840
2, MARCH 2015
Artificial Immune Systems Optimization
Approach for Multiobjective Distribution
System Reconfiguration
F. R. Alonso, D. Q. Oliveira, and A. C. Zambroni de Souza
Abstract—In order to optimize their assets, electrical power
distribution companies seek out various techniques to improve
system operation and its different variables, like voltage levels,
active power losses and so on. A few of the tools applied to meet
these objectives include reactive power compensation, use of
voltage regulators, and network reconfiguration. One target most
companies aim at is power loss minimization; one available tool
to do this is distribution system reconfiguration. To reconfigure a
network in radial power distribution systems means to alter the
topology changing the state of a set of switches normally closed
(NC) and normally opened (NO). In restructured electrical power
business, a company must also consider obtaining a topology
as reliable as possible. In most cases, reducing the power losses
is no guarantee of improved reliability. This paper presents a
multiobjective algorithm to reduce power losses while improving
the reliability index using the artificial immune systems technique
applying graph theory considerations to improve computational
performance and Pareto dominance rules. The proposed algo-
rithm is tested on a sample system, 14-bus test system, and on
Administración Nacional de Electricidad (ANDE) real feeder
(CBO-01 23-kV feeder).
Index Terms—Artificial immune systems, distribution system re-
configuration, system average interruption frequency index.
I. INTRODUCTION
D ISTRIBUTION systems are planned as either radial or
weakly meshed networks. They generally consist of a set
of feeders with resources. That is, the feeder can be divided
into sections with connectivity to other sections, allowing, in
contingency cases, interoperability.
Reducing system loss in these networks is a common goal of
electricity utilities. They go about achieving this goal by, most
commonly, installing voltage regulators, capacitors, and recon-
figuring networks.
Manuscript received December 24, 2013; revised February 18, 2014 and
April 28, 2014; accepted June 08, 2014. Date of publication June 27, 2014;
date of current version February 17, 2015. The work of A. C. Zambroni de
Souza was supported in part by CNPq and INERGE. The work of D. Q Oliveira
was supported by CAPES. The work of F. R. Alonso was supported by Itaipu
Binational Scholarships Unit. Paper no. TPWRS-01625-2013.
F. R. Alonso is with Administración Nacional de Electricidad—ANDE, Padre
Cardozo 1268 casi España, Barrio Las Mercedes, Asunción, Paraguay (e-mail:
ing.ricardo.alonso@gmail.com).
D. Q. Oliveira and A. C. Zambroni de Souza are with the Federal Uni-
versity of Itajubá, Pinheirinho, Itajubá, MG, 37500-903, Brazil (e-mail:
denissonqo@gmail.com; zambroni@unifei.edu.br).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRS.2014.2330628
0885-8950 © 2014 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 30, NO.
With the deregulation of electricity service worldwide, it has
become mandatory, if a company is to reach high reliability in-
dicators, to carry out network planning according to quality and
continuity of service indices—system average interruption fre-
quency index (SAIFI) and system average interruption duration
index (SAIDI). Regarding this, an effective alternative to im-
proving the supply of electricity is network reconfiguration.
Reconfiguring a distribution network is a multiobjective,
combinatorial, and complex problem; it entails many uncer-
tainties, making it harder for one to apply classical methods
[1]. The reconfiguring cannot be optimally solved without
considering important aspects like the proper modeling of the
distribution networks, the algorithms to handle configuration
changes in the network topology in a timely manner, load
flow calculations, the objective function composition and its
constraints, and decision-making techniques used to define the
ideal electrical configuration [2].
However, no relationship exists to indicate that improved
continuity indices lead to a reduction in power losses. In many
cases, reducing losses may even harm continuity indices. This
is a typical scenario for a multi-objective problem analysis.
Many authors have proposed different approaches to recon-
figuration problems, like fuzzy sets [2], [3], genetic algorithms
[1], [4], [5], a hybrid genetic algorithm-mixed integer linear pro-
gramming [6], a hybrid fuzzy-ant colony approach [7], simu-
lated annealing [8] and still others.
The framework of the multiobjective problem was intro-
duced in [9], and the framework took into account a balance
between conflicting objectives such as losses and reliability.
Multiobjective reconfiguration has, in recent years, been the
subject of several studies. In addition to reducing power losses,
researchers have considered such other objective functions as
load balancing [7], voltage deviations [10]–[13], the number
of switching operations [10], [13], and continuity indices [4],
[11], [14].
To solve this multiobjective problem, several methodologies
are proposed. Reference [10], to find the best configuration of
a system, considered seasonal loads through a methodology
called multiobjective evolutionary algorithm for distribution
feeder reconfigurations. This methodology uses interval anal-
ysis to consider uncertainties in customer demand. In [11] the
multiobjective problem to reduce power losses, voltage devia-
tion and frequency rate of power outages is transformed into a
mono-objective problem and solved using genetic algorithms.
Reference [15] proposed a methodology where a set of original
contributions are provided with reference to the construction
ALONSO et al.: ARTIFICIAL IMMUNE SYSTEMS OPTIMIZATION APPROACH FOR MULTIOBJECTIVE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM RECONFIGURATION
and updating of the best-known Pareto front using a genetic
algorithm-based solver. In [16] the authors considered reconfig-
uring a distribution by inserting wind turbines. They employed
a technique based on self adaptive modified learning teacher
optimization (SAMTLO) to solve the probabilistic problem
of considering wind plants in the improvement of power loss,
continuity index, and so forth.
This paper aims to solve the multiobjective problem of
reconfiguring a distribution system using the artificial immune
systems (AIS) approach, the non-dominant Pareto front, and
the graph theory. The AIS optimization tool mimics the human
immune system with its recognition patterns, memory, and
adaptive learning features. The AIS is more robust than genetic
algorithms and particle swarm, because its process searches
for solutions over an entire search space, avoiding premature
convergence for local minima. Previous papers have applied
AIS for multiobjective optimization purposes with success
[17], [18]. Differently from them, this paper takes advantage of
graph theory, in particular Prim's algorithm, due to its capacity
to generate minimum spanning trees during the evolutionary
process. The proposed approach is not only an improvement of
the AIS algorithm computational performance, but constitutes
a novel and robust method to assess feasible solutions for real
problems.
The authors in [2] argued that the computational time for the
reconfiguration problem is not a primary concern because the
main goals of distribution operation planning are to reduce both
power losses and load balance. This is true for planning stages,
but for real operation purposes, great computational times make
the algorithm application unfeasible.
For a nontrivial multiobjective optimization problem, there
is no single solution that simultaneously optimizes all objec-
tives. In such a case, the objective functions are said to be con-
flicting, and there exists a (possibly infinite number of) Pareto
optimal solutions. A solution is called non-dominated, if none
of the objective functions can be improved in value without de-
grading some of the other objective values. Without additional
subjective preference information, all Pareto optimal solutions
are considered equally good (as the vectors cannot be ordered
completely). The goal may be to find a representative set of
Pareto optimal solutions and/or quantify the trade-offs in sat-
isfying the different objectives and/or find a single solution that
satisfies the subjective preferences of a human decision maker.
II. ARTIFICIAL IMMUNE SYSTEMS
Several evolutionary computation techniques have been
employed to solve optimization problems. These techniques
mimic, in a computational way, biological systems or processes,
such as the nervous system, meiosis and immune systems.
The immune system is a complex of cells, molecules and or-
gans that represent an identification mechanism capable of per-
ceiving and combating dysfunction from humans' own cells and
the action of exogenous infectious microorganisms. It recog-
nizes an almost limitless variety of infectious foreign cells and
substances, distinguishing them from those native noninfectious
cells [19].
Being exposed to an antigen, B lymphocytes respond by
producing antibodies. Each cell secretes a single type of anti-
body, which is relatively specific for the antigen. By binding to
841
these antibodies (cell receptors), and with a second signal from
accessory cells, such as the T-helper cell, the antigen stimulates
the B-cell to proliferate (divide) and mature into terminal
(non-dividing) antibody secreting cells, called plasma cells.
The process of cell division generates a clone, i.e., a cell or
set of cells that are the progeny of a single cell. Lymphocytes,
in addition to proliferating and/or differentiating into plasma
cells, can differentiate into long-lived B memory cells [19].
Artificial immune systems (AISs) have many interesting fea-
tures for solving optimization problems and have already been
applied to robotics, adaptive control, optimization, multi-agent
systems and neural network approaches, gradient-based sys-
tems, data mining, image classification, optimal dispatch, and
electric vehicle recharge in distribution systems [17]–[20].
AISs are used here because they present the following char-
acteristics: uniqueness, recognition of foreigners, anomaly de-
tection (noise tolerance), reinforcement learning and memory,
and pattern recognition [19]. These features allow AISs to
search for good quality solutions for problems, even if they
have never been faced before, to use the best available solution
while looking for a better one, and to store the best individuals
from the population on the memory.
III. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM RECONFIGURATION
Distribution system reconfiguration has called for the devel-
opment and application of some tools and methodologies; these
are presented in the following sections.
A. Load Flow in Distribution Systems
Load flow is a basic concept in electric power system
studies. Load flow problems are commonly solved using
Newton-Raphson and its decoupled methods. In distribution
systems, however, they have poor convergence features due to
a high R/X rate, unbalanced phase loads and radial topology.
Having better convergence features are other methods like
backward-forward sweep and Z-bus matrix. This paper applies
the backward-forward sweep method presented in [21]. It
consists of a three-phase approach applying phase components
and considering mutual impedances among them. The network
topology is represented by an incidence matrix.
In the backward step, the algorithm assesses the current in all
branches, from the bottom nodes to the top one, by using the
nodal load and incidence matrix. In the forward step, the nodal
voltages are updated according to the branches' voltage drop,
since top node to bottom ones. The process converges when all
nodal voltages are within a given tolerance.
B. Prim's Algorithm
Prim's algorithm finds in an undirected and weighted con-
nected graph, a minimum spanning tree. Hence, it is capable
of finding a subset of the edges forming a tree that includes all
vertices of the initial graph, without any loops, where the total
weight of the edges of the tree is the minimum possible.
The algorithm continuously increases the size of a tree, one
edge at a time, starting with a tree consisting of a single vertex,
until it spans all vertexes. Its steps are described below:
• Input: A non-empty connected weighted graph with vertex
V and edges E (the weights can be negative);
842 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 30, NO. 2, MARCH 2015

Fig. 1. Three-phase linear diagram and graph representation.

• Initialize: , where x is an arbitrary node Fig. 2. Graph network to calculate PIEFI.

(starting point) from V, ;
• Repeat until :
• Choose an edge (u, v) with minimal weight such that u is
in and v is not (if there are multiple edges with the
same weight, any of them may be picked);
• Add v to , and (u, v) to ;
• Output: and describe a minimal spanning tree.
The electrical distribution network can be represented by con-
nected graphs. Any individual feeder, as in Fig. 1, can be con-
sidered a tree, which is an undirected graph where two vertices
are connected by only one path, without loops. For the tree de-
picted in Fig. 1, the areas or branches correspond to the nodes
and the switches are the edges of the graph, numbered from 1 to
6. This comparison enables presenting the distribution system
as a forest, a set of disconnected trees [22]. Fig. 3. Adjacency matrix for faults inspection.
Then, it is possible to create, through the Prim algorithm,
a random radial distribution network represented by a graph
without loops or islanding areas, if the weight of the nodes is
matrix lines. For instance: if the fault were happening in Sector
known. Since the Prim algorithm guarantees the construction of
(node) 4, this would affect nodes 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, and would
a connected tree, in a graph with weights on the edges, a process
not affect Nodes 1, 2, or 3. This happens because the recloser
that assigns weights to the edges can be used to obtain a viable
CH-3 would isolate the fault. Then the elements of the 4th row,
set of networks. This capacity is used in this paper and is pre-
the position (column) of which coincides with the numbers of
sented in Section IV.
affected nodes, will be 1 and the other elements unaffected will
This procedure is explained in the Methodology section.
be 0.
C. Power Interruption Equivalent Frequency Index The PIEFI can be calculated by (1):

The power interruption equivalent frequency index (PIEFI)

has, during a given period of time, a typical number of inter-
ruptions within a distribution power system. Obviously, such a
value varies from system to system. Generally the time consid-
ered is one year and the power system can be a region, substa-
tion, or feeder system. This index is similar to SAIFI, and is
calculated through an analytical technique. This technique can
be described as follows. For example, consider Fig. 2.
This system has 8 switch elements: 1 circuit breaker,
2 reclosers, 4 switches, and 1 fuse. With this information the i.e.,
adjacency matrix is built, as depicted in Fig. 3. This square
matrix gives topological information about the system, and
it's possible, in case of a fault with a specific node, to see the (1)
affected areas by inspection, looking for non-zero elements on
ALONSO et al.: ARTIFICIAL IMMUNE SYSTEMS OPTIMIZATION APPROACH FOR MULTIOBJECTIVE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM RECONFIGURATION 843

where Equation (6) means that the objective vector cannot be im-
proved in any dimension without degrading another. Now it is
fault rate;
possible to define the Pareto optimal set P, on (7), as the set of
node i installed power; all non-dominated Pareto solutions:
j-i element of the reached matrix.
(7)

D. Distribution System Reconfiguration
Aiming to reduce power losses and improve the reliability
index, the Distribution System Network is reconfigured. This
is done by closing NO and opening NC switches. In addition
to power loss minimization and reliability index optimization,
some restrictions related to nodal voltage levels, branches'
ampacity, and systems' radiality are taken into account. The
problem can be described as shown in (2) and (3):
(2)
It is also possible to define the Pareto front F, on (8), which
are the objective function points in the space corresponding to
the Pareto optimal set points, i.e., . Pareto front solutions
are qualitatively equivalent:
(8)
This paper proposes the use of the concept of antibody as fit-
ness of multiobjective problem-based to the dominance index.
Although the non-dominated solutions could be used, the idea of
using the dominance index is to keep some antibodies to main-
tain their diversity.

IV. SIMULATIONS
(3)
This section presents the simulations that were carried out.
First, the methodology employed is described.

A. Methodology
1) Creating the Initial Population: One of the great prob-
lems of reconfiguring radial distribution systems (especially
when using heuristics based on artificial intelligence, like AIS)
is defining a methodology to generate the initial population. In
addition to this, there is the problem of how to code a particular
individual of this population. In AIS, each individual is called
an antibody.
The simplest way to define an initial population is through a
where combinatorial of N binary elements whose respective positions
n are associated with a specific switch, i.e., each individual is en-
branch number;
coded as in (9):
l maximum number of branches;
(9)
Vm nodal voltage at node m;
Amp where is the switch state. Its status is 0 if the switch is open;
ampacity, maximum current capacity;
otherwise it is 1. By applying this codification, a set of individ-
Pi power outage “i”; uals is created (or in this case, AIS antibodies), without con-
Pt total system power; trol over the viability of these systems. As a consequence, is-
m total outage numbers. landed sections or loops may appear. The universe of configu-
rations is equal to , where N is the total number of switches
To solve this problem, one can apply AIS with considerations in the system, of which only a small fraction corresponds to ra-
of Pareto Dominance, as in [18]. According to the Pareto dom- dial configurations. Consequently, this situation leads to ineffi-
inance concept, a solution is said to dominate solution ciency in the performance of an algorithm searching for optimal
when the following two conditions are satisfied: configuration.
• Solution is not worse than for any objective, i.e., Other methodologies have been explored in the literature,
e.g., in [23], Prufer numbers are used to encode distribution net-
(4) works, without checking the system's radial characteristics. In
[24] the authors represented the individuals by a string of inte-
• Solution is strictly better than for at least one objec-
gers (chromosome), whose dimension is the number of discon-
tive, i.e.,
nected lines in the network. Therefore, the length of the string
(5) depends on the number of loops in the system. Another proce-
dure, as in [25], uses the predecessor method for reducing the
This relation is denoted as . universe of feasible solutions.
Otherwise, a solution is said to be Pareto optimal or a This paper uses a methodology based on the Prim Algorithm.
non-dominated solution, according to (6), when This produces a set of N feasible forests, each forest corre-
sponding to a set of radial feeders (trees) obtained at random
(6) and with different weights.
844
Fig. 4. Forest (distribution network) generated according to edge weights.
TABLE I
EDGE WEIGHTS FOR 14-BUS FEEDER
For any system, a vector is created of length equal to the
number of switches in the system, where each element from
this vector is associated with one and only one edge, i.e., a
switch. The value of this element is generated randomly and
corresponds to the weight of this edge, which is used to obtain
M random configurations. M is the initial population size. For
the 14-bus sample system, the set of random weights is shown
in Table I and the forest generated (distribution network) is de-
picted in Fig. 4. The dashed line indicates that the switch is open.
This step ensures that all first generation antibodies constitute
a feasible set, by reducing the search space and eliminating non-
viable antibodies from the beginning of the searching process,
e.g., loops and single and multiple islands.
2) Codification: In [1], this codification and a recombina-
tion methodology are presented with the aim of preserving the
radial structure. The AISs do not use recombination, as in [1],
but a hypermutation operator instead. Basically this involves
random changes of status of any switches. The “mutation” oper-
ator picks any switch randomly and changes its status. For this
sake, the inverse probability associated with the affinity of its
antibody is considered. Later, the topology obtained is analyzed
and eventually corrected to keep the radial mode and avoid the
isolated nodes. If a loop then appears, one switch is opened at
random to keep its radial mode. In case of islanding, the closest
switch to the islanded section is closed, provided that doing so
does not result in a loop.
3) Clonal Selection Principle: The next step is the applica-
tion of the Clonal Selection principle, as seen in the flowchart
of Fig. 5 and described below.
• First, the initial population is generated using the Prim Al-
gorithm;
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 30, NO. 2, MARCH 2015
Fig. 5. AIS flowchart.
• These elements (antibodies) are sorted according to their
affinity, which is determined after the evaluation of the
Fitness (Pareto Rules) for each Antibody. To antibodies
with voltage violations are assigned values of affinity suf-
ficiently small;
• A set of M higher affinity antibodies is created;
• In the next step, each antibody selected is cloned propor-
tionally to their affinity;
• The population of clones is submitted to a hypermutation
scheme, where the hypermutation is proportional to their
affinity;
• Power flow and loss calculations are evaluated for every
clone, and these results are sorted (by affinity);
• If the clone is better than the original antibody, it is replaced
by that clone, otherwise the antibody is maintained;
• The number of iterations constitutes the stopping criterion.
The Fitness is calculated by (10):
(10)
where ID is obtained after applying the Pareto dominance rules
and it is the amount of better solutions than individual “i” solu-
tion. N is the number of solutions (antibodies). If the Fitness is
equal to 1, this solution is called a non-dominated solution. This
ALONSO et al.: ARTIFICIAL IMMUNE SYSTEMS OPTIMIZATION APPROACH FOR MULTIOBJECTIVE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM RECONFIGURATION
Fig. 6. Initial configuration of 14-bus test system.
Fig. 7. Distribution network encoding.
Fig. 8. 14-bus test system non-dominated solution.
means no solution exists that is better than this one. This solu-
tion forms part of the Pareto Front. In the next chart the steps of
the Solution Algorithm with AIS are described.
B. Results
1) 14-Bus System: The 14-bus system data can be found in
[24] and used in the test was a value of pu.
According to the proposed methodology, the initial topology
is shown in Fig. 6. Each antibody is encoded similarly to the
method proposed in [1]. That is, the initial antibody, according
to the proposed methodology, would be as seen in Fig. 6. In this
antibody codification, N1 is the normally closed switch set and
N2 is the normally open switch set.
For the initial 14-bus system configuration depicted on Fig. 6,
N1 and N2 elements are depicted in Fig. 7. The system base
adopted was 100 MVA and 23 kV.
This methodology gives a set of viable antibodies with high
affinity. After applying the optimization routine, a set of solu-
tions (configurations) was obtained, shown in Table II, i.e., each
column of this table shows the set of Normal Closed Switches
N1 and the set of Normal Opened Switches N2 for each configu-
ration of the Pareto Front (antibody). It is also possible to see the
set of non-dominated solutions (values of objective functions)
of the Pareto Front. Fig. 8 depicts the non-dominated solution
from Column 1.
From Fig. 9, one can see the evolution of the solutions. The
“ ” indicates the initial Pareto Front and with “o” the final
845
TABLE II
FEEDER CONFIGURATION
Fig. 9. Pareto Front of solutions for the 14-bus test system.
Pareto Front Solutions obtained by the AIS methodology. Re-
member that N1 is the set of normal closed switches and N2 is
the normal opened switches. Observing the previous solutions
from Table II depicted in Fig. 9, it is possible to see the opti-
mization of the multiobjective problem, minimizing both vari-
ables for all cases.
2) ANDE System, CBO-01 Feeder: The Paraguayan elec-
tric distribution system is composed of 23-kV feeders. These
feeders may have a combination of overhead lines with con-
ventional or covered conductors, and also underground lines.
Its topology may have three phase and single phase lines. In
this study, the feeder features are typical of a region with urban
and a rural portion. Rural areas have single-phase transformers
and even single-phase distribution lines. In general, due to this,
there is load imbalance in these feeders. This feeder has 74 load
buses, 18 switches, 15 branches and many possibilities of loops
(therefore, the same load may have more than one possibility
of supply). The feeder under study is one of three feeders of
846
Fig. 10. CBO-01 Initial Feeder graph.
TABLE III
CBO-01 23 KV FEEDER CONFIGURATION
Coronel Bogado Substation. The supply voltage level is 23-kV
phase-phase, the demand estimated is 98 Amperes by phase with
average power factor of 0.92. This feeder supplies power to a
small population of approximately 22 000 people.
According to the methodology, the network graph tree con-
sidering the switches' place is as shown in Fig. 10. Table III de-
picts the set of solutions of the Pareto Front and the set of vi-
able configurations. This case was performed considering an ini-
tial population of 100 antibodies obtained by the methodology
outlined above, 10 clones for each antibody, elitism of 20 anti-
bodies, mutation probability inversely proportional to its affinity
(0.05 pu minimum), and a stopping criteria of 30 generations.
One of the optimal configurations is shown in Fig. 11. In this
case the loss reduction and the values of PIEFI are 5 kW and
38.58 t/y, respectively.
Fig. 12 depicts the Pareto Front. This shows the potentiality
of the proposed methodology. The computational times are
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 30, NO. 2, MARCH 2015
Fig. 11. Non-Dominate solution CBO-01 Feeder graph.
Fig. 12. Pareto Front of solutions for the CBO-01 23-kV System.
measured in relation to the time required by the IEEE 14-bus
system. Therefore, this system is the reference value, the bench-
mark against which the real distribution system is compared
with. Considering the 14-bus case convergence time as 1 pu,
the ANDE CBO-01 real system convergence time is 1.74 pu.
This means that the ANDE system has a convergence time
74% bigger than the former. This difference is rather slight
considering that the real system has 74 load buses, 14 branches,
and 18 switches, and the test system has only 14 load bus and
16 switches, i.e., ANDE system is five times bigger and much
more complex.
V. CONCLUSION
This paper deals with the problem of distribution systems re-
configuration. Depending on the operation policy of the elec-
tricity utility of a certain area, this can prioritize loss reduction or
improvement in the continuity of service indicator. The creation
of a viable set of antibodies through the methodology based on
the Prim algorithm improves the performance of the heuristic.
The AIS characteristics make it particularly interesting for
applications in this type of integer programming problems. Mat-
uration operator provides a local minimum search tool, pre-
senting an opportunity to solve the problem of reconfiguring
ALONSO et al.: ARTIFICIAL IMMUNE SYSTEMS OPTIMIZATION APPROACH FOR MULTIOBJECTIVE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM RECONFIGURATION
radial distribution systems. Another characteristic of the algo-
rithm is the few parameters needed compared to other method-
ologies, such as the traditional genetic algorithm.
Finally, several tests were made by varying the starting point
and the heuristic converged to the same results. This demon-
strates the robustness of the methodology. Many other objec-
tive functions can be included, such as load balancing, switching
costs and system average interruption duration. These objective
functions could be included in a future study, combined with
other techniques such as fuzzy logic.
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F. R. Alonso received the B.Sc. degree in electromechanical engineering from
National University of Itapúa (UNI) in 2004. Currently he is pursuing the
M.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from the Federal University of Itajubá
(UNIFEI), Itajuba, Brazil.
He works in Distribution of Electricity Systems in the Southern Zone of
ANDE (National Electric Administration) and he is part-time Professor with
the National University of Itapúa.
D. Q. Oliveira received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from Fed-
eral University of Maranhão (UFMA), Sao Luis, Brazil, and the M.Sc. degree
in electrical engineering from Federal University of Itajuba (UNIFEI), Itajuba,
Brazil.
His research interests include distribution systems, smart grids, and electric
vehicles.
A. C. Zambroni de Souza received the Electrical Engineering degree from the
State University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1987, the M.Sc. degree in electrical
engineering from the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro in 1990,
and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the University of Waterloo,
Waterloo, ON, Canada, in 1995.
Currently he is an Associate Professor at the Federal University of Itajuba,
Itajuba, Brazil.