Food for a Healthy Planet 800­121 

 
 
 

Global Causes and 
Solutions for 
Obesity 
 
 

Name: Yu Jin Lim 
Student Number: 265604 
Word Count: 2188 
 
 
 
 

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 Global Causes and Solutions for Obesity 
“Obesity is a medical condition in which the fat stores are excessive for an
individual’s height, weight, gender and race.” (1) “It is the excessive accumulation of body
fat that has been stored throughout the body which can lead to a detrimental effect on health,
like reduced life expectancy and increased health problems.” (1) To measure obesity, several
methods can be used. The most common methods used to measure obesity are body mass
index (BMI), skin fold thickness, underwater weighing, bioimpedance analysis, waist
circumference and hip to waist ratio. (2) BMI, is a measurement which is computed by the

formula, . When people have a BMI between 25 kg/m2 and 30 kg/m2,

they are classified as overweight. A BMI above 30kg/m2, will categorise a person to be
obese. (2) The spread of obesity has been declared a worldwide epidemic by the World
Health Organisation (WHO). (3) WHO also recognises obesity as the greatest health threat of
the 21st century. (3) How severe is the problem? According to WHO, more than 1 billion
adults are overweight and at least 315 million are clinically obese. (3) Of these, 22 million of
the world's children under age of 5 are overweight or obese according to an estimate by the
International Obesity Task Force. (3) The amount of obese people worldwide is rising fast,
obesity is fast becoming on track to become a major health issue in the foreseeable future. (3)

Figure 1: Examples of the prevalence of obesity in adults throughout the world

“International Obesity Task Force,

http://www.iuns.org/features/obesity/tabfig.htm#Figure 1:” 
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 At its most basic, obesity is caused by an imbalance in energy intake and energy
expenditure. (30) More specifically, the cause of obesity is a positive energy balance
occurring when caloric intake exceeds caloric output. (4) A wide range of behavioural,
physiological, environmental and social factors influence energy balance. (30) Obesity occurs
when an individual’s energy input from food and drinks surpasses the energy they spend from
physical activity and metabolic processes like thermogenesis over an extended period of time.
(30) This can be attained by an increase in energy intake, a decrease in energy expenditure or
a combination of both. (30)

Diet plays an important role in the development of obesity. (7) From the 1970s to the
late 1990s, the per capita dietary energy supply (food available for human consumption) has
changed significantly and has increased globally except Eastern Europe and parts of Africa.
(5) The per capita calorie consumption in the world has been steadily increasing from 2529
kilocalories in 1979 to 2798 kilocalories in 2003. (6) This is a significant rise of
approximately 10% in extra calorie intake per person in the world. (6) During 1979 to 2003,
there has been an increase in the amount of obese people in the world. (7) Obesity rates have
risen significantly and are projected to continue. (7) Many countries have experienced a
startling increase in obesity rates in the last 10-20 years. (7) Dietary energy supply has
increased over time and this has caused a jump in the number of obese people globally. (7)
The per capita dietary energy supply changes distinctly between different continents and
countries in the world. (8) In industrialised countries, the average daily dietary energy supply
is 3340 kilocalories in 1998. (9) In 1998, countries in transition had an average dietary energy
supply of 2850 kilocalories. (9) The lowest average dietary energy supply in 1998 was found
in Sub-Saharan Africa with a value of 2150 kilocalories. (9) Not surprisingly, industrialised
and developed nations have a higher prevalence of obesity among the population compared to
developing countries. (10) This is attributed to the high value of dietary energy supply in
industrialised countries. (10) The prevalence of obesity is influenced by the geographical
factor. (11) Urban settling has a major impact on people’s energy balance, in particular;
energy expenditure. (11) Urban living is affiliated with a lower energy expenditure compared
with rural life. (11) Energy consuming manual labour jobs characteristic of rural areas are
replaced by sedentary office jobs in urban areas. (11) Mechanised transportation and public
utilities in the urban area makes people walk much less and expend less physical activity.
(11) Hence, urban dwellers have a higher prevalence of obesity compared to rural dwellers.
(11)

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Figure 2: “Map of dietary energy availability per person per day in 1979-1981 and 2001-
2003”

"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:World_map_of_Energy_consumption_1961.svg, Data from 
EarthTrends: Agriculture and Food — Nutrition: Calorie supply per capita" 

Our diets have evolved from the hunter gatherers to the peasant agriculturalists to the
modern western diet. (12) Over this period of time, people’s diets have shifted from
wholegrains and fruits to energy dense foods. (12) Sugars and fats have increased to be 25%
and 40% respectively of the modern diet. (12) Since the 1970s, carbohydrate consumption
per head has increased. (12) Furthermore, this is coupled with an increase in dietary intake of
fat. (12) Most of the extra calories consumed in industrialised nations such as the United
States of America come from an increase in carbohydrate and fat consumption. (13) The rise
in supply of carbohydrates is due to sweetened beverages and energy dense food. (13) What
makes the increase in carbohydrate intake so detrimental is not only the quantity consumed
but also the type. (14) Soft drinks and fast-food have a high glycemic index (GI). (14) GI is
the measure of carbohydrates effects on blood sugar levels. (14) Foods with high GI’s release
glucose into the bloodstream fast. (14) This means that high GI foods last for shorter periods
and offers low sustenance. (14) People that consume high GI foods get hungry faster (have
low satiety levels) and this causes them to eat more frequently. (14) As the uptake of energy

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rich fast food meals increases, the correlation between fast food eating and obesity cannot be
denied. (15) In the United States, fast-food consumption and calorie intake from fast-food has
tripled between 1977 and 1995. (16) Since the 1970’s in the United States, the serving size of
many pre-package and restaurant foods have increased. (13) “For example, fast food serving
is 2 to 5 times larger in the last decade than they were in the 1980s.” (13) Larger portions of
energy dense foods equals to greater energy input. (17) This will in turn, lead to higher rates
of obesity. (17) The availability of junk food full of addictive simple sugars and the constant
snacking of people also contribute to an increase in obese people. (4)

Next we will look at obesity in a physiological and behavioural perspective. There are
2 schools of thought on what causes obesity, PUSH and PULL. (18) In the PUSH school,
obesity is regarded as primarily a behavioural disorder which results in voluntary overeating
whereas in the PULL school, obesity results from inborn metabolic predispositions that
generate false homeostatic signals leading to excess fat deposition in the body. (18)
Chronically overeating is a main cause of obesity and it can be due to a behavioural disorder
or a genetic predisposition. (19) There are two types of eating that contribute to obesity in
some people. (19) The first is bulimia, which refers to repetitive episodes of sudden,
compulsive ingestion of large amounts of food. (19) The other eating pattern often resulting
in obesity is the “night eating syndrome” which is the ongoing, persistent pattern of late night
binge eating and hyperphagia. (19) Some obese people also have food addiction which causes
them to crave for foods that are usually sweet, salty or high in fat. (20) Obesity can also be
due to genetic and heredity factors. (21) For example, the ability to store fat in the body as an
energy reserve during times of food abundance is advantageous as it makes an individual
more likely to survive famine. (21) “However, the tendency to store fat would be maladaptive
in societies with stable food supplies.” (21) That exactly why the Pima Indians, who lived in
a desert environment, developed some of the highest rates of obesity when exposed to a
modern Western diet and lifestyle. (22) It is also found that the cause of obesity in some
people is due to leptin resistance. (23) Leptin is a hormone produced by adipose tissues that
modulates appetite and food intake (i.e. to eat less when fat storages are high and more when
fat storages are low). (23) Leptin resistant obese patients frequently find it hard to regulate
their appetites and this causes them to eat more than normal. (23)

A sedentary lifestyle also plays an important role in obesity. (24) Globally, there have
been more jobs involving less physical activity and currently at least 60% of the world’s

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population does not exercise enough. (24) Our modern world has a lot of transport
infrastructure in place as well as telecommunication services which significantly reduces
physical activity. The increasing prevalence of labour-saving technology in the home and at
work reduces energy expenditure. The mechanisation of tasks with transport vehicles,
tractors, robotics and machines has caused a lot of labour to be saved. People are walking
less, doing much less manual labour and not exercising enough. The World Health
Organisation indicates that people are taking up less active recreational activities. (24) With
the advent of the television, the internet and mobile phones, people are becoming constantly
engaged in electronic media, which is fast displacing people’s time for physical activity.
According to a study done about people’s life habits, there is a correlation between television
viewing time and the risk of obesity. (25) “A 2008 analysis found that 63 of 73 studies (86%)
showed an increased rate of childhood obesity with increased media exposure, with rates
increasing proportionally to time spent watching television.” (26)

Obesity is also linked to socioeconomic status; highest rates are noticed among people
with the lowest levels of income and education and in the most marginalised areas. (27)
Prices of healthy food such as fruit and vegetables rose at a much higher level compared to
junk food and energy dense food such as fats and oils, sugar and refined grains. (27) People
with a lower socioeconomic status will preferentially select foods that are cheaper like
energy-dense foods. (27) As low cost diets tend to be energy dense and nutrient poor, this
increases the risk of obesity in lower socioeconomic groups. (27) Older, wealthier and better
educated people have better diets than the poor. (27) This is due to them being able to afford
foods that are more healthy and expensive and their greater awareness of health issues. (27)

The best way to prevent obesity is by healthy eating. (14) By changing our modern
high-fat and high carbohydrate diet into a low fat, low glycemic index (GI), high fibre diet
people can reduce their daily calorie intake significantly. (14) Governments should also put
regulations in place regarding food labelling and nutrition. (28) Foods should have nutritional
labels that list the percentage components of macronutrients and micronutrients and the
percentage daily dietary requirement that the food satisfies, to better inform consumers about
the food choice that they are making. The food industry should market an increasing number
of low and reduced fat foods consistent with consumer preferences at the same price as
normal foodstuffs. (28) The general public should also be educated on the importance of
achieving and maintaining a healthy body weight and the about type of foods that should be

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eaten regularly and the types of foods to be avoided. (28) People should consume less junk
food but instead consume foods that are high in fibre like fruits and vegetables. (4) However,
most healthy foods like lean meat, fish, vegetables and fruits are expensive compared to
foods which are energy-dense and have lower nutritional value. (27) To increase the uptake
of healthy foods, governments should try to minimise and standardise the costs for these
types of foods. Hence, people from lower socioeconomic groups will be able to afford
healthy foodstuff and the obesity rates among this group will fall. Public and private sector
food services also need to offer a variety of food choices consistent with dietary guidelines by
accredited bodies. (28) For example, in Australia nutrition guidelines are set by the
Australian Nutrition Foundation. (28)

To combat obesity, people need to lead a healthy and active lifestyle. An increase in
physical activity and exercise is an important prevention and treatment strategy to overcome
obesity. (2) People should participate in physical activity for at least 45 - 60 minutes daily.
(2) This will increase the energy expenditure and balance the calorie input with calorie output
so that there is minimal storage of excess energy as fats in the body. (2) In the workplace, this
can be achieved by changes in workplace design and practices such as providing shower and
change facilities, provide venues for physical activity, secure bicycle parking facilities to
encourage cycling and designate areas for lunchtime recreational and sporting activities. (28)
In community environments, safe bicycle paths and walking routes within existing
infrastructure should be built. (28) Regular aerobic exercise about 3 times a week can burn
off fat stores in the body and prevent obesity. (2)

Obesity is a serious medical condition and it’s prevalence among children is

increasing. (3) It is a worldwide epidemic, affecting all nations and increasingly, the
developing countries. (3) In 2006, obesity cost Australian’s a whooping $21 billion. (29)
Obesity causes a drain in human resources as a result of the increased likelihood of getting
chronic diseases caused by obesity such as, heart disease, type 2 diabetes, stroke, certain
types of cancer, osteoarthritis and breathing difficulties during sleep which may lead to a
condition called sleep apnoea. (29) It is important to implement strategies to combat the rise
in obesity like educating people about weight management and providing more facilities for
people to have adequate physical activity and exercise. If left unchecked, obesity can be a
serious burden to the healthcare system. However, if early preventative steps are taken to

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tackle obesity, the prevalence of obesity will decrease globally. The phrase “Prevention is
better than cure” certainly does hold true for obesity!

Figure 3: Projected prevalence of obesity in adults by 2025

International Obesity Task Force,

http://www.iuns.org/features/obesity/tabfig.htm#Figure 3: 

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1) George A. Bray, M.D., The Obese Patient, page 2

2) Ian Campbell, David Haslam, Your Questions Answered: Obesity, page 2-4

3) Debasis Bagchi and Harry G. Preuss, Obesity: epidemiology, pathophysiology, and

prevention, page xi

4) Professor Frank R Dunshea, Lecture 6 slides for Food for a Healthy Planet

5) Compendium of food and agriculture indicators - 2006, FAO,

http://www.fao.org/statistics/compendium_2006/concepts.asp

6) Food and Agriculture Statistics Global Outlook, prepared by the Statistics Division (as of
June 2006), faostat.fao.org/portals/_faostat/documents/pdf/world.pdf

7) Caballero B (2007), The global epidemic of obesity: An overview. Epidemiol Rev 29,
pages 1–5

8) Compendium of food and agriculture indicators - 2006, UN Food and Agriculture

Organization, http://www.fao.org/statistics/compendium_2006/list.asp

9) Press Release 98/70, FAO: LARGE GAP IN FOOD AVAILABILITY BETWEEN RICH
AND POOR COUNTRIES,
http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/OIS/PRESS_NE/PRESSENG/1998/pren9870.htm

10) Shigeaki Baba, Paul Zimmet, World data book of obesity, pages 5-9

11) Benjamin Caballero, The Global Epidemic of Obesity: An Overview, pages 3 and 4

12) Professor Frank R Dunshea, Lecture 4 slides for Food for a Healthy Planet

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13) Wright JD, Kennedy-Stephenson J, Wang CY, McDowell MA, Johnson CL (February
2004), Trends in intake of energy and macronutrients—United States, 1971–2000

14) Professor Jennie Brand-Miller, forum slides for Food for a Healthy Planet, Carohydrates,
GI and Health, Optimal diets for Weight Control

15) Rosenheck R (November 2008), Fast food consumption and increased caloric intake: a
systematic review of a trajectory towards weight gain and obesity risk, Obes Rev 9 (6): 535–
47

16) Lin BH, Guthrie J and Frazao E (1999). "Nutrient contribution of food away from home".
in Frazão E. Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 750: America's Eating Habits: Changes
and Consequences. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research
Service, pp. 213–239, http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aib750/

17) Ledikwe JH, Ello-Martin JA, Rolls BJ (April 2005), "Portion sizes and the obesity
epidemic". J. Nutr. 135 (4): 905–9

18) Reva T. Frankle, Mei-Uih Yang, Obesity and Weight Control: The Health Professional's
Guide to Understanding and Treatment, pages 4-5

19) A. James Giannini, Andrew E. Slaby, The Eating Disorders, pages 32-38

20) Valerie H. Taylor MD PhD, Claire M. Curtis MA, Caroline Davis PhD, The Obesity
epidemic: the role of addiction, pages 327-328

21) Chakravarthy MV, Booth FW (2004), "Eating, exercise, and "thrifty" genotypes:
Connecting the dots toward an evolutionary understanding of modern chronic diseases". J.
Appl. Physiol. 96 (1): 3–10

22) Wells JC (February 2009), "Ethnic variability in adiposity and cardiovascular risk: the
variable disease selection hypothesis". Int J Epidemiol 38 (1): 63–71

23) Hamann A, Matthaei S (1996), "Regulation of energy balance by leptin". Exp. Clin.
Endocrinol. Diabetes 104 (4): 293–300

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24) "WHO | Physical Inactivity: A Global Public Health Problem". World Health
Organization. http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/factsheet_inactivity/en/index.html

25) Vioque J, Torres A, Quiles J (December 2000). "Time spent watching television, sleep
duration and obesity in adults living in Valencia, Spain". Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord.
24 (12): 1683–8

26) Ezekiel J. Emanuel. Common Sense Media, "Media + Child and Adolescent Health: A
Systematic Review" (pdf), 2008,
http://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/CSM_media+health_v2c%20110708.p
df

27) Adam Drewnowski, Obesity, diets, and social inequalities, Nutrition Reviews® Vol.
67(Suppl. 1):S36–S39

28) National Health and Medical Research Council, Acting on Australia's Weight: A
Strategic Plan for the Prevention of Overweight and Obesity, pages 24-41

29) Obesity's huge cost dwarfs Medicare, October 18, 2006,

http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/obesitys-huge-cost-dwarfs-
medicare/2006/10/17/1160850935071.html

30) Australian Society for the Study of Obesity, Obesity in Australian Adults: Causes,
Prevention and Management.

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