbines For Refinery Service (by reference)
• API 670, Vibration, Axial Position, and Bearing Temperature
Monitoring Systems (by reference)
Additional requirements for installation of vibration and
temperature monitoring systems for gas turbines are located in
SAES-J-604, Protective Instrumentation for Rotating Machinery
SAES-K-502 specifies that unless operating temperatures

exceed instrumentation limits, the following vibration
measurement and monitoring instrumentation shall be provided
for heavy-duty gas turbines:
• Key phasor on each shaft.
• Journal bearings shall have noncontacting X-Y probes
mounted at 45º from the vertical centerline, where possible.
• Bearing housings shall have a piezo-velocity seismic
transducer displaying velocity, RMS.
• The thrust bearings shall have dual probes with voting logic
monitoring the axial position.
The X-Y probes are used for diagnosis, monitoring and alarm.
The seismic transducers are used for diagnosis, monitoring,
alarm and emergency shutdown. Installation and calibration
shall be in accordance with 34-SAMSS-625.
Proximity Probes - As mentioned previously, the noncontact
proximity systems as used by Saudi Aramco have the following
applications related to the proximity probe installations: radial to
the rotating shaft, axial to the rotating shaft, rotative speed, and
phase relationship.

A noncontact proximity probe is usually permanently mounted in

a bearing housing to analyze the surface of a rotating shaft.
Noncontact proximity probes can also be clamped to the
bearing housing, in which case the mounted resonance of the
fitting must be taken into consideration. The probe must be
calibrated for the specific shaft material, and the material must
be electrically conductive for the proximity probe to properly set
up a magnetic field to sense any gaps.
The proximity probe senses shaft surface defects, such as
scratches, dents, and variations in conductivity and
permeability. The proximity probe also senses electrical and
mechanical runout but has difficulty distinguishing vibration from
runout. Electrical runout can be described as an electrical signal
from a proximity probe due to the effect of irregular shaft
conductivity and magnetic permeability in the shaft material.
Mechanical runout can be described as the measurements of
shaft surface imperfections. Shaft surface imperfections are
always present. A proximity probe cannot readily distinguish
shaft runout (mechanical runout) from vibration. A slow roll may
be performed, however, to allow the electronic circuit to
memorize all of the shaft imperfections and shaft runout, and
subtract the signal of shaft imperfections from the signal that the
proximity probe reports at running speed. Slow roll is low rpm
(200 to 600 rpm) that occurs during the turbine startup or
coastdown. A digital vector filter (used to obtain the Bode plot)
must be “zero nulled” so the runout will not be a factor during
the slow roll.
The acceptable shaft vibration limit at any speed and load up to
the maximum continuous speed, excluding electrical runout, is
the maximum of 2 mils or the following:
12,000
Allowable shaft vibration in mils peak-to-peak =
rpm

The measurement of radial vibration is accomplished by

monitoring the dc output of a displacement probe that is
associated with the radial vibration at the journal bearings.
Under normal operation and with no internal or external
preloads on the shaft, the shaft position of most machine
designs will be approximately 15º to 30º off the vertical
centerline in the direction of rotation.. However, as soon as the
machine receives some external or internal type preload
(steady-state force), the radial position of the shaft in the journal
bearing can be anywhere. The radial position measurement
can be an excellent indicator of journal bearing wear and heavy
preload conditions, such as misalignment. In installations in
which only single-plane monitoring is present, radial position
must be measured on a periodic basis.
Radial displacement should be closely monitored during turbine
startup or coastdown. During a turbine startup (with
hydrodynamic radial bearings), the shaft would be expected to
rise from the bottom of the bearing to some place toward the
horizontal centerline of the bearing. This movement is
fundamentally due to the oil flowing under the shaft, which
causes the shaft to rise in the bearing. It is generally believed
that the oil film is about one mil in thickness.
Because of the ability of the radial position to change under
varying conditions of machinery load and alignment, the
proximity probe transducer system must have a sufficiently long
linear range to allow for the large radial position changes. A long
linear range is required in large machines in which large bearing
clearances are normally present.

For a radial vibration transducer, Saudi Aramco requires that

two noncontact proximity probes be mounted to or in each radial
hydrodynamic bearing of the turbine rotor. Unless the rotating
equipment construction prevents access to the bearings, this
requirement should be strictly adhered to. As shown in Figure 8,
the two probes should be installed with as close to 90 degrees
of radial separation as feasible. The probes must be in the same
axial plane to the shaft, so that a true representation of the shaft
movement can be monitored. Also, the probes must be installed
so that each probe is offset by 45 degrees from the top dead
center of the bearing. The probes should be identified as X and
Y, not horizontal and vertical. The position of the X and Y
probes is defined by Saudi Aramco convention. The position of
the X and Y probes is determined by standing outboard, facing
the gas turbine in the direction of gas flow.
Figure 8. Noncontact Eddy Current Probe Orientation

As specified in API Standard 670, the noncontact proximity
probe for a phase reference transducer (key phasor) must be

installed so that its radial axis of observation is along a plane

other than the plane for the radial axes that are observed by the
probes for a radial vibration transducer.
A phase reference transducer also serves as a noncontact
proximity probe. Only a single probe is required to be radially
mounted on an equipment train with the same rotation and
speed. If part of the train has a different rotation or speed, a
separate probe should be provided.
The phase reference transducer detects, once each revolution
of the shaft, a phase reference mark on the shaft. This mark
may be a keyway, a key, a hole, a slot, or a projection on the
shaft. Any of these marks will cause a radical change in the
probe tip gap and thus provide a signal change to the proximitor
on each revolution.
An oscilloscope references the output signal from a phase
reference transducer to a filtered output signal from a radial
vibration transducer. On the oscilloscope display, the detection
of the phase reference mark appears as a pulse on the radial
vibration waveform. Phase angle is the number of degrees
(along the x axis of the X/Y plot) from a pulse mark to the first
positive peak in the waveform from left to right.
Axial displacement measurements are typically used to monitor
the condition of thrust bearings in heavy duty, industrial gas
turbines, which always use hydrodynamic thrust bearings.
Axially mounted noncontact proximity probes are used to detect
the axial movement of the rotating element during operation. All
rotating elements have some axial movement in response to
external forces, such as forces that are imposed through
couplings from other equipment in the train or from the coupling
itself, and in response to internal forces in the rotating
equipment, such as changes in process conditions and thermal
changes. All hydrodynamic machines have sufficient axial
clearance that allows relatively large gaps to be set for alarm
and trip setpoints. At least two axial thrust position probes
should be mounted to provide axial thrust position protection.
Under the normal operating conditions of a gas turbine, thrust
position can vary with the load of the driven machine, so a
variation in thrust position measurements under different loads
and conditions of a machine are not uncommon.
The axial shaft movements are normally constrained within
allowable limits by the design of the equipment. Axial shaft
movement constraints are commonly thrust bearings or thrust

shoulders, both of which interact between the rotating and

stationary parts of the equipment.
During normal operation, rotating equipment will have a thrust
load in one direction. The direction of the thrust load depends
on the relative levels of the thrust in the compressor section
(directed from the discharge end toward the suction end in an
axial compressor) and the turbine section (directed from the
turbine inlet towards the turbine exhaust, that is, in the opposite
direction). The rotating element must be protected from
excessive axial movement that is caused by normal thrust
bearing wear or thrust bearing failure that would then permit
internal rotating element wear and catastrophic failure.
Two axially mounted noncontact proximity probes are installed
to sense changes that occur in the axial position of the shaft in
either direction. The movement will be restricted to allowable
values for gas turbine alarm and shutdown functions.

In accordance with 34-SAMSS-625, Saudi Aramco uses axial

position probe arrangements specified in API Standard 670.
There are two probe installation arrangements: an arrangement
for a shaft that is equipped with an integral thrust collar and an
arrangement for a shaft without an integral thrust collar. Figure 9
shows the axial position probe installation for a thrust bearing
with an integral thrust collar. Because integral thrust collars are
preferred (API 616), this arrangement will be the more common
arrangement. One probe is mounted to measure the integral
thrust collar, the other probe is mounted to measure the end of
the shaft.
Figure 9. API 670 Axial Position Probe Installation for a Shaft with
an Integral Thrust Collar

Figure 10 shows the axial position probe installation for a shaft

without an integral thrust collar. This configuration is referred to
by the API Standard 670 as the standard axial position
arrangement. Both axial position probes are mounted to
measure the end of the shaft. Noncontact proximity probes must
never be installed to observe a nonintegral thrust collar. The
arrangement prevents incidental gas turbine shutdown or alarm
in the event that a nonintegral thrust collar comes loose and
allows the shaft to move axially.
Figure 10. API 670 Standard Axial Position Probe Installation Arrangement
In accordance with the requirements specified in API Standard

670, the axial position monitoring system must use dual voting
logic. In a dual voting logic system, the measurements
processed from the outputs of each transducer must equal or
exceed the setpoint to activate the danger alarm or shutdown
(two out of two).

Seismic Probes - In addition to displacement probes, bearing

housing seismic transducers displaying RMS velocity are
required on all heavy-duty gas turbines. Piezoelectric velocity
transducers must have a minimum linear operating range of
2500 Hz. Piezoelectric acceleration transducers must have a
minimum linear operating range of 10 kHz. All piezoelectric
transducers must be rated for temperatures above 120ºC. The
seismic transducers are used for shutdown functions, as well as
monitoring.
Figure 11 shows a typical vibration and axial position system
arrangement for a heavy-duty gas turbine.

A1 NUMBER 2 BEARING RADIAL

ACCELEROMETER 90º OFF TDC
A2 NUMBER 3 BEARING RADIAL
ACCELEROMETER 90º OFF TDC
P1 AXIAL POSITION PROBE
P2 AXIAL POSITION PROBE
Ø
3Y TURBINE END RADIAL
VIBRATION PROBE 45º OFF TDC
T5 4X TURBINE END RADIAL
ELLIPTICAL JOURNAL VIBRATION PROBE, 45º OFF TDC
BEARING T4 5Y COMPRESSOR END RADIAL
VIBRATION PROBE 45º OFF TDC
6X COMPRESSOR END RADIAL
VIBRATION PROBE, 45º OFF TDC
3Y 4X φ PHASE REFERENCE PROBE 45º

OFF TDC
TURBINE
A1
A2
VIBRATION MONITORING
SYSTEM JUNCTION BOX
ACTIVE THRUST
3 φ
4 A2
A1
COMPRESSOR
5 2
6 1
5Y 6X
T3
ELLIPTICAL JOURNAL
BEARING T2
KINGSBURY THRUST
BEARING
T1
P1 P2
Figure 11. Typical Vibration and Axial Position System Arrangement

for a Heavy Duty Gas Turbine

Temperature
Monitoring
SAES-K-502 specifies that for heavy-duty gas turbines, each

hydrodynamic thrust and radial bearing is required to have a
replaceable RTD installed in a pad that is expected to carry the
greatest load. For thrust bearings, RTDs will be required for
both the active and inactive side, since thrust loading will vary
with machine load. Additionally, bearing lube oil drain
thermocouples must be provided for every bearing.
In addition to bearing temperature monitoring, SAES-K-502
requires that heavy-duty gas turbines be equipped with two
thermocouples for each wheel space. These thermocouples
must be replaceable during operation. The wheel spaces are
the areas fore and aft of each turbine wheel. Excessive
temperatures in these areas are indicative of wear or damage to
turbine rotating blade root seals, which allow the wheel and
rotor to be directly exposed to the hot gases. Because the
materials from which the rotor and wheel are constructed are
not as resistant to high temperatures as the hot gas path
materials, this can result in a shortening of the turbine rotor life.
The turbine manufacturer will provide wheel space temperature
alarm limits. There is generally no trip function associated with
wheel space temperature.
Embedded Probes - An embedded temperature monitoring
probe is typically an RTD or thermocouple, with RTDs required
for bearing temperature monitoring, as noted above. Saudi
Aramco does not permit the use of spring-loaded bayonet-type
temperature sensors that contact the outer shell of the bearing
metal because experience has shown that a consistently good
contact for reliable and accurate readings is not obtained. In
addition, through-drilling and puddling of the babbitt are not
permitted. The thermocouple is inserted through a drilled hole in
the bearing retainer, and its tip is made to firmly contact the
backing metal but not in contact with the babbitt. This
installation method provides the most reliable results and can
detect a temperature change more quickly than the drain
thermocouples that measure the temperature of the oil stream.
Measuring the backing material could be significant in the case
of a sudden rapid rise in bearing temperature, which might lead
to severe bearing or turbine damage before the turbine could be
shut down.

Oil Drain Probes - Oil drain probes consist mainly of

thermocouple-type temperature detectors installed in the oil
drain line, as shown in Figure 12. The thermocouple is installed
in a thermowell with the tip of the thermocouple in contact with
the bottom of the thermowell. Oil drain temperature is monitored
to identify potential operational problems that may cause failure.
The turbine vendor will provide alarm and emergency shutdown
limits for bearing drain temperature.
Figure 12. Oil Drain Line Thermocouple Installation

Aero-Derivative Gas Turbines

In accordance with SAES-K-502, vibration and temperature
monitoring systems for aero-derivative gas turbines must be
installed in accordance with the following standards:
• 34-SAMSS-625, Vibration, Axial Position, and Bearing
Temperature Monitoring Systems.
• API 616, Gas Turbines For Refinery Service (by reference).
• API 670, Vibration, Axial Position, and Bearing Temperature
Monitoring Systems (by reference).
Additional requirements for installation of vibration and
temperature monitoring systems for gas turbines are located in
SAES-J-604, Protective Instrumentation for Rotating Machinery.
This section will describe the requirements that specifically
apply to aero-derivative gas turbines.
All aero-derivative gas turbines utilize antifriction (rolling

element) bearings. For aero-derivative gas turbines, vibration
measurement and monitoring are per the Vendor's standard. A
minimum of two transducers are required: one on the
compressor casing and one on the turbine casing. The selection
of whether piezoelectric velocity or acceleration transducers are
used depends on the frequency and the temperature
requirements. Piezo-velocity transducers apply up to 2 kHz and
piezo-accelerometers apply above 120ºC (248ºF). Both
transducers are used for alarm and emergency shutdown
purposes. Usually, each transducer sends a signal to a filter that
provides dedicated output signals in velocity (inches per second
zero to peak or RMS) for each rotor. The signal is usually
filtered to rotor running speed (1×) but has the capability of full
frequency range monitoring for diagnostic purposes.
The alarm and shutdown limits for aero-derivative gas turbines
are typically designated by the gas turbine vendor. The typical
filtered (1×) alarm limit is 0.35 inches per second rms, and the
typical filtered shutdown limit is 0.5 inches per second rms.

Temperature
Monitoring
Because of the type of bearings used, bearing temperature

monitoring for aero-derivative gas turbines cannot be used.
However, SAES-K-502 does require that machines with
antifriction bearings be equipped with instrumented metal chip
detection in the lube oil drain lines as a minimum. When
specified, an on-line metallic debris monitoring system must be
provided in the drain lines. Detection by this system of any chips
or debris in the oil will be annunciated in the plant control room,
which will provide early warning of impending bearing failure.
Aero-derivative gas turbines are required by SAES-K-502 to
have, as a minimum, two wheel space thermocouples
downstream of the last turbine wheel. The thermocouples and
the conduits must be as small as possible, must utilize the
existing struts in the turbine/exhaust casing, and must not cause
significant disturbance to the air and hot gas flow.

GAS TURBINE THERMODYNAMIC PERFORMANCE MONITORING

The vibration and temperature monitoring systems discussed so
far are used primarily for monitoring the mechanical
performance of the machine. Increased vibration and increased
bearing temperatures are typically indicative of mechanical
deterioration of the machine, such as wear or mechanical
damage. The monitoring system is used to detect this
mechanical deterioration before it progresses to the point of
catastrophic failure.
API 616 requires that temperature instrumentation be provided
to monitor important temperatures within the unit and to record
the more important items, such as exhaust temperature.
Important temperatures that are useful in monitoring gas turbine
thermodynamic performance (efficiency) include the compressor
discharge temperature, the turbine inlet temperature, and the
turbine exhaust temperature. Of these temperatures, the turbine
inlet temperature is not generally measured due to the lack of
long-term reliability of most temperature probes at the high
temperatures encountered. Instead, this temperature is
calculated by the control system based on measurements of the
turbine exhaust temperature, the ambient temperature, and the
compressor discharge pressure. In two-shaft machines with a
separate power turbine, the inlet temperature to the power
turbine may be measured.
This section will take a brief look at using the above
measurements for monitoring gas turbine thermodynamic
performance.
Compressor Discharge Temperature

As was stated in Module 214.03, compressor performance has
a significant impact on the overall performance of the gas
turbine. Even with the inlet filtration provided, the compressor
section of the turbine can become fouled, which reduces
compressor performance. For this reason, SAES-K-502 requires
that all gas turbines be equipped with both on-line and off-line
compressor wash systems. Performing a compressor wash can
remove fouling deposits and restore compressor performance.

Compressor performance is monitored to determine the need

for a wash by trending compressor efficiency. The compressor
isentropic efficiency is calculated by using the compressor inlet
temperature and pressure and the compressor discharge
temperature and pressure as follows:
 k −1

  P2  k 
T1   − 1
  P1  
η=  
T2 − T1
Where:
T1 = compressor suction absolute temperature (ºR
or K)
T2 = compressor discharge absolute temperature
(ºR or K)
P1 = compressor suction absolute pressure (psia
or KPa abs)
P2 = compressor discharge absolute pressure
(psia or KPa abs)
k = ratio of specific heats
The ratio of specific heats, k, varies slightly with temperature;
however, for trending purposes, it can be assumed to be a
constant equal to 1.4. An efficiency calculated with k = 1.4 will
be slightly higher than the efficiency calculated using variable
gas properties, but, as long as it is used consistently, it will be
adequate for monitoring changes in compressor performance.

The following is an example of calculating compressor isentropic

efficiency:
 1.4 −1

  167.5  1.4 
539.67   − 1
  14.7  
η=  
1139.67 − 539.67
=
(
539.67 11.395.2857 − 1 )
600
541.84
= = .903 = 90.3%
600
Local ambient barometer - 29.92” Hg (14.7 psia)
Compressor inlet temperature - 80ºF (539.67ºR)
Compressor discharge pressure - 152.8 psig (167.5 psia)
Compressor discharge temperature - 680ºF (1139.67ºR)
Because compressor efficiency varies with load, calculations for
performance trending should be made at the same turbine load
and compressor inlet conditions each time.
Turbine Inlet Temperature

As noted above, turbine inlet temperature is not normally
measured by temperature instruments but calculated by the
control system. For a base-loaded turbine, the control system
will control the fuel to maintain a constant turbine inlet
temperature or exhaust temperature. For a two-shaft machine,
the turbine inlet temperature to the power turbine may be
measured. If this temperature is increasing for a given load, it is
an indication that the efficiency of the gas generator
(compressor and HP turbine) is decreasing.

Turbine Exhaust Temperature

The temperature of the gas turbine exhaust is a measure of how
much energy is contained in the exhaust. The energy in the
exhaust is the energy that was not used by the machine to
produce work; so, it is a measure of the inefficiency of the gas
turbine. As the gas turbine’s exhaust temperature increases, the
efficiency of the gas turbine decreases.
As discussed in MEX 214.03, the efficiency of the turbine varies
with changes in ambient temperature; therefore, the expected
turbine exhaust temperature would also change with a change
in ambient temperature. SAES-K-502 requires the turbine
vendor to furnish data to include curves that show exhaust
temperature corrections versus ambient temperature and curves
that show exhaust temperature versus load for various ambient
temperatures; therefore, the Mechanical Engineer can obtain an
indication of gas turbine efficiency by comparing measured
exhaust temperature with that predicted by the curves.
Turbine exhaust temperatures can also be used to diagnose
problems that occur in the combustion section of the gas turbine
during operation. If problems in the combustion section of the
turbine result in an uneven temperature pattern at the turbine
inlet, the uneven temperature profile will also show up at the
turbine exhaust due to incomplete mixing of the gases as they
pass through the turbine; therefore, monitoring the spread in
exhaust temperatures will help to detect combustion system
problems. An increasing exhaust temperature spread indicates
problems with one or more fuel nozzles or a problem with fuel
distribution to the various nozzles

GLOSSARY
acceleration The rate at which velocity increases or decreases. Measured

in g’s (the acceleration produced by gravity at the earth’s
surface; equal to 386.087 in/sec2).
accelerometer A transducer that responds to force and that produces an
electrical output signal (in millivolts) that is directly proportional
to acceleration. Some accelerometers contain circuitry to
integrate the response to acceleration to an output signal
proportional to velocity.
amplitude The magnitude of a variable that varies periodically at any
instant during a cycle (or period).
babbitt A soft lead/tin mixture used for a surface in bearings.
condition monitoring A process and a method of monitoring specific parameters on
equipment to determine the status of the mechanical
condition.
critical equipment Equipment that is considered to be vital to continued
production and that is usually nonspared.
displacement Movement of an object from a position of rest, equilibrium, or
in relation to a reference point.
electromotive force A rise in electrical potential energy.
frequency The number of cycles that a periodic variation completes in a
given period. Sometimes stated in cycles per minute (cpm) or
cycles per second (cps, Hertz, Hz). For vibration, frequency is
also expressed as a multiple (1×, 2×) of shaft rotative speed.
noncontact proximity A sensor that detects the gap between its tip and a shaft
probe surface.
phase angle An expression in degrees that defines the relationship

between events that occur as a rotating shaft vibrates.
Typically, phase angle defines the number of degrees that the
unbalance mass (heavy spot) in a shaft has rotated between
the event in which a phase reference transducer detects a
phase reference mark and the vent in which the heavy spot
makes the closest approach (high spot) to the sensor of a
radial vibration transducer.
phase reference A transducer that identifies a once-per-revolution event (phase
transducer reference mark) on the rotating shaft.

Resistance A general term for any device that senses temperature by

Temperature Detector measuring the change in resistance of a material.
(RTD)
root mean square In reference to measurements of vibration, 71% (.707) of a
(rms) zero-to-peak value for velocity or acceleration sine waves.
Calculated algorithmically as follows: a number of
instantaneous values occurring during one cycle or during
several cycles are squared; the average of the squared values
is taken; and the square root of this average is then taken. In a
vibration monitoring system, velocity and acceleration are
often measured in terms of RMS values.
seismic transducer A transducer that is used to measure velocity or acceleration.
The term seismic indicates the measurement type: motion in
relation to free space or to a fixed point in free space. Seismic
transducers include accelerometers and velocity transducers,
which measure structural vibration.
thermocouple A junction of two dissimilar metals that has a voltage output
that is proportional to the difference in temperature between
the hot junction and the cold junction.
thermowell A closed-end tube that is designed to protect temperature
sensors from harsh environments, high pressure, and flows.
Thermowells can be installed into a system by pipe thread or
welded flange, and they are usually made of corrosion-
resistant metal or ceramic material.
triple modular An emergency or safety shutdown system that employs a two-
redundant emergency out-of-three voting scheme to determine the appropriate
shutdown system output action.
velocity The time rate at which an object is moving. For vibration,
measured in inches per second (in/sec).
velocity transducer A transducer that senses velocity of vibration and that
produces an electrical output signal (in mV) that is proportional
to velocity.
vibration Motion in which an object undergoes periodically occurring
displacement. Vibration is measured in terms of its variables of
displacement (mils), velocity (in/sec), and acceleration (g’s).
For rotating machinery, vibration is assessed in terms of
frequency, peak-to-peak amplitudes of displacement, and
either root mean square (RMS) values or zero-to-peak values
for velocity or acceleration.

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

EVALUATING INSTALLATION OF VIBRATION

Chapter : Mechanical For additional information on this subject, contact

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Figure 1. Basic Relationship of Measured Parameters with a Simple Harmonic

Table 1. Advantages, Disadvantages, and Useful Ranges of Transducer Types.......... 13

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Additional temperature measuring instrumentation outside of the

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VIBRATION MONITORING EQUIPMENT

Vibration is the back and forth motion across a point of

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Vibration is defined as the oscillation of an object about its

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Phase, or phase angle, is another characteristic of vibration that

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The acceleration of the object is related to the forces that cause

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The phase relationships between the variables for vibration

Figure 1. Basic Relationship of Measured Parameters with a

Figure 2. Formation of a Complex Harmonic Signal

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The vibration signals shown in Figures 1 and 2 are shown as

Figure 3. Views from the Time and Frequency Domain

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The French mathematician, Jean Babtiste Fourier, discovered

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With velocity · Small size

Table 1. Advantages, Disadvantages, and Useful Ranges of Transducer Types

Figure 4 shows the range and the limitations on machinery

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Figure 4. Range and Limitations on Machinery Vibration Analysis

Displacement Probes - Displacement is generally the best

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The noncontacting proximity systems, as used by Saudi

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surface that is reflective or that can be made reflective.

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The capacitance probe is basically only one plate of a capacitor.

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The eddy current type of noncontact proximity probe is shown in

Figure 5. Eddy Current Proximity Probe

The eddy current system is not affected by water vapor in the

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Seismic (mass-spring) transducers use the response of a mass-

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Figure 6. Velocity Transducer

The velocity transducer is self-generating and produces an

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The velocity transducer has an internal natural frequency

Figure 7. Piezoelectric Accelerometer

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 21

In operation, the accelerometer base is contact mounted to the

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The accelerometer has a very high mounted resonance,

Temperature Monitoring Instruments

A Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) is a general term for

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RTDs can be constructed of several different types of metal.

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