The Bible: Canon Development and Textual Accuracy

Alex Vaughn

April 17, 2010

Contents

I Old Testament 1

1 Development of the Canon 2

1.1 Hebrew Canon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Christian Canon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Eastern Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Western Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Manuscripts 4

3 Aprocrypha/Pseudepigrapha 5
3.1 Wisdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2 Historical & Apocalyptic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3 Fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

II New Testament 6

4 Development of the Canon 6

4.1 Councils and Letters Concerning the Canon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2 Events and Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

5 Integrity of the Canon 8

5.1 Problem Text in the Canon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.2 Manuscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.2.1 Greek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.2.2 Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

6 Aprocrypha/Pseudepigrapha 10
6.1 Jewish Christian Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.2 Gnostic Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.3 Epistles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

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A. Vaughn 1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE CANON

Part I
Old Testament
1 Development of the Canon
1.1 Hebrew Canon
The Hebrew Bible consists of 39 books counting the 12 Minor Prophets as one book. It is generally called
the Tanakh, which is derived from the acronym of the 3 divisions of the Hebrew Bible. The major divisions
are the Law(Torah), the Prophets(Nevi’m), and the Writings(Ketuvim). As the name suggests, the Hebrew
Bible is almost entirely in Hebrew except for a few passages, which are in Aramaic(a Semitic language
commonly spoken in the Middle East during the time of the Old Testament). The divisions of the Hebrew
Bible originate with the Septuagint(Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible), roughly 200-300 B.C. [14] It has
also been suggested that the Old Testament as a whole was edited by a small group of scholars torward the
end of the fifth century BC with the Scribe Ezra and the Governor Nehemiah being involved. [18] Finally,
others have originated the idea that the Council of Jamnia (a.k.a Yavneh) in the later part of the first century
AD fixed the Hebrew canon. [14, 18] It is clear from the the writing of Jesephus, the Jewish historian, that
the Hebrew canon was closed by the first century AD. This is implied when he says, “Although, such long
ages have gone by, no one has dared to anything to them, to take anything away from them, or to change
anything in them.”(Against Apion, 1.42)[2] The books that fell outside of the canon are of two sorts. The
first are called the Aprocrypha that is hidden books and the Pseudepigrapha, books written by someone
other than the one they are ascribed to.[14]

The Law(Pentateuch) The Torah comes from the Hebrew root yorah, meaning “to teach”. Furthermore,
the Torah was divided into parashiyot, which is sort of like the Jewish version of a chapter. These were the
readings for each Sabbath such that the Torah would be read through in one year. Furthermore, these readings
would never ending on a sad note. For an example, at the end of Deuteronomy when Moses dies the reading
would continue with the beginning of Genesis. This tradition dates from around 444 BC. [14] This section
of the Hebrew scriptures was the first to considered authouratative. The covenant of the Old Testament
may be related to the concept of the covenant through through the public aspects of Jewish worship in the
Old Testament. That is the public reading of the Law, regulations regarding the safe storage of the law,
the evoking of call and response, and the curses aimed at additions or omissions of the original text. These
indicate a early canonification of the Pentateuch. Scholars in the last two centuries have suggested a later
codification of the Pentateuch during perhaps Josiah or Nehemiah’s time, when the Law was promuglated.[18]

The Prophets/Writings The closing of the prophetic canon occured sometime during the period of
500-450 BC. This is indicated by the absence of Chronicles and the Jewish tradition of the prophecy ceasing
after Malachi. Some contend however that the prophetic canon was still open during the first century AD.
The Gospels supports the claim however that the Old Testament was recognized as inspired by the first
century AD. These claims come from such verses as: “so that on you may come all the righteous blood
shed on earth, from the blood of innocent Abel to the blood of Zechariah the son of Barachiah, whom you
murdered between the sanctuary and the altar” (Matt. 23.35, ESV) and “from the blood of Abel to the
blood of Zechariah, who perished between the altar and the sanctuary. Yes, I tell you, it will be required of
this generation.” (Luke 11.51, ESV). Josephus, a Jewish historian of the first century, makes the statement
that 22 books are recognized as inspired in the Hebrew Bible. Five being the books of the Law written by
Moses, thirteen written by prophets, and four other books(Apionem 1:37-43). Philo, a Jewish historian of
Alexandria, makes a statement, which implies that the canon has been closed (De vita contemplativa 25).

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A. Vaughn 1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE CANON

Schnabel’s concludes that in his opinion the Hebrew Bible was considered to be closed by the first century
AD.[18]

1.2 Christian Canon

1.2.1 Eastern Church

Justin Martyr (c. 160 AD) In the Letter of Aristeas, Justin Martyr declares that only the Septuagint
is to be regarded as a reliable text. The Hebrew text he claimed to be corrupted by the Jews in order to
contradict the prophecies of the Christ.[2]

Bishop Melito of Sardis (170 AD) He accepted all the books in the Christian canon with the exception
of Esther.(Esebius, Ecclesistical History 4:26:12-14)[2]

Origen (185-254 AD) Origen is considered by some to be the greatest Biblical scholar among the Greek
Fathers. His greatest contribution was an addition of the Old Testament known as the Hexapla (“six-fold”).
This text consisted of 6 columns having the text in parallel with notes. One column was the Hebrew text,
one column of the Hebrew text transcribed into the Greek alphabet, and the other four columns were various
Greek texts. There were also at times other columns with additional Greek texts for comparison. His list
of the Old Testament books is identical to the traditional Hebrew/Christian canon with the addition of the
Letter of Jeremiah.[2]

Bishop Anthanasius of Alexandria (367 AD) The following is an exerpt from his festal letter describing
his views on the canon.

4. There are, then, of the Old Testament, twenty-two books in number; for, as I have heard,
it is handed down that this is the number of the letters among the Hebrews; their respective
order and names being as follows. The first is Genesis, then Exodus, next Leviticus, after that
Numbers, and then Deuteronomy. Following these there is Joshua, the son of Nun, then Judges,
then Ruth. And again, after these four books of Kings, the first and second being reckoned as
one book, and so likewise the third and fourth as one book. And again, the first and second
of the Chronicles are reckoned as one book. Again Ezra, the first and second [, also known as
Ezra and Nehemiah,] are similarly one book. After these there is the book of Psalms, then the
Proverbs, next Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Songs. Job follows, then the Prophets, the twelve
being reckoned as one book. Then Isaiah, one book, then Jeremiah with Baruch, Lamentations,
and the epistle, [i.e. Baruch vi.-The Syriac], one book; afterwards, Ezekiel and Daniel, each one
book. Thus far constitutes the Old Testament.

–Letter XXXIX, Festal Letter of Anthanasius[16]

1.2.2 Western Church

Tertullian (c. 180-220 AD) Tertullian is the first writer to be considered among the Latin fathers.
Since, the version of the Latin Old Testament at the time was translated from the Septuagint and made no
distinction between what is now the Standard Old Testament canon and the Aprocrypha, Tertullian accepted
the entirety of it as scripture and may have been willing to go even a bit further.[2]

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A. Vaughn 2 MANUSCRIPTS

St. Jerome( 346-420 AD) Jerome was given an excellent education and came down with an almost
fatal illness at about the age of 28. Afterwards, he made resolved to devote himself to biblical studies. He
was later commisioned by Pope Damasus to revise the Latin Bible. This work has resulted in the Latin
Vulgate from which many early edtions of the Bible were made and the only legal version of the Bible that
was available in Europe during much of the Middle Ages for it was considered to be sacrilege to translate
the Bible into the common tongue. [2]

St. Augustine( 354-430 AD) Augustine include the following books in the Old Testament that are
not typically counted as scripture in modern times: Tobias, Judith, two books of Maccabees, Wisdom,
Ecclesiasticus. [2]

2 Manuscripts
The Talmudists (100-500 AD) There were minute regulations concerning how the text was to be copied.
Some of the more pertinent rules are as follows. Every skin must contain a certain of columns, equal
throughout the entire codex. The length of each column must not extend be between 48 and 60 lines with
a breath of thirty letters. The whole copy must be first-lined and if three words are written without a line,
it is worthless. The ink should be black and be prepared according to an established recipe. The copy must
be copied stroke by stroke by examining the authentic copy. Between every character a hair’s width must
intervene and between every section the breadth of nine consonants. The fifth book of Moses must terminate
exactly on a line. [9]

The Masoretic Text(500-900 AD) The original text consisted of consonants only and no punctuation
marks. Later the Masoretes of Tiberias(700-900 AD), incorporated the oral traditions of the vowels, punc-
tuation, accents, and melody of the Hebrew Bible into a system that was written as part of the text. This
is meant to help the reader know how to properly chant the text. The Masorete text is also considered to
be the standard text of the Hebrew Bible. The tradional Torah scrolls however still are unpointed however,
therefore the reader must infer the proper vowels, accents and punctuation, etc. in order to read it. The
musical modes used to chant the text vary depending on the region, ocassion and what text is being read.[14]
The Masoretes also invented more rules to ensure the accurate transmission of the Old Testament. This
included the counting of times each letter of the alphabet occurs in each book, determining the middle letter
of the Pentateuch and the middle letter of the whole Hebrew Bible, and other calculations. These calculations
were performed to ensure that the text was accurate.[9]

The Septuagint This is a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible especially for the Jews at Alexandria,
originally consisting of the Law. Legend has it that the text was translated by seventy-two elders in seventy-
two days. This work was later extended to cover the entire Old Testament as well as the Aprocrypha. This
work was largely completed however by Christians.[2]

Sinaticus (4th cent. AD) The following are missing: Exodus, Leviticus, Deuteronomy and Ezekiel, most
of Joshua, 4 Kingdoms and the Twelve Minor Prophets is incomplete.[2]

Vaticanus (4th cent. AD) The following texts are included: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1-4 Kingdoms, 1&2 Chronicles, 1&2 Esdras, Psalms, Proverbs, Ec-
clesiastes, Song of Songs, Job, Wisdom, Sirach, Esther, Judith, Tobit, the Twelve Minor Prophets, Isaiah,
Jeremiah, Baruch, Lamentations, Letter of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. (The book of Maccabees is not
included.)[2]

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A. Vaughn 3 APROCRYPHA/PSEUDEPIGRAPHA

Alexandrinus (5th cent. AD) The following texts are included: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1-4 Kingdoms, 1&2 Chronicles, the Twelve Minor Prophets, Isaiah,
Jeremiah, Baruch, Lamentations, Letter of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, Esther, Tobit, Judith, 1&2 Esdras,
1-4 Maccabees, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Wisdom, Sirach, (Psalms of Solomon
included in table of contents, but not reproduced.)[2]

3 Aprocrypha/Pseudepigrapha
3.1 Wisdom
Wisdom of Sirac(180 BC) Also known as, Ecclesiasticus, Sirac or ben Sirah shows a high degree of
religious wisdom and constains a lot of practical advice.[9, 15] It is largely a collection of proverbial sayings
and moral instruction. It is well respected among the rabbis, although never considered to be equivalent to
scripture. [15]

Wisdom of Solomon (100-1BC) Wisdom was written to keep Jews from falling into skepticisim, ma-
terialsim and idolatry. [9] Claiming Solomonic authourity, Wisdom as an agent of divine activity in Israel’s
history. [15]

3.2 Historical & Apocalyptic

Assumption of Moses Near to the time of his death, Moses names Joshua as his successor and give him
some books of prophecies that he is to hide until the appointed time. The first eight chapters give a cyclical
prediction of the people’s offenses, ensuing calamities, asking for forgiveness and rescues of limited extent.
Three particular difficulties are enumerated. The first a king from the east will burn the temple and exile
the people to his country. An evil king will slay the people without discrimination and torture the people for
thirty-four years. He will also be succeeded by sons who will rule for shorter periods of time. Chapter eight
then describes the finall calamity of a king of kings who will possess great might, and subject the people to
horrendous tortures and violations of the law. Chapter 10 then descibes the appearance of God’s kingdom
and the final determinative victory of the Heavenly One over Satan. The dates for the composition of this
work vary widely from roughly coincident with the book of Daniel (before the outbreak of the Hasmonean
revolt) to the reign of Hadrian and the Bar Kokhba revolt. Most scholars claim that it was written in the
first third of the first century AD in Greek or possiby a Semitic language, such as Hebrew or Aramiac. [8]

Maccabees There are four books of Maccabees. The first describes the exploits of the Maccabeean
brothers- Judas, Jonathan, and Simon. I Maccabees is also utilzed by Josephus and was generally seen
to be an authouratative history of this time period. The second discusses the victories of Judas Maccabees
and is considered to be more legendary than 1 Maccabees. 2 Maccabees was also written in Greek originally
and concerns the glorification of martyrs. Both of these texts havve been accorded a place in the Roman
Catholic Old Testament. [9, 15] 3 Maccabees takes place in Egypt under King Ptolemy IV and involves a
foiled attempt to enter the Temple. It ends with a change in mind by the king. 4 Maccabees deals at even
greater length with the exemplary behaviour of martyrs and the great virtues obedience to the Jewish law
brings. [15]

Baruch (200BC -100 AD) Baruch(Apocalypse of Baruch) was attributed to the scribe of Jeremiah.
In actuality, it probably was written during the first century and as a Jew’s attempt to interperet the
destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD. It also contains the Letter of Jeremiah, which contains a strong warning

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A. Vaughn 4 DEVELOPMENT OF THE CANON

against idolatry. Furthermore, the only text to survice in its entirity is a Syriac text, which was translated
from the Greek. The original text was probably either Hebrew or Aramiac. [9, 7]

Books Esdras (2 books) I Esdras(300 BC- 100 AD) tells the story of the return of the Jews to Palestine
from the Babylonian exile. As may be expected, it draws from Ezra, Nehemiah and Chronicles with additions
of legendary material. II Esdras (100 AD) is an apocalyptic work including seven visions.[9, 15] It appears
to be a work composed of a Christian introduction and epilogue with the middle portion based on a Jewish
work.[15] Martin Luther did not appreciate this at all and apparently considered it worthless at best. [9]

3.3 Fiction
Book of Tobit (early 2nd cent. BC) Tobit is a short novel. It’s character is strongly Pharisiac, and
emphasizes the Law, clean foods, ceremonial washings, charity, fasting and prayer. It also contains the clearly
unscriptural statement that almsgiving is an atonement for sin.[9]

Additions to Esther (about 100 BC) Esther contains no mention of God, so this addition to Esther
consists of two long prayers. One of these prayers is attributed to Esther, while the other is said to belong
to her uncle Mordecai. In addition, there a few letters that Atraxerxes is given credit for. [9]

Susanna (100 BC) This is a 13th chapter to Daniel that contains the story of a beautiful wife of a leading
Jew in Babylon by the name of Susanna. Two Jewish elders or judges became enamored with her, but were
refused. She was then accused by them of being found in the arms of a young man. She was convicted and
sentenced to death, but then a young man Daniel interjected and cross-examined the witnesses by asking
which tree in the garden they had found Susanna with a lover.[9] They gave different answers and were put
to death, and Susanna was saved. This story centers around a play on words in the Greek concerning what
kind of tree was named and the method of their execution.[2]

Bel and the Dragon (c. 100 BC) Bel and the Dragon consists of two stories showing the folly of
idolatry. [9]

Judith (possibly around 150 BC ) Judith is set in the Assyrian period. There are major historical
fallacies within the text, such as Nebuchadnezzar being depicted as an Assyrian king. It involves the depiction
of a pious widow saving a city from a siege by conspiring to have a romantic meeting with the enemy general,
in order to behead him, reminding one of Judges 4 and 5.[15]

Part II
New Testament
4 Development of the Canon
4.1 Councils and Letters Concerning the Canon
Origen(185-254 AD) This scholar of Alexandria and Caesarea produced a large body of literature and
he accepted four gospels, fourteen epistles of Paul, Acts, 1 Peter, 1 John, Jude, and Revelation. He expressed
doubts however concerning James, 2 Peter, and 2 and 3 John. He did believe the Shepherd of Hermas to be
divinely inspired though. [18]

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A. Vaughn 4 DEVELOPMENT OF THE CANON

Didachē ( 110-120 AD, The Teaching of the Twelve) The canon appeared to have developed to
some extent by the second century AD. This statement is supported by the Didachē (“Teaching”), which
is an early catechism written in the later part of the second century AD, states “You shall not forsake the
commandments of the Lord, but you shall keep the things you have recieved, ’neither adding nor taking
away’.”(Didachē 4.13)

Cyril(∼350 AD) From Cyril’s Catechetical Lectures:

Then of the New Testament there are four Gospels only, for the rest have false titles and are harmful.
The Manicheans also wrote a Gospel according to Thomas, which being smeared with the fragrance of the
name ’Gospel’ destroys the souls of those who are rather simple-minded. Receive also the Acts of the Twelve
Apostles; and in addition to these the seven Catholic Epistles of James, Peter, John, and Jude; and as a seal
upon them all, and the latest work of disciples, the fourteen Epistles of Paul. But let all the rest be put aside
in a secondary rank. And whatever books are not read in the churches, do not read these even by yourself,
as you have already heard [me say concerning the Old Testament apocrypha]. [4]

Bishop Anthanasius of Alexandria (367 AD) The following is an exerpt from his festal letter describing
his views on the canon.

5. Again it is not tedious to speak of the [books] of the New Testament. These are, the four
Gospels, according to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Afterwards, the Acts of the Apostles and
Epistles (called Catholic), seven, viz. of James, one; of Peter, two; of John, three; after these, one
of Jude. In addition, there are fourteen Epistles of Paul, written in this order. The first, to the
Romans; then two to the Corinthians; after these, to the Galatians; next, to the Ephesians; then
to the Philippians; then to the Colossians; after these, two to the Thessalonians, and that to the
Hebrews; and again, two to Timothy; one to Titus; and lastly, that to Philemon. And besides,
the Revelation of John.

–Letter XXXIX, Festal Letter of Anthanasius[16]

This canon was accepted by the synods of Rome(382), Hippo Regius(393) and Carthrage(397).

’Apostolic Canons’ (∼380 CE)

A series of 85 Canons (decrees) attributed to the apostles was compiled in the late 4th century by
the redactor of the Apostolic Constitutions. This is the concluding Canon of the Latin version:
Canon 85. Let the following books be esteemed venerable and holy by all of you, both clergy
and laity. [A list of books of the Old Testament ...] And our sacred books, that is, of the New
Testament, are the four Gospels, of Matthew, Mark, Luke, John; the fourteen Epistles of Paul;
two Epistles of Peter; three of John; one of James; one of Jude; two Epistles of Clement; and
the Constitutions dedicated to you, the bishops, by me, Clement, in eight books, which is not
appropriate to make public before all, because of the mysteries contained in them; and the Acts
of us, the Apostles. Note the omission of the Revelation of John and the addition of the two
epistles of Clement.
In the Coptic translation, the Revelation of John follows Jude, and the word ’Clement’ is followed
by the clause etetneoshou hi bol, the significance of which has puzzled scholars. Tatam translated
it as ’which you shall read out of’, and Lightfoot translates it ’which ye shall read aloud’. Perhaps
best is the translation of Guidi – ’from which you are to read, outside’ – and to understand that
the two Epistles of Clement, though outside the canon, may nevertheless be read.

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A. Vaughn 5 INTEGRITY OF THE CANON

Manuscripts of the Arabic version (probably made in Egypt) also have differences. Three manuscripts,
dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, make no mention of the Epistles of Clement (omitting
the puzzling clause too). In other manuscripts, following the mention of ’the Apocalypse, vision
of John’, the list concludes with ’the two Epistles of Clement in one book’.

[4, 17]

Canon of Gregory of Nazianus (329-389 CE) Concerning the Old Testament, he agrees with Athana-
sius, but concerning the New Testament he differs by placing the Catholic Epistles after the Pauline Epistles
and, more significantly, in omitting the Revelation of John. However, Gregory knows of existence of the
Revelation of John, and on rare occasions in his other works he quotes from it.[4]

4.2 Events and Analyses

Thedore Zahn This scholar surmised by analyzing the writings of the church fathers that by the end of
the first century the New Testament had already started to take shape. Although, the canon was not exactly
the same as the modern one.[18]

The Great Perseceution of Diocletian(303-305 AD) During this time it was neccesary to establish
what books were to be considered holy and which could be handed over to the authorities.[18]

5 Integrity of the Canon

Over 5,300 Greek manuscripts are known to exist in addition to over 10,000 copies of the Latin Vulgate and
at least 9,300 early versions of the New Testament. Thus, there exists a far greater number of manuscripts
for the New Testament than any other ancient document of its time. In addition the earliest copies of
the New Testament are from the fourth century a mere 250 to 300 years after their original composition.
The following table from McDowell shows how the New Testament compares with some well known ancient
works.[9] Overman states that scholars today have available complete Greek manuscripts dated to be at the
latest 350 AD, and fragments dating from between 100 and 150 AD.[13] This lends strong credence to the
case that the New Testament is particular has been kept intact. In addition the large number of manuscripts
allow for the correction of errors by use of the field of textual criticism. Overman also considers the results of
Bruce M. Metzger’s work The New Testament: It’s Background, Growth, and Content here Metzger makes
the claim that 90% of the Bible is accurate to the letter unquestionably the remaining 10% with variations
is inconsequential for Christian doctrine. [13] Note that the field of lower and high criticism of the Bible has
never been a safe field for a theologian. Instead it is a place where each individual’s faith is tested specifically
by testing the belief in the accuracy of the Scriptures. E.J. Epp in his work “Textual Criticism” declares
that the large quantity of existing New Testament manuscripts virtually gurantees that the original reading
in every case is present somewhere in “our vast storehouse of material.”[5]

5.1 Problem Text in the Canon

Mark 16:9-20 Bruce Metzger in the Canon of the New Testament states[11]:

... we may find it instructive to consider the attitude of Church Fathers toward variant readings
in the text of the New Testament. On the one hand, as far as certain readings involve sensitive
points of doctrine, the Fathers customarily alleged that heretics had tampered with the accuracy
of the text. On the other hand, however, the question of the canonicity of a document apparently

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A. Vaughn 5 INTEGRITY OF THE CANON

Table 1: Ancient Works and Manuscripts [9]

Author When Earliest Copy # of Author When Written Earliest # of
Written Copies Copy Copies
Ceasar 100-44 900 AD 10 Sophocles 496-406 BC 1000 193
BC AD
Tacitus 100 AD 1100 AD 20 Livy 59 BC-17 AD – 20
(Annals)
Plato 427-347 900 AD 7 Euripedes 480-406 BC 1100 9
(Tetralo- BC AD
gies)
Thucydides 460-400 900 AD 8 Aristotle 384-322 BC 1100 49
(History) BC AD
Suetonius 75-160 950 AD 8 Aristophanes 450-385 BC 900 10
(De Vita AD AD
Cae-
sarum)
Herodutus 480-425 900 AD 8 Homer 900 BC 400 BC 643
(History) BC (Iliad )

did not arise in connection with discussion of such variant readings, even though they might
involve quite considerable sections of text. Today we know that the last twelve verses of the
Gospel according to Mark (xvi. 9-20) are absent from the oldest Greek, Latin, Syriac, Coptic,
and Armenian manuscripts, and that in other manuscripts asterisks or obeli mark the verses
as doubtful or spurious. Eusebius and Jerome, well aware of such variation in the witnesses,
discussed which form of text was to be preferred. It is noteworthy, however, that neither Father
suggested that one form was canonical and the other was not. Furthermore, the perception
that the canon was basically closed did not lead to a slavish fixing of the text of the canonical
books. Thus, the category of ’canonical’ appears to have been broad enough to include all variant
readings (as well as variant renderings in early versions) that emerged during the course of the
transmission of the New Testament documents while apostolic tradition was still a living entity,
with an intermingling of written and oral forms of that tradition. Already in the second century,
for example, the so-called long ending of Mark was known to Justin Martyr and to Tatian, who
incorporated it into his Diatesseron. There seems to be good reason, therefore, to conclude that,
though external and internal evidence is conclusive against the authenticity of the last twelve
verses as coming from the same pen as the rest of the Gospel, the passage ought to be accepted
as part of the canonical text of Mark.

5.2 Manuscripts

As well as the manuscripts listed below, the Church fathers also at times quoted from the New and Old
Testaments.

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A. Vaughn 6 APROCRYPHA/PSEUDEPIGRAPHA

5.2.1 Greek

John Ryland’s MS( 130 AD) This manuscript from Egypt of the Gospel of John confirms the traditional
date of the composition of the Gospel.

Bodmer Papyrus II(150-200 AD) This MS is located in the Bodmer Library of World Literature and
contains most of John.

Diatessaron Tatian’s Diatessaron is the first known Harmony of the Gospels. It contains practically the
entire text of the Gospels in addition to some of the extracanoical gospels. This text is important for a few
reasons. First it is the earliest most extensive text in existence. Secondly, reflects the theology and practice
of the that area. Lastly, it is considered to be the form in which the Gospels first appeared in Syriac, Latin,
Armenian, and Georgian.[1]

Chester Beatty Papyri (200 AD) This MS contains papyrus codices containing portions of the New
Testament.

Codex Vaticanus(325-350 AD) The Codex Vaticanus is located in the Vatican library and contains
nearly the entire Bible.

Codex Sinaiticus (350 AD) This codex is located int the British Museum and contains most of the New
Testament and the majority of the Old Testament.

5.2.2 Translations

St. Jerome’s Vulgate This text was a Latin translation of the Old and New Testament’s commisioned
by the Pope St. Damasus.[6]This was performed between 395 and 405 AD. It is also considered to be the
offical Latin version of the Bible for the Catholic church as of the Council of Trent on April 8, 1546. [25]

6 Aprocrypha/Pseudepigrapha
Shepherd of Hermas (c. 115-140 AD) It was originally written in Rome in Greek. The text consists
of several visions and some of the early Church fathers considered it to be scripture. Thus, it was included
in some of the early codexes such as Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Claromontanus.[22]

6.1 Jewish Christian Gospels

Gospel of the Hebrews (65-100 AD) The full text of this gopel does not exist, but quotes from it do
occur in the writings of the Church Fathers. It was originally written in Hebrew and some scholars have
speculated that it influenced the development of some of the Canonical Gospels.[5, 20]

6.2 Gnostic Gospels

The Gospel of Judas is a second-century Gnostic gospel as well.

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A. Vaughn 6 APROCRYPHA/PSEUDEPIGRAPHA

Gospel of Thomas The Gospel of Thomas is a collection of 114 sayings and is generally considered be
Gnostic, partially at least due to being associated with the Nag Hammadi library. Portions of some of these
sayings also occur in Matthew, Mark or Luke. None of the sayings though appear in John. It is hypothesized
that this text is a conglomeration of sayings from oral tradition, the texts/gospels circulating at the time
and works from the speculative writings of Philo.[3] Eusebius specifically denounces the text as heretical.
[2]Stevan Davies however makes a intelligent guess based on literary and textual clues that it was written
between 45 and 70 AD.[3] Overmans notes that the papyri have been dated to the papyri to about 200 AD
and a date of 140 AD has been assigned to the original text by the discoverers Grenfell and Hunt without
any explanation. In addition, he says that most scholars agree that the text was written in Syria possibly in
the City of Edessa. Much debate over the date of composition has occured the consensus overall however is
that the Gospel of Thomas is a second-century text.[13]

6.3 Epistles
Epistle of Polycarp to the Phillippians (c. 108 AD) The following is transcribed from Kirsopp Lake in
The Apostolic Fathers (published London 1912), v. I, pp. 280-281 (copied from http://www.earlychristianwritings.com)

Polycarp was the Bishop of Smyrna in the first half of the second century, and was martyred, in
all probability, on February 23rd, 155 A.D., at the age of eighty-six. He had been a disciple of
John, and opinions differ as to whether this John was the son of Zebedee, or John the Presbyter.
According to Irenaeus [Adv. Haer. v. 33. 4] Polycarp wrote several epistles, but only one is
extant. This is the epistle sent to the Philippians in connection with Ignatius.
The object of the epistle is apparently partly to warn the Philippians against certain disorders in
the Church at Philippi, and especially against apostasy; but it appears to have been immediately
called for by the desire of the Philippians to make a collection of the letters of Ignatius. They had
written to Polycarp to help him in this task, and the letter to the Philippians is, as we should say,
a "covering letter" for the copies which Polycarp sends of all the Ignatian epistles to which he had
access. It is interesting to notice that the one epistle which neither Polycarp nor the Philippians
could easily obtain would be that to the Romans, and that it is this letter which in the Ignatian
MSS. seems to have had a different textual history from that of the other six.
The epistle is preserved in eight defective Greek MSS., representing a single archetype, in two
long quotations in Eusebius, and in a Latin version contained in the Latin version of the Corpus
Ignatianum (see p. 171). The reconstructed archetype of the Greek MSS. is quoted as G, that
of the Latin MSS, as L, and Eusebius as Eus. A full collation of the individual Greek and Latin
MSS. is given by Lightfoot.

The Seven Epistles of Ignatius (c. 100 AD) St. Ignatius wrote seven letters that are considered to
be genuine, and was the Bishop of Antioch. The following quote is taken from Wikipedia.[21] Additional
information may be found on the www.ntcanon.org website.

The letters of St. Ignatius have proved to be important testimony to the development of catholic
theology, since the number of extant writings from this period of Church history is very small.
They bear signs of being written in great haste and without a proper plan, such as run-on
sentences and an unsystematic succession of thought. Ignatius is the earliest known catholic
writer to emphasize loyalty to a single bishop in each city (or diocese) who is assisted by both
presbyters possibly elders and deacons. Earlier writings only mention either bishops or presbyters,
and give the impression that there was usually more than one bishop per congregation.[citation

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A. Vaughn REFERENCES

needed] For instance, while the offices of bishop, presbyter and deacon appear apostolic in origin,
the titles of "bishop" and "presbyter" could be used interchangeably.

Epistles of Clement St. Clement, the fourth Bishop of Rome, lived during the First Century and wrote
his first epistle to the Church at Corinth. His second epistle is a homily or sermon, as such it is the oldest
existing transcript of a Christian sermon. This second epistle was probably written later however in the
second century, whereas the first epistle was probably written in the latter portion of the First Century.[19]

References
[1] Craig D. Allert. The State of the New Testament Canon in the Second Century: Putting Tatian’s
Diatessaron in Perspective. Bulletin for Biblical Research, 9:1–18, 1999.

Diatessaron was the first Harmony of the Gospels. In some parts, this was
the primary way the Gospels were read and this gives us insights into the
Tatian’s theological perspective on Christianity. Online at: http://www.ibr-
bbr.org/IBRBulletin/BBR_1999/BBR_1999_01_Allert_Diatessaron.pdf

[2] F. F. Bruce. The Canon of Scripture. IVP Academic, Downer’s Grove, 1988.

This work provides an overview of how the Biblical canons developed and how we have gotten
the Bible that we have today.

[3] Stevan Davies. The fourth synoptic gospel. The Biblical Archaeologist, 46(1):6–14, Winter 1983.

Online: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3209683

[4] Glenn Davis. The New Testament Canon, July 2008.

Online: http://www.ntcanon.org

[5] Paul Rhodes Eddy and Gregory A. Boyd. The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the
Synoptic Jesus Tradition. Baker, Grand Rapids, 2007.

This book contains a thorough review of the arguments both for and against the Synoptic
Gospels(Matthew, Mark and Luke). In addition, it provides some arguments for Paul’s Epistles
and the Biblical text in general. Finally, this text advocates what the author terms a "Open-
Historical Critical" method for accessing the historical reliability of Ancient texts and the
synoptic gospels in particular.

[6] Francis Aidan Gasquet. The Catholic Encyclopedia, volume 15. Robert Appleton Company, New York,
1912.

[7] David M. Gurtner. "2 Baruch". in The Online Critical Pseudepigrapha. Online, 2007.

http://www.purl.org/net/ocp/2Bar.html

[8] Edna Israeli. "Taxo" and the Origin of the Assumption of Moses. Journal of Biblical Literature,
128(4):735–757, 2009.

Online at: http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy-remote.galib.uga.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lfh&AN=

46835046&site=ehost-live

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A. Vaughn REFERENCES

[9] Josh McDowell. Evidence that Demands a Verdict. Thomas Nelson, Nashville, 1979.

This text forms a reasonable starting point. The citations though are somewhat out of date,
and it is not always clear where his sources are coming from. Also, the context of his quotations
are not always clear.

[10] Bruce Metzger. A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament. Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft,
Stuttgart, 1971.

This is a companion to the United Bible Societie’s Greek New Testament (UBS4). It discusses
textual variations within the manuscripts and a thorough explanation for each textual descis-
sion that appears in UBS4.

[11] Bruce Metzger. The Canon of the New Testament: its Origin, Development, and Significance. Clarendon
Press, Oxford, 1987.

This book covers the development of the New Testament canon, movements that effected the
development of the canon, the Apocryphal New Testemant, and addresses historical and theo-
logical issues of the canon.

[12] Bruce D. Metzger and Bart D. Ehrman. The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption,
and Restoration. Oxford University Press, 4th edition, 2005.

This is a classical work on the text of the New Testament.

[13] Dean L. Overman. A Case for the Divinity of Jesus: Examining the Earliest Evidence. Rowman &
Littlefield, Lanham, September 2009.

This text is an attempt to defend the divinity of Jesus through various approaches. This work
as it applies here, considers the Gospel of Thomas and Gospel of Judas.

[14] George Robinson. Essential Judaisim: A Complete Guide to Beliefs, Customs, and Rituals. Pocket
Books, New York, 2000.

[15] John Rogerson, editor. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Bible. Oxford University Press, New York,
2001.

This book provides a history of the Bible from a modern perspective.

[16] Phillip Schaff. NPNF2-04. Athanasius: Select Works and Letters, November 2005.

http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204.xxv.iii.iii.xxv.html

[17] Phillip Schaff. ANF 07: The ecclesiastical canons of the same holy apostles, 2010.

http://www.tertullian.org/fathers2/ANF-07/anf07-50.htm

[18] Eckhard Schnabel. History, theology and the Biblical Canon: an Introduction to Basic Issues. Themelios,
20(2):16–24, 1995.

This article provides an excellent overview within a few pages of how the Biblical Canon de-
veloped and what effects it has on theological issues. Online at: http://s3.amazonaws.com/tgc-
documents/journal-issues/20.2_Schnabel.pdf

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A. Vaughn REFERENCES

[19] Wikipedia. Epistles of Clement — Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, March 2010.

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epistles_of_Clement&oldid=348902747

[20] Wikipedia. Gospel of the hebrews — wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2010.

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gospel_of_the_Hebrews&oldid=353902523

[21] Wikipedia. Ignatius of Antioch — Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, March 2010.

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ignatius_of_Antioch&oldid=349819592

[22] Wikipedia. The Shepherd of Hermas — Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 2010.

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Shepherd_of_Hermas&oldid=349304276

[23] N.T. Wright. The New Testament and the People of God. Fortress Press, Minneapolis, 1992.

This work is the first book in a 5-volume series on Christian Origins and the Question of God
and looks again at the literary, historical and theological readings of the New Testament, while
arguing for a form of "critical realism" that facilitates different readings of the text.

[24] N.T. Wright. Jesus and the Victory of God. Fortress Press, Minneapolis, 1996.

This work by N. T. Wright is the second volume in his series on Christian Orgins and the
Question of God focucing on the historical Jesus and attempts to estabilish who he was, what
he said and why it all matters.

[25] Ernst Würthwein. The Text of the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Biblia Hebraica. Eerdmans,
Grand Rapids, 2nd edition, 1988.

This work provides an overview of the various manuscripts of the Old Testament. It also
includes an introduction to textual criticisim of the Hebrew text of the Old Testament.

14