Properties of Brick Aggregate Concrete using Rice Husk Ash

(RHA) Cement as Binding Material

A thesis submitted
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of

Master of Science
In Civil Engineering (Structural)

By

Md. Shahrior Alam

0412042313

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, DHAKA

NOVEMBER, 2015
TO MY PARENTS
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Author wishes to express his deepest gratitude to the almighty for the unlimited
blessings to bring out this work a success. He is also thankful to his parents and brother for
their encouragement in every step of getting education.

The Author wishes to express his deepest gratitude to Dr. Syed Ishtiaq Ahmad, Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering, BUET, for his sincere guidance, important directions and
invaluable suggestions at every stage of this study.

The author would like to thank all the teachers, lab assistants, lab technicians, and others who
help him to go through the research work. He is very much thankful to the Department of
Civil Engineering, BUET for the timely co-operation in facilitating the research work to a
success.

The author is thankful to his friends and colleagues for their consistent help and support.

i
 DECLARATION

I do hereby declare that the research work on “Properties of Brick Aggregate Concrete
using Rice Husk Ash (RHA) Cement as Binding Material” under the supervision of Dr.
Syed Ishtiaq Ahmad, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, BUET, reported in this
thesis has been performed by me and that this work has not been submitted elsewhere for any
other purpose, except for publication.

NOVEMBER, 2015 Md. Shahrior Alam

ii
iii
 ABSTRACT

Rice husk ash (RHA), one of the cement replacing materials, exhibit high pozzolanic
characteristics when properly produced under controlled conditions. There are many works
that have been reported till today on use of RHA, especially, with concrete containing natural
stone aggregate. However, very few information is available on RHA containing brick
aggregate concrete. For this, eight concrete samples with target strength of 34 MPa were
prepared varying RHA content from 0% to 15% from both natural stone and crushed clay
brick aggregate concrete. Strength, permeability in the form of depth of water penetration,
shrinkage tests were conducted on the concrete samples prepared. It was found that strength
of concrete for containing both brick and stone aggregate increase up to 5% of cement
replaced by RHA. For further replacement, strength starts to decrease. For 15% of cement
replaced by RHA, strength is lower than concrete containing 0% RHA. For all the cases,
strength of brick aggregate concrete was found to be higher than stone aggregate concrete.
Depth of penetration test on cube samples for both natural stone and crushed clay brick
aggregate concrete show that permeability coefficient of concrete containing 5% of cement
replaced by RHA is similar to that of concrete with 0% of cement replaced by RHA.
However, coefficient of permeability increases by about 10% for both stone and brick
aggregate concrete when RHA content is increased up to 10%. For 15% of cement replaced
by RHA, depth of penetration is, again, found to decrease by about 3%. For all cases,
coefficient of permeability of brick aggregate concrete is much higher than that of stone
aggregate concrete. Cement replacement by RHA up to 10% show decreases in drying
shrinkage for both natural stone and brick aggregate concrete. However, further increase in
RHA content shows a corresponding increase in drying shrinkage value. However, for this 34
MPa concrete, which is on the higher side of normal strength concrete, there is little
difference in drying shrinkage between natural stone and crushed clay brick aggregate
concrete. From analysis of these properties, it can be concluded that up to 5% of cement may
be replaced by RHA without compromising any of the strength and durability properties of
concrete. Up to 10% of cement replaced by RHA, properties of concrete degrade by a little
margin; however, strength and other durability properties still remain within acceptable
range. Further increase i.e. 15% of cement replaced by RHA, durability and strength
properties of concrete worsen by considerable amount. Therefore, brick aggregate concrete
may contain up to 10% of cement replaced by RHA considering strength and durability
properties like permeability and shrinkage.

iv
 INDEX

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.......................................................................................................................... i

DECLARATION........................................................................................................................................ ii

THESIS BOARD MEMBER...................................................................................................................... iii

ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................ iv

INDEX........................................................................................................................................................ v

TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................................................ vii

LIST OF TABLES...................................................................................................................................... x

LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................................................... xi

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................1
1.1 GENERAL............................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 APPLICATIONS OF RICE HUSK ASH .............................................................................................. 2
1.4 ADVANTAGES OF USING RHA AS SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTING MATERIALS............... 3
1.5 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................. 3
1.6 SCOPE OF RESEARCH ...................................................................................................................... 3
1.7 OUTLINE OF METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................... 4
1.8 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS ................................................................................................... 4

2 CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND & PRESENT STUDY...............................................6

2.1 GENERAL............................................................................................................................................ 6
2.2 RICE HUSK ASH (RHA) CHARACTERISTICS ................................................................................ 6
2.3 RICE HUSK ASH (RHA) IN CEMENT ............................................................................................... 9
2.4 AGGREGATES.................................................................................................................................. 14
2.4.1 Effects of Aggregates .....................................................................................................................15
2.4.2 Natural Aggregates .........................................................................................................................15
2.4.3 Light Weight Aggregates................................................................................................................15
2.5 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH ........................................................................................................... 16
2.6 SPLITING TENSILE STRENGTH .................................................................................................... 19
2.7 SHRINKAGE & RELATED TERMS ................................................................................................ 22
2.7.1 TYPES OF SHRINKAGE..............................................................................................................23
2.7.1.1 Plastic Shrinkage................................................................................................................................... 23
2.7.1.2 Autogenous Shrinkage .......................................................................................................................... 24
2.7.1.3 Drying Shrinkage .................................................................................................................................. 25
2.7.1.3.1 Shrinkage Mechanism ...................................................................................................................... 26
2.7.2 Factors Affecting Shrinkage ...........................................................................................................29
2.8 DEPTH OF WATER PENETRATION TEST OF CONCRETE......................................................... 32

3 CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS, MIXDESIGN AND EXPERIMENTAL

PROCEDURES ......................................................................................................................36
3.1 GENERAL.......................................................................................................................................... 36
3.2 METHODOLOGY OF CONCRETE MADE OF BRICK CHIPS AND STONE CHIPS USING RICE
HUSK ASH...................................................................................................................................................... 36
3.3 TESTING MATERIALS & TESTING SPECIFICATIONS............................................................... 37
3.3.1 Cement............................................................................................................................................37
3.3.2 Normal Consistency Test of Cement ..............................................................................................38
3.3.3 Initial and Final Setting Time Test of Cement ...............................................................................39
3.3.4 Mortar Compressive Strength Test.................................................................................................39
3.3.5 Rice Husk Ash (RHA)....................................................................................................................39
3.3.5.1 Processing and Production of RHA....................................................................................................... 40
3.3.5.2 Rice Husk Burner.................................................................................................................................. 40
3.3.5.3 Sieve Analysis of Rice Husk and Rice Husk Ash ................................................................................. 42
3.3.5.4 Change in Weight of RHA after Burning of Rice Husk ........................................................................ 42

vi
 3.3.5.5 Dry Roded Unit Weight of RHA........................................................................................................... 42
3.3.5.6 Specific Gravity Test of RHA ............................................................................................................... 43
3.3.5.7 Specific Gravity Test of Fly Ash........................................................................................................... 43
3.3.5.8 Moisture Content Test of RHA ............................................................................................................. 43
3.3.5.9 Fineness Test of RHA ........................................................................................................................... 44
3.3.6 Aggregate .......................................................................................................................................44
3.3.6.1 Fine Aggregate as Sand......................................................................................................................... 44
3.3.6.2 Coarse Aggregate as Clay Brick and Stone Aggregate ......................................................................... 44
3.3.6.3 Specific Gravity Test of Fine Aggregates ............................................................................................. 45
3.3.6.4 Specific Gravity Test of Coarse Aggregates ......................................................................................... 45
3.3.6.5 Absorption Test of Aggregates.............................................................................................................. 46
3.3.6.6 Moisture Content Test of Aggregates.................................................................................................... 46
3.3.6.7 Dry Roded Unit Weight of Aggregates ................................................................................................. 46
3.3.7 Water ..............................................................................................................................................46
3.4 MIX DESIGN ........................................................................................................................................ 47
3.4.1 Concrete Mixing.............................................................................................................................47
3.4.2 Curing of Specimen ........................................................................................................................48
3.5 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES ................................................................................................... 48
3.5.1 Compressive Strength Test .............................................................................................................48
3.5.2 Splitting Tensile Strength Test .......................................................................................................49
3.5.3 Shrinkage Test ................................................................................................................................49
3.5.3.1 Preparation of Specimen ....................................................................................................................... 49
3.5.3.2 Shrinkage Testing Apparatus ................................................................................................................ 50
3.5.3.3 Shrinkage Calculation ........................................................................................................................... 50
3.5.4 Depth of Water Penetration Test ....................................................................................................51
3.5.4.1 Preparation of Specimen ....................................................................................................................... 51
3.5.4.2 Depth of Water Penetration Testing Apparatus..................................................................................... 51
3.5.4.3 Depth of Water Penetration Testing Procedure ..................................................................................... 52
3.5.4.4 Depth of Water Penetration Calculation................................................................................................ 52

4 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS .........................................................53

4.1 GENERAL.......................................................................................................................................... 53
4.2 FINENESS OF RHA........................................................................................................................... 53
4.3 NORMAL CONSISTENCY OF CEMENT WITH RHA.................................................................... 53
4.4 SETTING TIME OF CEMENT WITH RHA...................................................................................... 54
4.5 MORTAR COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST ............................................................................... 55
4.5.1 Optimum (%) Content between Fly ash and RHA .........................................................................57
4.6 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH ........................................................................................................... 58
4.6.1 Compressive Strength of Brick and Stone Aggregate Concrete .....................................................58
4.6.2 Optimum (%) Content of RHA in the Compressive Strength of Concrete.....................................62
4.6.3 Effect of Age on Strength of RHA Concrete ..................................................................................63
4.6.4 Effect of Size of Aggregate on Compressive Strength of Aggregates RHA Concrete ...................64
4.6.5 Effect of Using RHA as Admixture in Brick Aggregate ................................................................65
4.6.6 Comparison of Compressive Strength of Concrete & Mortar ........................................................66
4.7 SPLITTING TENSILE STRENGTH.................................................................................................. 66
4.7.1 Splitting Tensile Strength of Brick Aggregate Concrete and Stone Aggregate ..............................66
4.7.2 Optimum Content of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Splitting Tensile Strength ...................................71
4.7.3 Relationships between Tensile Strength and Compressive Strength of RHA Concrete .................72
4.7.4 Comparison between Theoretical and Actual Splitting Tensile Strength .......................................73
4.8 DEPTH OF WATER PENETRATION OF CONCRETE................................................................... 74

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 4.8.1 Depth of Water Penetration of Brick and Stone Aggregate Concrete ............................................74
4.8.2 The Coefficient of Permeability of Brick and Stone Aggregates Concrete ....................................81
4.8.3 Relationship between Depth of Penetration of Water and Compressive Strength of Concrete ......82
4.9 SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE.......................................................................................................... 83
4.9.1 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Shrinkage of Brick and stone Aggregate Concrete................83
4.9.2 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Dry Shrinkage of Brick and Stone Aggregate Concrete ........86
4.10 COST EFFECTIVENESS AND ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF RICE HUSK ASH
CONCRETE .................................................................................................................................................... 89
4.11 COLOR OF RICE HUSK ASH CONCRETE ..................................................................................... 90
4.12 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY (SEM) OF CEMENT, RHA, FLY ASH, MORTAR & SAND ............ 91
4.13 ENERGY DISPERSIVE X-RAY SPECTROSCOPY (EDS) OF CEMENT, RHA, FLY ASH & LIME ................. 96

5 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS..................................101

5.1 GENERAL........................................................................................................................................ 101
5.2 RESEARCH FINDINGS .................................................................................................................. 101
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDY ........................................................................... 103

6 REFERENCES ...............................................................................................................104
APPENDIX................................................................................................................... 111

viii
 LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 2-1 Physical Properties of RHA ................................................................................................................. 6
Table 2-2 Chemical Composition of RHA .......................................................................................................... 6
Table 2-3 Micro Analysis of Rice Husk .............................................................................................................. 7
Table 2-4 Chemical Composition of RHA .......................................................................................................... 7
Table 2-5 Summary of the Average Values of Normal Consistency.................................................................... 9
Table 2-6 Normal Consistency and Setting Times of Portland Cement and Calcium Carbide-Rice Husk Ash
Pastes ................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Table 2-7 Compressive Strength of Mortar ........................................................................................................ 12
Table 2-8 Axial Compressive Strength of Concrete .......................................................................................... 18
Table 2-9 Mechanical Properties of Concrete .................................................................................................... 19
Table 2-10 Compressive and splitting Tensile Strength Results of RHA Concretes ......................................... 31
Table 2-11 Reduction in Permeability of Cement Paste (Water/Cement Ratio = 0.7) with the Progress of
Hydration ........................................................................................................................................................... 33
Table 2-12 Permeability Coefficients of Concrete Mixes ................................................................................. 34
Table 2.13 Typical Values of Permeability Coefficients of Concrete Materials ................................................ 34
Table 3-1 The Common Cements, Covered by EN 197-.................................................................................... 37
Table 3-2 Chemical Compositions of Portland Cement ..................................................................................... 37
Table 3-3 Minimum Compressive Strength of Mortar ....................................................................................... 38
Table 3-4 Chemical Compositions of RHA ....................................................................................................... 39
Table 3-5 Concrete Mix Design (weight basis) (Quantity for 1 yd3) ................................................................. 46
Table 4 1 Depth of Water Penetration of RHA Concrete ................................................................................... 74
Table 4 2 The Coefficient of Permeability of Brick and Stone Aggregates Concrete ........................................ 80
Table 4 3 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Depth of Water Penetration and Compressive Strength of
Concrete ............................................................................................................................................................. 81
Table 4 4 Chemical Properties of RHA, Cement, Fly Ash & Lime ................................................................... 95

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Fig 2-1 Color of RHA .......................................................................................................................................... 7
Fig 2-2 SEM for RHA Particle ............................................................................................................................ 8
Fig 2-3 Normal Consistency verses % of RHA.................................................................................................... 9
Fig 2-4 Setting of Fresh Cement Paste ............................................................................................................... 10
Fig 2-5 Initial and Final Setting Times of RHA Blended Cements ................................................................... 11
Fig 2-6 Initial and Final Setting Times of RHA Blended Cements.................................................................... 12
Fig 2-7 Relation between the Strengths of Concrete and of Mortar of the Same Water/Cement Ratio ............ 13
Fig 2-8 Compressive Strength Variation of OPC and PPC with Partial Replacement of LP and RHA ............ 16
Fig 2-9 Relation between Compressive Strength and Age for Concretes Made With Various Aggregates ...... 17
Fig 2-10 Relative Gain of Strength with Time in Concretes with Different Water/Cement Ratios .................. 17
Fig 2-11 Stress State on Element at Centre of Indirect (Splitting) Tensile Test Specimen ................................ 18
Fig 2-12 Split Tensile Strength Variation of OPC and PPC with Partial Replacement of LP and RHA .......... 19
Fig 2-13 Relation between Splitting Tensile Strength and Compressive Strength............................................. 20
Fig 2-14 Influence of Cement Content of the Mix on Early Shrinkage in Air ................................................... 22
Fig 2-15 Relationship between Autogenous Shrinkage and Chemical Shrinkage.............................................. 24
Fig 2-16 Absorbed Water Film .......................................................................................................................... 25
Fig 2-17 Self-Balanced Stress Generated by Drying Shrinkage......................................................................... 25
Fig 2-18 Diagrammatic Representation of Length Changes of Shrinkage-Compensating and Portland
Cement Concretes .............................................................................................................................................. 26
Fig 2-19 Length Change in Concrete in Water And Air ................................................................................... 27
Fig 2-20 Drying Shrinkage of RHA and SF Concretes ..................................................................................... 27
Fig 2-21 Shrinkage of Concretes of Fixed Mix Proportions But Made with Different Aggregates, and
Stored in Air of 28 Days Curing ........................................................................................................................ 28
Fig 2-22 Influence of Water/Cement Ratio and Aggregate Content on Shrinkage ............................................ 29
Fig 2-23 Drying Shrinkage of the Four Concrete Mixtures up to 28 Days of Age ........................................... 29
Fig 2-24 Shrinkage of Concrete of Fixed Mix Proportions But Made with Different Aggregate and Stored
in Air With Proper 28 Days Curing ................................................................................................................... 30
Fig 2-25 Shrinkage Values at Various Ages ..................................................................................................... 31
Fig 2-26 Relation between Permeability and Water/Cement Ratio for Mature Cement Pastes ........................ 33
Fig 3-1Test Methodology of Concrete Made of Brick & Stone Chips using RHA Cement .............................. 36
Fig 3-2 Burning Rice Husk in Furnace............................................................................................................... 38
Fig 3-3 Los Angeles Machine ............................................................................................................................ 39
Fig 3-4 Rice husk –Burner setup ........................................................................................................................ 40
Fig 3-5 Rice Husk –Burner ................................................................................................................................ 40

x
Fig 3-6 Burning Rice Husk in Furnace............................................................................................................... 41
Fig 3-7 Blaine Air-Permeability Apparatus........................................................................................................ 42
Fig 3-8 Gradation of Natural Stone and Brick Aggregate .................................................................................. 44
Fig 3-9 Compression Machine ........................................................................................................................... 47
Fig 3-10 Splitting Tensile Strength Test in Compression Machine.................................................................... 48
Fig 3-11 Length Comparator for Measuring Length Change ............................................................................. 49
Fig 3-12 Water permeability Apparatus ............................................................................................................. 50
Fig 4 1 Normal Consistency of RHA Cement .................................................................................................... 53
Fig 4-2 Increasing Setting Time using RHA Cement......................................................................................... 53
Fig 4-3 The Compressive Strength of Mortar Using RHA Cement ................................................................... 54
Fig 4-4 (a) The Compressive Strength of Mortar Using 5% RHA Cement........................................................ 55
Fig 4-4 (b) The Compressive Strength of Mortar Using 10% RHA Cement ..................................................... 55
Fig 4 4 (c) The Compressive Strength of Mortar Using 15% RHA Cement ...................................................... 56
Fig 4 5 Variation of Mortar Strength using Fly Ash and RHA at 28 Days ........................................................ 56
Fig 4-6 Relationship between Compressive Strength and Age of RHA Brick Aggregate ................................. 57
Fig 4-7 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Compressive Strength of Brick Aggregate Concrete .................... 58
Fig 4-8 Relationship between Compressive Strength and Age of RHA Stone Aggregate Concrete.................. 58
Fig 4-9 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Compressive Strength of Stone Aggregate Concrete.................... 59
Fig 4-10 (a) Relationship between Compressive Strength and Age of Concrete ............................................... 59
Fig 4-10 (b) Relationship between Compressive Strength and Age of 5%RHA Concrete ................................ 60
Fig 4-10(c) Relationship between Compressive Strength and Age of 10% RHA Concrete............................... 60
Fig 4-10 (d) Relationship between Compressive Strength and Age of 15% RHA Concrete ............................. 61
Fig 4-11 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Compressive Strength of RHA Concrete at 28 Days .................. 61
Fig 4-12 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Compressive Strength of RHA Concrete at 90 Days ................ 62
Fig 4-13 Relative Gain of Strength Variation with Time of RHA Concrete ...................................................... 62
Fig 4-14 Effect of Size of Aggregates on Compressive Strength of RHA Concrete .......................................... 63
Fig 4-15 Effect of Using as Admixture in Brick Aggregate............................................................................... 64
Fig 4-16 Strength Increment comparison of Using RHA as Admixture ............................................................ 64
Fig 4-17 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Compressive Strength of Concrete & Mortar ............................. 65
Fig 4-18 Relationship between Splitting Tensile Strength and Age of RHA Brick Aggregate Concrete .......... 66
Fig 4-19 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Splitting Tensile Strength of Brick Aggregate Concrete ............ 67
Fig 4-20 Relationship between Splitting Tensile Strength and Age of RHA Brick Aggregate Concrete ........ 67
Fig 4-21 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Splitting Tensile Strength of Stone Aggregate Concrete ............ 68
Fig 4-22 (a) Splitting Tensile Strength of Normal Concrete .............................................................................. 68
Fig 4-22 (b) Splitting Tensile Strength of 5% RHA Concrete ........................................................................... 69

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Fig 4-22(c) Splitting Tensile Strength of 10% RHA Concrete........................................................................... 69
Fig 4-22 (d) Splitting Tensile Strength of 15% RHA Concrete ......................................................................... 70
Fig 4-23 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Splitting Tensile Strength of Concrete at 28 Days...................... 70
Fig 4-24 Relationships between Tensile Strength and Compressive Strength of RHA Concrete ...................... 71
Fig 4-25 %Tensile Strength with Compressive Strength of RHA Concrete at Different Days .......................... 72
Fig 4-26 Comparison between Theoretical and Actual Splitting Tensile Strength ............................................ 73
Fig 4-27 Depth of Water Penetration of RHA Concrete .................................................................................... 74
Fig 4-28(a) Penetration Curve for RHA Brick Aggregate Concrete .................................................................. 75
Fig 4-28(b) Penetration Curve for RHA Stone Aggregate Concrete .................................................................. 75
Fig 4-29 (a) Depth of Water Penetration Variation of Brick Aggregate Concrete at Different Distance (set
1) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 76
Fig 4-29 (b) Depth of Water Penetration Variation of Brick Aggregate Concrete at Different Distance (set
2) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 76
Fig 4-30 (a) Depth of Water Penetration Variation of Stone Aggregate Concrete at Different Distance (set
1) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 77
Fig 4-30(b) Depth of Water Penetration Variation of Stone Aggregate Concrete at Different Distance (set
2) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 77
Fig 4-31 (a) Depth of Water Penetration Variation of OPC Concrete) ............................................................. 78
Fig 4-31 (b) Depth of Water Penetration Variation of 5 %RHA Concrete......................................................... 78
Fig 4-31 (c) Depth of Water Penetration Variation of 10 %RHA Concrete....................................................... 79
Fig 4-31 (d) Depth of Water Penetration Variation of 15%RHA Concrete........................................................ 79
Fig 4-32 Variation of the Coefficient of Permeability of Concrete .................................................................... 81
Fig 4-33 Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of Brick Aggregate Concrete ....................................................... 83
Fig 4-34 Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of Stone Aggregate Concrete ....................................................... 83
Fig 4-35 (a) Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of Normal Concrete ................................................................ 84
Fig 4-35 (b) Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of 5% RHA Concrete.............................................................. 84
Fig 4-35 (c) Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of 10% RHA Concrete ............................................................ 84
Fig 4-35 (d) Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of 15% RHA Concrete............................................................ 85
Fig 4-36 Dry Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of Brick Aggregate Concrete after Curing ............................ 86
Fig 4-37 Dry Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of Stone Aggregate Concrete after Curing............................ 86
Fig 4-38 (a) Dry Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of 0% RHA Concrete...................................................... 87
Fig 4-38 (b) Dry Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of 5% RHA Concrete ..................................................... 87
Fig 4-38 (c) Dry Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of 10% RHA Concrete..................................................... 87
Fig 4-38 (d) Dry Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of 15% RHA Concrete ................................................... 88
Fig 4-39(a)Change in Requirement & (b)Cost of Cement using RHA .............................................................. 88
Fig 4-40 Color of Rice Husk, Rice Husk Ash (before grinding), Rice Husk Ash Concrete ( after grinding) .... 89
Fig 4-41 Change in Color of Rice Husk Ash Concrete ...................................................................................... 89

xii
Fig 4-42 Change in Color of Rice Husk Ash Cement ................................................................................................. 90
Fig 4-43 SEM of Cement ............................................................................................................................................ 91
Fig 4-44 SEM of RHA ................................................................................................................................................ 91
Fig 4-45 SEM of Flyash .............................................................................................................................................. 92
Fig 4-46 SEM of Lime ................................................................................................................................................ 92
Fig 4-47 SEM of Sand................................................................................................................................................. 93
Fig 4-48 SEM of OPC Mortar ..................................................................................................................................... 93
Fig 4-49 SEM of 5%RHA Mortar ............................................................................................................................... 94
Fig 4-50 SEM of 10% RHA Mortar ............................................................................................................................ 94
Fig 4-51 SEM of 15% RHA Mortar ............................................................................................................................ 95
Fig 4-52 Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) of Cement ......................................................................... 96
Fig 4-53 Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) of RHA .............................................................................. 97
Fig 4-54 Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) of Flyash........................................................................... 98
Fig 4-55 Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) of Lime ............................................................................ 99

xiii
 CHAPTER 1

1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL

Concrete is the main ingredient and commonly used material for the ever growing
construction industry of Bangladesh. The primary components of concrete are gravel/stone,
sand, water, and Portland cement. Although the Portland cement constitutes only 10 % to 15
% of the total volume, it is the critical material system that, upon reacting with water, binds
the other components together. Unfortunately, the production of Portland cement is energy
intensive and emits nearly a kilogram of carbon dioxide (CO2) for each kilogram of cement
produced and increasing in the use of concrete will increase the carbon emission and energy
consumption (Snyder et al, 2012) ,(Sharp, 2004).

Supplementary cementing materials (SCMs) contribute to the properties of hardened concrete

through hydraulic or pozzolanic activity. Typical examples are fly ashes, slag cement
(ground, granulated blast-furnace slag), and silica fume and rice husk ash (RHA). These can
be used individually with Portland or blended cement or in different combinations. SCMs can
influence the mechanical properties of concrete and improve its durability in aggressive
environments. Supplementary Cementing Materials in Concrete covers the chemical,
physical, and mineralogical properties of SCMs; their chemical reactions; and the resulting
changes in the microstructure of concrete. (Ramasamy, 2012)

There are numerous Portland cement replacement materials that can be used to reduce the
amount of Portland cement in concrete; rice husk (RH) ash is one of them. The country like
Bangladesh is now producing about 34.0 million tons of rice and almost 7 million tons are
RH (FAOSTAT, 2014). RH removed from paddy during rice refining creates disposal
problem due to its less commercial value. The use of byproducts of rice is an environment-
friendly method of disposal of large quantities of materials that would otherwise pollute land,
water and air.

Rice husks are shells produced during the de-husking of paddy rice.1000 Kg of paddy rice
can produce about 200 Kg of husk, which on combustion produces about 40 Kg of ash. Rice
husk is also not used for feeding animals since it is less nutritional properties and its irregular
abrasive surface is not naturally degraded and can cause serious accumulation problems.
RHA is a promising pozzolanic material that can be blended with Portland cement for the
production of durable concrete, and is also a value added technology (Mehta, 1973).

1
There are several studies on RHA that are available in prevailing literatures. However none
of these deals with RHA and brick aggregate concrete. Brick aggregate is extensively used in
concrete production. Therefore, there is a need to study the effect of RHA after it is
incorporated in brick aggregate concrete.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Using pozzolanic material like RHA in concrete productions is not only to solve the
environmental concern, but also to improve the engineering properties and durability of
concrete. In concrete, the aggregate particles are held or linked together by a hardened
cement paste. Therefore, the concrete and cement paste properties are interconnected to each
other. To determine the features of concrete properties, it is necessary to know the features of
hardened cement paste. Therefore, in order to get more understanding on the effects of
pozzolanic materials in concrete, investigation on the characteristics of both hardened cement
paste and concrete are necessary.

RHA is agricultural waste which can be used as pozzolanic materials or partial cement
replacement materials in concrete. RHA has been used as cement replacement materials to
improve mechanical properties of concrete such as strength and durability but very limited
information of RHA on characteristics of hardened blended cement paste such as
microstructure, porosity and pore size distribution, calcium hydroxide determination, and
etc., and blended concrete properties compared to other prozolanic materials. Research on the
use of RHA in concrete is not new. In 1973, Mehta investigated the effect of pyro-processing
on pozzolanic reactivity of RHA as reported and found that it is possible to produce high
strength concrete using fine enough RHA at an optimum replacement level.

But the blended RHA brick aggregate concrete is rarely seen in the literature review.
Therefore, it is necessary to investigate RHA brick aggregate concrete properties. The
understanding of the effect of RHA in both on properties of cement paste and concrete could
lead to an increase in the use of RHA in concrete constructions.

1.3 APPLICATIONS OF RICE HUSK ASH

Rice husk ash can is used in following applications:

 Blended cements
 Green concrete
 High performance concrete
 Refractory
 Roofing shingles
 Ceramic glaze

2
  Insulator
 Waterproofing chemicals
 Oil spill absorbent

1.4 ADVANTAGES OF USING RHA AS SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTING

MATERIALS

Rice-husk ash is a very fine pozzolanic material. The utilization of rice husk ash as a
pozzolanic material in cement and concrete provides several advantages such as
 Improved strength
 Enhanced durability properties,
 Reduced materials costs due to cement savings, and
 Environmental benefits related to the disposal of waste materials and to reduced
carbon dioxide emissions.

1.5 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The basic aim of this research is to—

 To evaluate the properties like strength, depth of water penetration and shrinkage
of RHA concrete.
 To compare the properties of RHA concrete with normal concrete using brick
chips.
 To compare the properties of RHA concrete with normal concrete using stone
chips.
 To determine the optimum cement content using RHA as partial replacement.

1.6 SCOPE OF RESEARCH

In this study, normal strength concrete with compressive strength of 34MPa under normal
curing condition has been designed as per ACI 211. Here possibilities of replacing cement by
RHA have been observed. Preparation of RHA is done by special furnace. Characterizations
of hardened cement pastes involving determination of consistency, setting time, fineness and
microstructure have been evaluated. The curing age of 7, 14, 28 and 90 days of all concrete
mixes has been carried out for compressive and tensile strength of concrete. Shrinkage and
water permeability are evaluated as per ASTM C157 and EN 123908. Maximum up to 140
days of data are collected for percent of shrinkage. Temperature and humidity is not controlled,

3
rather, room temperature and humidity in the lab surrounding area are measured periodically to
be incorporated in the testing results.

1.7 OUTLINE OF METHODOLOGY

There are four parts of this research .They are development aspects (preparation of RHA, mix
design using RHA), testing aspects (test on concrete like strength, permeability and
shrinkage) and finally economical aspects (cost analysis).

 Preparing rice husk ash has two parts one is Combustion and other is grinding.
Firstly, to produce the best pozzolanas, the RH is carefully burnt. The second step in
processing is grinding the RHA to a fine powder, and ball or hammers mills/ Los
Angeles machine will be used.

 Mix design of rice husk concrete will be done with relevant codes of practice as per
ACI 211.

 The test on concrete will be carried out as per relevant BS/ASTM specification and
Specimen size will be 150mmx150mmx150mm as per BS 1881: part 108:1983.
Shrinkage and permeability test will be done besides strength tests.

 Economical aspects are the analysis of the rate of production of normal concrete
with RHA concrete on the basis of life cycle and price.

Limitations of the study will be identified and recommendation for future study will be
formulated.

1.8 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS

The outcomes of the research carried out have been divided into different topics and
presented in five chapters.

In the first chapter, the background of using rice husk ash (RHA) as cement replacing
materials in concrete is discussed. Furthermore, this chapter points out the emergence and
scope of testing using RHA replaced cement like compressive strength, tensile strength,
water permeability and shrinkage test for both brick and stone aggregate concrete.

In chapter two, an elaborate discussion on RHA cement, its mechanism and the influencing
factors are discussed. Moreover, a brief review on the testing using RHA replaced cement
concrete is presented in this chapter.

4
In the third chapter, an outline of the experimental work is described. Experimentally
obtained results for sieve analysis, moisture content, and water absorption are included along
with the mix design, compressive strength, tensile strength, water permeability and shrinkage
test results.

In chapter four, Test results are presented. Furthermore, a comparison of behavior of RHA
replaced cement concrete made from brick and stone chips is analyzed in this chapter.

In the last chapter, an elaborate conclusion is drawn based on the outcomes of the fourth
chapter. This chapter also includes possible way forward to explore future research
possibilities.

5
 CHAPTER 2

2 CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND & PRESENT STUDY

2.1 GENERAL

The development and use of alternative and indigenous construction materials is a growing
concern among materials engineers in developing countries like Bangladesh. Concrete is an
important versatile construction material used in wide variety of situations. It is like an
artificial stone manufactured from a mixture of binding material with water. Coarse
aggregate and fine aggregate are used as inert materials. Concrete is being widely used in
construction works. The need for inert materials is also increasing. Due to the growing
demand of coarse aggregate as inert material now, it becomes important to use local available
coarse aggregate. In the growing wake of scarcity of natural aggregate and geometric rise in
its price structure the need to crushing burn clay brick as coarse aggregate. Aggregate is
commonly considered as the most important inert filler in concrete mixes, which forms 60 to
75 percent of the volume (Li, 2011). In Bangladesh, brick aggregates are easily available and
much cheaper than crushed stone aggregate. So there is a need to develop the high strength
light weight brick aggregate concrete.

Portland cement concretes containing pozzolanic materials which have been used as early as
1912 are now commonly used to reduce cost and improve performance of concrete (Ali,
1987). This chapter describes about the introduction of concrete and concrete components
and also highlights about what are pozzolanic materials, why these materials are used in
cement and concrete, and how their effects on the properties of hardened cement paste and
concrete. There are various types of pozzolanic materials but only rice husk ash is reviewed
in more detail.

2.2 RICE HUSK ASH (RHA) CHARACTERISTICS

Completely burnt rice-husk is grey to white in color, while partially burnt rice husk ash is
blackish. Della et al, 2002 presented the microscopes of RHA as-received and after burning
out at 7000C for 6 h, and wet-grinding for 80 min in a jar mill. The as-received RHA samples
were black with some gray particles, resulting from different stages of the carbon combustion
during burning of rice husk (Fig 2-1a). The active silica obtained after the heating and
grinding presents reduced size of particles and grey coloration due to the lower content
carbonaceous material (Fig 2-1b). Level of carbon detected in RHA before thermal treatment
was 18.60%. The level of carbon decreased considerably after the thermal treatment; 0.14%
for the RHA 700o C for 6 h sample (Fig 2-1b). The amount of black particles decreased with

6
increase in calcination temperature and time. At 700o C for 6 h, the thermal treatment yielded
bright white silica. Rice husk ash is a very fine material. Average particle size of rice-husk
ash ranges from 3 to 10 μm. Physical properties values as reported by few authors are given
in table 2-1.

Table 2-1 Physical Properties of RHA

Property Mehta, 1992 Bui et al, 2005 Ganesan et al, 2008

Mean particle size (μm) 5 3.80 5 3.80 5 3.80
Specific gravity 2.06 2.10 2.06
Fineness: passing 45 (μm) % 99 – 99
Specific surface (m2/g) – – 36.47

Rice husk ash is very rich in silica content. Silica content in rice husk ash is generally more
than 80%. Typical chemical composition of RHA is given in table 2-2. As per ASTM C 618 ,
the combined proportion of silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminium oxide (A12O3) and iron oxide
(Fe2O3) in the ash should be not be less than 70%, and LOI should not exceed 12% as
specific in ASTM requirement.

Table 2-2 Chemical Composition of RHA

Constituents Percentage
Mehta, 1902 Bui et al, 2005 Ganesan et al, 2008
Silica (SiO2) 87.2 86.98 87.32
Alumina (Al2O3) 0.15 0.84 0.22
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 0.16 0.73 0.28
Calcium Oxide (CaO) 0.55 1.4 0.48
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 0.35 0.57 0.28
Sodium Oxide (Na2O) 1.12 0.11 1.02
Potassium Oxide (K2O) 3.68 2.46 3.14
Sulfur Oxide (SO3) 0.24 - -
Loss of ignition (LOI) 8.55 5.14 2.1

Jauberthie et al, 2000 reported that concentration of silica is high on the external face of
the husk, much weaker on the internal face and practically non-existent within the husk
as given in table 2-3. It was confirmed that the presence of amorphous silica is
concentrated at the surface of the rice husk and not within the husk itself. Amorphous
silica concentrated on the interior and exterior surfaces of the uncalcinated husk promote

7
 a pozzolanic action on the surface of the husk and therefore enable its use in
cement/concrete.
Table 2-3 Micro Analysis of Rice Husk (Jauberthie et al, 2000)

External Surface of Rice Internal Surface of Rice Interior Surface of Rice

Husk Husk Husk
Element
% % % % % %
(by weight) (by atomic) (by weight) (by atomic) (by weight) (by atomic)

C 6.91 11.11 30.2 40.93 62.54 69.54

O 47.93 57.84 42.53 43.27 35.19 29.38
Si 45.16 31.05 27.27 15.8 2.27 1.08
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100

Table 2-4 Chemical Composition of RHA (Chuchai et al, 2011)

Chemical Compositions (%) Portland Cement Flyash RHA

SiO2 20 39.1 93.1

Al2 O3 5 21.5 0.3
Fe2 O3 3 13.1 0.4
CaO 60 15.4 0.7
MgO 1.1 2.5 0.5
Other oxides 3.9 7.4 4.3
Loss of ignition 2 5.35 3.03

Fig 2-1 Color of RHA

8
Habeeb et al, 2009 examined the SEM of ground rice husk ash. SEM picture (Fig 2-2)
revealed that the rice husk ash maintains its cellular structure. After being ground, RHA
consists of very irregular-shaped particles with porous cellular surface.

Fig 2-2 SEM for RHA Particle (Habeeb et al, 2009)

2.3 RICE HUSK ASH (RHA) IN CEMENT

Current construction industries expect to produce strong and durable building materials to
cater to increasing needs, devastating forces, and a polluted environment. Blended cements,
although not a new concept, are in the forefront of such durable building materials. Blending
reactive rice husk ash (rRHA) in cement has become a common recommendation in almost
all international building codes. All calcium hydroxide produced in cement systems are
utilized by RHA to form secondary hydration products when cement is admixed with rRHA.
The permeability of concrete is highly reduced because of calcium hydroxide depletion, and
therefore resistance of concrete to acids is highly improved (Mehta, 1979). Rice husk ash is
porous in nature with a very high surface area and average size. Therefore, the use of RHA
tends to increase water requirements. However, because RHA is an active pozzolana, it is
capable of imparting high strength to concrete at both early and later ages, especially when
water-reducing agents are employed (Mehta, 1979). When RHA is added to portland cement,
it reacts faster than fly ash with the lime released in portland cement hydration
(Cuckookochar, 2001). This helps to improve the early age strength of concrete and forms a
calcium hydrate silicate (CSH) gel around the cement particles that is highly dense and
porous. The formation of this CSH gel alters the microstructure of the concrete with
discontinuous pores. The refinement (densification) of the pores reduces the permeability of
concrete and improves its resistance against chloride ingression (Bouzoubaa and Fournier,
2001). Much has been reported on the incorporation of RHA into concrete; however, the

9
physical and chemical characteristics may vary depending on geographical location and
climatic condition (UK Dept. for Business, Innovation, and Skills 2003).

The percentage of cement replacement level by RHA against standard consistency graph is
shown in fig 2-3. It was observed that the water demand for standard consistency linearly
increases with an increase of cement replacement level by RHA. The specific surface area of
RHA is higher than the cement and the ashes are hygroscopic in nature, so needs more water
(Metha, 1979).

Fig 2-3 Normal Consistency verses % of RHA (Metha, 1979)

Table 2-5 Summary of the Average Values of Normal Consistency (Metha, 1979)

RHA Partial Total Mass of RHA Water Content

Replacement Mass of Cement (gm) at Normal
(%) (gm) Consistency (%)

0 650 0 25.69
10 650 65 34.20
20 650 130 43.54
Correlation Coefficient, r = +0.999
Linear Regression Line, y = 0.8925x + 25.552

Cement hydration is a complex physical–chemical process. During the process, a cement–

water mixture is changed from a fluid state to a porous solid state. An adequate
understanding of the mechanism of cement hydration is necessary for a full appreciation of
cement concrete properties. The cement hydration process was traditionally studied using the

10
calorimetric method. The hydration stages were identified by heat liberation measurement
and the hydration mechanism was explained based on heat evolution. Some limitations
(Gartner et al, 2002) were pointed out, such as that the liberated heat content was simply
proportional neither to the degree of cement hydration nor to the development of the physical
properties. This method provides only an approximation of the understanding of cement
hydration and leaves space for cement scientists and engineers to explore more accurate
ways.

Fig 2-4 Setting of Fresh Cement Paste

Ganesan et al, 2008 reported the effect of cement replacement with RHA on the consistency
and setting times of cement. Percentages of cement replacement were 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 20, 25,
30, and 35. They observed that consistency of control mixture was approximate 32%,
however, water required for standard consistency linearly increased with an increase in RHA
content. The standard consistency with 35% RHA content was 44%. As ashes are
hygroscopic in nature and the specific surface area of RHA is much higher than cement, it
needs more water. The results of initial and final setting times are shown in fig 2-5. It was
observed that up to 15%, RHA level increased the initial setting time. At 20, 25, 30 and 35%,
there was reduction in initial setting time. The initial setting time measured for RHA blended
cements up to 35% was higher than that of control OPC. On the other hand, the final setting
time decreased with the increase in RHA up to 35%.

11
 Fig 2-5 Initial and Final Setting Times of RHA Blended Cements
(Ganesan et al, 2008)

Table 2-6 Normal Consistency and Setting Times of Portland Cement and Calcium
Carbide-Rice Husk Ash Pastes (Jaturapitakkul et al., 2003)

Normal Setting Times (min)

Paste Consistency
Initial Final
(%)

Cement 23.9 107 195

2OC80R 62.0 422 775

35C65R 58.8 397 660
5OC50R 55.8 345 635
65C35R 50.6 420 670
SOC20R 43.7 502 680

Initial and final setting time tests were shown to yield different results on plain cement paste
and pastes having rice husk ash (Dakroury et al., 2008). The studies by Ganesan et al. (2008),
Cook (1986), and Bhanumathidas et al. (2004) showed that RHA increases the setting time of
pastes. Just like other hydraulic cement, the reactivity of rice husk ash cement depends very
much upon the specific surface area or particle size. The rice husk ash cement with finer
particles exhibits superior setting time behavior. Research has shown the increase in the
initial setting time by raising the RHA level in the cement mixture over those of plain cement

12
paste. Dakroury et al. (2008) contended that this may be due to the slower pace of heat
induced evaporation of water from the cement–RHA (Fig 2-6).

Fig 2-6 Initial and Final Setting Times of RHA Blended Cements
(Dakroury et al, 2008)

Table 2-7 Compressive Strength of Mortar (Sensale, 2008)

Compressive Strength (MPa)

Paste 1 Days 2 Days 3 Days
Control 52.5 88.9 100.5
5% RRHA 41.1 80.9 100.5
10% RRHA 48.3 86.7 105.4
5%CRHA 37.6 70.6 85.9
10% CRHA 39.7 83.3 97.5

The use of mortar with a reasonably standard aggregate is a sensible compromise. In any
case, all tests are comparative in nature, rather than a direct measure of the compressive
strength of hydrated cement paste. Moreover, the influence of cement on the properties of
mortar and concrete is qualitatively the same, and the relation between the strengths of
corresponding specimens of the two materials is linear. This is shown, for instance, in fig 2-7
mortar and concrete of fixed proportions, each with a water/cement ratio of 0.65, was used.
The strengths are not the same for the specimens of each pair, at least in part because
specimens of different shape and size were used, but there may also be an inherent
quantitative difference between the strengths of mortar and of concrete due to the greater
amount of entrapped air in mortar.
13
 Fig 2-7 Relation between the Strengths of Concrete and of Mortar of the Same
Water/Cement Ratio (Neville, 1995)
2.4 AGGREGATES

Aggregates constitute a skeleton of concrete. Approximately three-quarters of the volume of

conventional concrete are occupied by aggregate. It is inevitable that a constituent occupying
such a large percentage of the mass should contribute important properties to both the fresh
and hardened product. Aggregate is usually viewed as an inert dispersion in the cement paste.
However, strictly speaking, aggregate is not truly inert because physical, thermal, and,
sometimes, chemical properties can influence the performance of concrete (Neville and
Brooks, 1990)

The particle size distribution or grading of an aggregate supply is an important characteristic

because it determines the paste requirements for a workable concrete. As the aggregate
grading can determine the paste requirement, it is desirable to reduce the cost of concrete by
minimizing the amount of the paste but the paste should be consistent which can be handled,
compacted, and finished and provide the necessary strength and durability (Mindess, 2003).
Moreover, at any given age and set of conditions, concrete strength is principally controlled
by the cement content and water/cement ratio of the mix and the degree of compaction,
which are interrelated factors. Aggregate grading and fine content influence the water/cement
ratio and the workability, which in turn can affect compaction, so that indirectly these

14
properties of aggregate have some influence over concrete strength [Hewlett, 1998]. The
shape and texture of the fine aggregate affected only workability, but the characteristics of
the coarse aggregate may also affect the mechanical properties of concrete by affecting the
mechanical bond. (Mindess, 2003).

The alternative to produce a good quality concrete is to use the aggregate at least two size
groups – fine and coarse aggregate. The main division was made between fine aggregate
(often called sand), not larger than 5 mm, and coarse aggregate, which comprises material at
least 5 mm in size. (Neville, 2002)

2.4.1 Effects of Aggregates

 Aggregate in fresh and plastic concrete: When concrete is freshly mixed, the
aggregates are suspended in the cement–water–air bubble paste. The behavior of
fresh concrete, such as fluidity, cohesiveness, and rheological behavior, is largely
influenced by the amount, type, surface texture, and size gradation of the
aggregate. The selection of aggregate has to meet the requirement of the end use,
i.e., what type of structure to be built. (Li ,2011)
 Aggregate in hardened concrete: Although there is little chemical reaction between
the aggregate and cement paste, the aggregate contributes many qualities to the
hardened concrete. In addition to reducing the cost, aggregate in concrete can
reduce the shrinkage and creep of cement paste. Moreover, aggregates have a big
influence on stiffness, unit weight, strength, thermal properties, bond, and wear
resistance of concrete. (Li ,2011)

2.4.2 Natural Aggregates

This kind of aggregate such as sand and gravel is taken from natural deposits without
changing the nature during production. ( Li, 2011)

2.4.3 Light Weight Aggregates

The following general types of lightweight aggregates are defined in ASTM C330:
 Aggregates prepared by expanding, pelletizing, or sintering products such as blast-
furnace slag, clay, diatomite, fly ash, shale or slate.
 Aggregates prepared by processing natural materials, such as pumice, scoria, or tuff.

15
Low density aggregates referred to as lightweight aggregates are characterized by their
highly porous or cellular microstructure.

They may be classified either by their origin (natural or artificial) or by their end-use:
 In structural concrete (ASTM C330)
 In concrete masonry units (ASTM C331)
 In insulating concretes (ASTM C332).

2.5 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Most concrete structures are designed under an assumption that the concrete resist
compressive stresses but not tensile stresses, hence for purposes of structural design the
compressive strength is the criterion of quality (Troxell et al, 1968). This is because
compressive strength for concrete is so much greater than tensile strength. Compressive
strength is the maximum load per unit area sustained by a concrete specimen before failure in
compression (Akroyd, 1962).

The compression test is relatively easy to make and cubes, cylinders and prisms are the three
types of compression test specimens used to determine the compressive strength. The
strength of concrete increases with time and temperature. A given strength may be achieved
by keeping the concrete for long time at a low temperature or a shorter time at a higher
temperature. The direct relationship of strength to maturity varies with the composition of the
concrete and the type and quality of the cement (Akroyd, 1962).

The RHA addition has contributed to strength improvement of concrete at all ages. However,
with the amount of cement replacement up to 20% with RHA, strength gain increases, and
beyond this level of RHA addition the strength gain decreases. At the 30% RHA level, the
compressive strength of RHA concrete attains values equivalent to those of control concrete
mixtures. The rate of increase in compressive strength remains fairly uniform up to 10% of
RHA level. Between 10 and 20% of RHA level, the rate of increase in compressive strength
increases with an increase in RHA content. Maximum compressive strength is found at the
20% RHA level for all investigated mixtures. Beyond the 20% level, there is a steep decrease
in the rate of increase in compressive strength. Bhanumathidas and Mehta (2004) also
confirmed the same trend.

Compressive strength variation of OPC and PPC with RHA and LP are presented in fig 2-8.
From the fig, it can be found that equal blending of lime powder (LP) and RHA is found to
perform better than the other systems. There is an increase in compressive strength by about
8 % by replacing PPC cement with 5 % LP and RHA and 12 % increase in compressive

16
strength with replacement of PPC cement by 10 % LP and RHA. After that, increase in LP
and RHA reduces the strength. There is an increase in compressive strength by about 10 %
by replacing OPC cement with 5 % LP and RHA. Comparing the results of OPC and PPC,
there is an increase in compressive strength by about 8–10 % for both systems, by replacing
cement with 5 % LP and RHA. But for 10 % replacement of LP and RHA, there is an
increase in compressive strength only in PPC but not in OPC. This is due to the pozzolanic
action of fly ash in PPC combined with the reaction of LP to give early strength, as suggested
by Thomas Schmidt et al, 2005 and Liu et al, 2006. LP acts as an accelerator during early
cement hydration. Further replacement results in reduction of strength in both cases. The
increase in strength is due to the consumption of LP to form denser CSH gel in the early
stages. Then the pozzolanic action of RHA results in formation of further CSH gel. Beyond
10 % LP and RHA replacement, there is a reduction in strength observed due to the delayed
formation of CSH gel and leaching of excess lime. There is a drop in the compressive
strength when 20 % RHA was added with 20 % LP, rather than 20 % RHA with 5, 10 and 15
% of LP. Therefore, blending of RHA and LP is done in equal percentages for flexure, split
tensile test and durability tests. (Kathirvel et al, 2012)

Fig 2-8 Compressive Strength Variation of OPC and PPC with Partial Replacement of
LP and RHA (Kathirvel et al, 2012)

The influence of the type of coarse aggregate on the strength of concrete varies in magnitude
and depends on the water/cement ratio of the mix. For water/cement ratios below 0.4, the use
of crushed aggregate has resulted in strengths up to 38 per cent higher than when gravel is

17
used. The behaviour at a water/cement ratio of 0.5 is shown in fig 2-9. With an increase in
the water/cement ratio, the influence of aggregate falls off, presumably because the strength
of the hydrated cement paste itself becomes paramount and, at a water/cement ratio of 0.65,
no difference in the strengths of concretes made with crushed rock and gravel has been
observed. (Neville, 1995)

Fig 2-9 Relation between Compressive Strength and Age for Concretes Made with
Various Aggregates (Neville, 1995)

Not only the properties of cement but the water/cement ratio also affects the rate of gain of
strength of concrete. Mixes with low water/cement ratio gain strength, expressed as a
percentage of long-term strength, more rapidly than mixes with higher water/cement ratios
(Fig 2-10). This is because in the former case the cement grains are closer to one another and
a continuous system of gel is established more rapidly. It should be noted that in a hot
climate the early strength gain is high and the ratio of the 28-day to 7-day strengths tends to
be lower than in cooler weather. This is also the case with some lightweight aggregate
concretes. (Tashima et al, 2005)

Table 2-8 Axial Compressive Strength of Concrete (Tashima et al., 2005)

Compressive Strength (MPa)

Mixture
7 days 28 days 91 days
Control (0% RHA) 45.9 48.1 58.3
5% RHA 52.9 60.4 62
10% RHA 45.8 54.2 60.9

18
 Fig 2-10 Relative Gain of Strength with Time in Concretes with Different
Water/Cement Ratios (Neville, 1995)

2.6 SPLITING TENSILE STRENGTH

Failure occurs by splitting along the loaded diameter predominately under a state of biaxial
compression/tension with the maximum tensile stress of 2P/πDL where P is the applied load
and D and L are the diameter and length of the cylinder respectively. The maximum tensile
stress at failure is the splitting or indirect tensile strength. In fact, in the zone of the loaded
diameter near the centre of the cylinder, where failure is considered to initiate, the near-
biaxial state of stress is as follows. (Li, 2011)

Fig 2-11 Stress State on Element at Centre of Indirect (Splitting) Tensile Test Specimen

19
Habeeb et al. (2009) investigated the effects of concrete incorporating 20% RHA as partial
replacement of cement at three different particle sizes. In their study the tensile strength of
concrete increased systematically with increasing RHA replacement. The results of tensile
strength are shown in table 2.9.

Table 2-9 Mechanical Properties of Concrete (Habeeb et al, 2009)

Tensile splitting strength( Mpa)

MIX 28 90 180
CMa 2.6 2.8 2.9
b
20F1 2.9 3.0 3.2
20F2c 3.2 3.3 3.5
d
20F3 3.2 3.5 3.9
a.Conrol mix, b.RHA with average particle size of 31.3 mm, c. RHA with average particle
size of 18.3 mm, d. RHA with average particle size of 11.5 mm

Split tensile strength variation of OPC and PPC with partial replacement of LP and RHA is
given in fig 2-12.From the fig; it is observed that the split tensile strength of OPC is found to
be higher than the PPC, irrespective of the replacement of LP and RHA. Comparing the
results of OPC and PPC with respect to split tensile strength, it is found that there is an
increase in split tensile strength by about 38 % for OPC and 4 % for PPC, by replacing PPC
cement with 5 % LP and RHA. For 10 % replacement of LP and RHA, there is a further
increase in split tensile strength by about 64 % for OPC and 16 % for PPC. This is due to the
consumption of lime by fly ash in PPC. Further replacement results in reduction of strength
in both cases. Since 10 % replacement of PPC with LP and RHA has resulted in same
compressive strength as that of control OPC cement and 40 % more split tensile strength.
(Kathirvel et al, 2012)

Fig 2-12 Split Tensile Strength Variation of OPC and PPC with Partial Replacement of
LP and RHA (Kathirvel et al, 2012)

20
The tensile strength of concrete can be measured by radically different tests, namely flexure,
direct tension, and splitting, and the resulting values of strength are not the same.
Consequently, the numerical value of the ratio of the tensile strength to the compressive
strength is also not the same. Incidentally, the value of the compressive strength is also not
unique but is affected by the shape of the test specimen. For these reasons, in expressing the
ratio of the tensile to compressive strengths, the test method must be explicitly stated. An
example of the relation between the splitting strength and the compressive strength of
standard cylinders from a wide range of tests by different investigators is shown in fig 2-13.
If the value of the flexural strength is of interest, a factor relating the splitting strength to
flexural strength needs to be applied. (Neville, 1995)

Fig 2-13 Relation between Splitting Tensile Strength and Compressive Strength
(Neville, 1995)
Probably the best fit overall is given by the expression:

ft = 0.3(fc)2/3…………………………………….…(2.1)

Where, ft is the splitting strength, and fc is the compressive strength of cylinders, both in
mega pascals. If the stress is expressed in pounds per square inch, the coefficient 0.3 is
replaced by 1.7. The above expression was suggested by (Raphael, 1984)

21
 Table 2-10 Compressive and Splitting Tensile Strength Results of RHA Concretes
(Sensale, 2008)

W/(C + RHA) Type RHA % Compressive Strength Splitting Tensile

(MPa) Strength (MPa)
7 Days 28 Days 91 Days 28
Days
– 0 48.4 55.5 60.6 3.63
UY 10 51.1 60.4 64.3 3.57
0.32 20 44.3 54.8 62.7 3.54
USA 10 39.5 51.4 64.5 3.62
20 30.5 47.4 68.5 3.54
- 0 35.8 42.3 45.6 –
0.4 UY 10 41.1 50.4 54.9 –
20 27.9 40.7 51.4 –
USA 10 29.7 40.8 51.5 –
20 23.6 39.4 57.3 –
- 0 24.6 32.9 35.9 2.85
UY 10 24.1 31.5 35.5 2.32
0.5 20 24.9 34.9 37.9 2.63
USA 10 22.7 34.5 44.4 2.92
20 20.8 35.9 52.9 3

2.7 SHRINKAGE & RELATED TERMS

Volumetric changes due to shrinkage are of considerable importance as they are partially
restrained, which induces stress. The main danger is the presence of tensile stress, as concrete
is very weak in tension and prone to cracking. Cracks must be avoided or controlled and
minimized because they impair the durability and structural integrity, and are also
aesthetically undesirable.

Shrinkage is caused by loss of water by evaporation or by hydration of cement, and also by

carbonation. The reduction in volume, i.e. volumetric strain, is equal to 3 times the linear
contraction, and in practice we measure shrinkage simply as a linear strain. Its units are thus
mm per mm (in. per in.) usually expressed in 10-6. (Neville, 1995)

While the cement paste is plastic it undergoes a volumetric contraction whose magnitude is
of the order 1 per cent of the absolute volume of dry cement. This contraction is known as
plastic shrinkage. It is caused by the loss of water by the evaporation from the surface of
concrete or by suction by dry concrete below. The contraction induces tensile stress in the
surface layers because they are restrained by the non-shrinking inner concrete, and since the
concrete is very week in its plastic state, plastic cracking at the surface can readily occur.

22
2.7.1 TYPES OF SHRINKAGE

2.7.1.1 Plastic Shrinkage

Plastic shrinkage is surface shrinkage that happens at a very early age of concrete (only a few
hours after casting) while the concrete underneath is still in the plastic stage. After casting, if
the concrete is not properly taken care of with a good curing method, the top surfaces of
concrete pours are subjected to evaporation and consequent loss of mix water. (Neville,
1995)

Plastic shrinkage is greater the greater the cement content of the mix (Fig 2-14) and the lower
the water/cement ratio. The relation between bleeding and plastic shrinkage is not straight
forward, for example, retardation of setting allows more bleeding and leads to increased
plastic shrinkage. On the other hand, greater bleeding capacity prevents too rapid a drying
out of the surface of the concrete and this reduces plastic shrinkage cracking. In practice, it is
the cracking that matters. (Neville, 1995)

Fig 2-14 Influence of Cement Content of the Mix on Early Shrinkage in Air
(Neville, 1995)

23
2.7.1.2 Autogenous Shrinkage

Autogenous shrinkage is defined as the macroscopic volume contraction of concrete at an

early age (less than one day after casting) occurring without moisture transfer from the
concrete to the surrounding environment. Autogenous shrinkage can be attributed to self-
desiccation due to the hydration of cement and is a result of chemical shrinkage. Autogenous
shrinkage was first described in the 1930s by Lyman (1934) as a factor contributing to the
total shrinkage. However, in the earlier days, it was noted that autogenous shrinkage occurred
only at very low w/c ratios, far below the practical w/c range, and did not draw much
attention. With the development and applications of advanced admixtures such as
superplasticizers, w/c ratios lower than 0.42 are realized in concrete practice and autogenous
shrinkage has become an important issue for contemporary concrete. This issue has been
further enlarged by the incorporation of silica fume into concrete mixes. To better understand
the concept of autogenous shrinkage, let us examine the chemical shrinkage first. When
cement contacts water, the ions dissolve into solutions from cement and react with water to
produce hydrates. The hydration leads to the reduction of the total absolute volume of the
cement system. This phenomenon is called chemical shrinkage. It was first discovered by Le
Chatelier (1900) in 1900, who described the basic distinction between the apparent and the
absolute volume of cement paste. The apparent volume is essentially the external volume of a
sample, which contains the spaces occupied by solid, liquid, and gas phases. The absolute
volume excludes the space occupied by the gas phase. Chemical shrinkage can be seen from
the volume change before and after a complete reaction of C3S. The stoichiometric equation
for fully hydrated C3S can be expressed as (Damidot et al, 1990).

C3S + 5.2H →C1.75SH3.9 + 1.3CH…………………………….(2.2)

There is about a 16.5% reduction in volume after hydration if the reactants follow their
stoichiometric proportions. It should be pointed out that autogenous shrinkage and chemical
shrinkage have some differences. The relationship between autogenous shrinkage and
chemical shrinkage is shown schematically in fig 2-15. When cement paste is in a plastic
stage, the apparent volume change or autogenous shrinkage is essentially same, with
reduction of absolute volume or chemical shrinkage. When the hydration products percolate
to form a structural skeleton, autogenous shrinkage can be restrained by the skeleton and
deviates from the theoretical chemical shrinkage. (Neville, 1995)

24
 Fig 2-15 Relationship between Autogenous Shrinkage and Chemical Shrinkage

(Neville, 1995)

2.7.1.3 Drying Shrinkage

Three basic mechanisms are responsible for the shrinkage of Portland cement concrete. One
is the disjointing pressure that is related to the water absorbed on the surface of C–S–H.
Water is absorbed in the layers of C–S–H at all relative humidity’s, the thickness of the water
layer increasing with increasing humidity. At a relative humidity of more than 100%, the
surface bounding the narrow spaces can form an absorbed film of water, as shown in fig. If
the distance between two layers is restricted due to the van der Waals force of attraction, the
absorbed water molecules between the C–S–H surfaces may generate a pressure, which leads
to an expansion. This pressure is termed disjointing pressure. However, if the relative
humidity of the system reduces, the disjointing pressure decreases accordingly and the
separated surfaces will be brought closer by the van der Waals force again, leading to the
reduction of volume or shrinkage. Disjointing pressure plays an important role in shrinkage
when the relative humidity is higher than 75% and has no effect when the relative humidity is
lower than 45%. ( Li , 2011)

25
 Fig 2-16 Absorbed Water Film (Li, 2011)
2.7.1.3.1 Shrinkage Mechanism

If free-body diagrams of the upper half of the cylinder are considered, it is clear that vertical
equilibrium requires the shear stresses to induce compression in the core and tension in the
shell, see Fig. The self-balanced shrinkage stress may have some influence on flexural
strength and splitting strength measurement. For flexural strength, the existence of a self-
balanced stress will reduce a concrete’s true bending strength, while splitting testing will
increase it. In addition to the self-balancing stresses set up by differential shrinkage, the
overall shrinkage creates stresses if members are restrained in the direction in which
shrinkage occurs. (Li, 2011)

Fig 2-17 Self-Balanced Stress Generated by Drying Shrinkage (Li, 2011)

The drying shrinkage of concrete is usually due to movement of the cement paste, because
most natural aggregates do not undergo any appreciable drying shrinkage (BRE, 1991).
Indeed, most aggregates restrain concrete shrinkage because they are less elastic than the

26
cement paste to which they are bonded. Concretes with higher aggregate contents shrink
substantially less than cement-rich mixes all else being equal. Some rock types undergo
unusually large volume changes on wetting and drying (BRE, 1991). These rocks are
typically weathered, and contain clay or mica minerals. The absorption of the rock is
sometimes high (Smith and Collis, 1993). If processed into aggregates, these rocks produce
concrete with poor volume stability and a tendency to deflect and crack.

Expansive cement, although considerably more expensive than Portland cement, is valuable
in concrete structures in which a reduction in cracking is of importance, for instance, bridge
decks, pavement slabs, and liquid storage tanks. It is worth making it clear that the use of
expansive cement does not prevent the development of shrinkage. What happens is that the
restrained early expansion balances approximately the subsequent normal shrinkage; this is
shown in fig 2-18. Usually, a small residual expansion is aimed at because, as long as some
compressive stress in concrete is retained, shrinkage cracking will not develop. (Neville,
1995)

Fig 2-18 Diagrammatic Representation of Length Changes of Shrinkage-Compensating

and Portland Cement Concretes (Neville, 1995)

The pattern of moisture movement under alternating wetting and drying – a common
occurrence in practice – in shown in fig 2-19 The magnitude of this cyclic moisture
movement clearly depends upon the duration of the wetting and drying periods, but it is
important to note that drying is very much slower than wetting. Thus, the consequence of
prolonged dry weather can be reversed by a short period of time. The movement depends
also upon the range of relative humidity and on the composition of concrete, as well as the
degree of hydration at the onset of initial drying. (Neville, 1995)

27
 Fig 2-19 Length Change in Concrete in Water and Air (Neville, 1995)

Zhang and Malhotra, 1996 studied the drying shrinkage strain of concretes made with 10%
RHA and 10% silica fume (SF). Fig 2-20 shows the drying shrinkage strain of concretes after
7 days of initial curing in lime-saturated water. Results indicated that RHA concrete had a
drying shrinkage of 638.9x10-6 after 448 days, which was similar to the strains for the control
and silica fume concretes. Sensale et al, 2008 studied the effect of partial replacements of
Portland cement with rice-husk ash (RHA) on the autogenous shrinkage of cement paste.
Pastes with water/binder ratio 0.30 and substitutions of 5 and 10% cement by RHA were
used. Two sources of ash were considered; a residual RHA (RRHA) from the common rice
paddy milling industries in Uruguay and a homogeneous ash produced by controlled
incineration from the United States (CRHA). RRHA had SiO2 content of 87.2% whereas
CRHA had SiO2 content of 88%.

Fig 2-15 Drying Shrinkage of RHA and SF Concretes (Zhang and Malhotra, 1996)

28
2.7.2 Factors Affecting Shrinkage

Lightweight aggregate usually leads to higher shrinkage, largely because the aggregate,
having a lower modulus of elasticity, offers less restraint to the potential shrinkage of the
cement paste. Those lightweight aggregates that have a large proportion of fine material
smaller than 75 μm (No. 200) sieve have still higher shrinkage, as the fines lead to a larger
void content. Even within the range of ordinary aggregates, there is a considerable variation
in shrinkage of the resulting concrete (Fig 2-21). The usual natural aggregate itself is not
normally subject to shrinkage, but there exist rocks which shrink on drying up to 900 × 10 –6;
this is about the same magnitude as shrinkage of concrete made with non-shrinking
aggregate. Shrinking aggregates are widespread in parts of Scotland but they exist also
elsewhere. They are mainly some dolerites and basalts, and also some sedimentary rocks
such as greywacke and mudstone. On the other hand, granite, limestone, and quartzite have
been consistently found to be non-shrinking. (Neville, 1995)

Fig 2-21Shrinkage of Concretes of Fixed Mix Proportions But Made with Different
Aggregates, and Stored in Air of 28 Days Curing (Neville, 1995)

It must be remembered that the shrinkage values given are no more than typical for drying in
a temperate climate. In practical terms, at a constant water/cement ratio, shrinkage increases
with an increase in the cement content because this results in a larger volume of hydrated
cement paste which is liable to shrinkage. (Neville, 1995)

29
 Fig 2-22 Influence of Water/Cement Ratio and Aggregate Content on Shrinkage
(Neville, 1995)

Fig 2-23 Drying Shrinkage of the Four Concrete Mixtures up to 28 Days of Age
(Subramaniam et al, 2006)

The relative humidity of the air surrounding the concrete greatly affects the magnitude of
shrinkage, as shown in fig 2-24, In the shrinkage test prescribed in BS 1881 : Part 5: 1970,
the specimens are dried for a specific period under prescribed conditions of temperature and
humidity. (Neville, 1995)

30
 Fig 2-24 Shrinkage of Concrete of Fixed Mix Proportions But Made with Different
Aggregate and Stored in Air With Proper 28 Days Curing (Neville, 1995)

Habeeb and Fayyadh, 2009 studied the shrinkage of concrete mixtures made with RHA.
Cement was replaced with three grades of RHA (F1, F2 and F3 i.e. 180, 270 and 360 min of
grinding, respectively). Fineness of F1, F2 and F3 RHA were 27.4, 29.1, and 30.4 m2/g.
Drying shrinkage was investigated at the age of 7, 14, 28, 42, 56, 90, 180 days under water
curing for initial 7 days, and then samples were left in the air (Fig 2-25). The results showed
that average particle size of RHA had a significant effect on the drying shrinkage, the 20F3
concrete mixture exhibited higher shrinkage than the control. 20F2 concrete was comparable,
while the shrinkage for 20F1 was lower compared to the control. The reduction in the RHA
particle size increased the pozzolanic activity and contributed to the pore refinement of the
RHA concrete matrix. Some authors have concluded that that concretes incorporating pore
refinement additives will usually show higher shrinkage and creep (Mehta, 2006). On the
other hand, others showed that using pozzolanic materials as cement replacement will reduce
the shrinkage (Zhang et al, 1996), (Chindaprasirt et al, 2004). These contradictory results
about shrinkage are probably due to interpretational differences based on deferent concepts,
definitions and measuring techniques (Rizwan, 2006). And that may also be because the
deferent characteristics and degree of reactivity of the pozzolanic materials used.

31
 Fig 2-25 Shrinkage Values at Various Ages (Habeeb and Fayyadh, 2009)

2.8 DEPTH OF WATER PENETRATION TEST OF CONCRETE

Durability of Portland cement concrete is defined as its ability to resist weathering action,
chemical attack, abrasion, or any other process of deterioration to maintain its original form,
quality, and serviceability when exposed to its intended service environment. (Mehta and
Monteiro, 2006).

Testing concrete for permeability has not been generally standardized so that the values of
the coefficient of permeability quoted in different publications may not be comparable. In
such tests as are used, the steady-state flow of water through concrete due to a pressure
differential is measured and Darcy’s equation is used to calculate the coefficient of
permeability, K. The United States Bureau of Reclamation prescribes Procedure 4913-92 in
which a water pressure of 2.76 MPa (400 psi) is used; this corresponds to a head of water of
282 m. There exist also Canadian tests and a German test prescribed in DIN 1048. In these
tests, the pressure under which water is forced to flow through the concrete specimen is high,
and this may alter the natural state of the concrete; blocking of some pores by silting is also
possible. Moreover, during the progress of the test, hydration of the hitherto unhydrated
cement can take place so that the value of the calculated coefficient of permeability decreases
with time. On the other hand, for usual concrete structures, the flow of water under a high
pressure is not representative of service conditions. It is important to note that the scatter of
permeability test results made on similar concrete at the same age, and using the same
equipment, is large. The differences such as between, say, 2 × 10–12 m/s and 6 × 10–12 m/s are

32
not significant, so that reporting the order of magnitude, or at the most the nearest 5 × 10 –12
m/s, are adequate. Smaller differences in the value of the coefficient of permeability are not
significant and can be misleading. There is a further problem with permeability testing,
namely that, in good quality concrete, there is no flow of water through the concrete. Water
penetrates into the concrete to a certain depth to convert the depth of penetration into the
coefficient of permeability (Valenta, 1969), K (in metres per second) equivalent to that used
in Darcy’s law:

2
K= e v/2ht ……………..…………………. (2.3)
Where,
e = depth of penetration of concrete in metres,
h = hydraulic head in metres,
t = time under pressure in seconds, and
v = the fraction of the volume of concrete occupied by pores

The value of v represents discrete pores, such as air bubbles, which do not become filled with
water except under pressure, and can be calculated from the increase in the mass of concrete
during the test, bearing in mind that only the voids in the part of the specimen penetrated by
water should be considered. Typically, v lies between 0.02 and 0.06. (Vuorinen, 1985)

The hydraulic head is applied by pressure which usually ranges between 0.1 and 0.7 MPa.
The depth of penetration is found by observation of the split surface of the test specimen
(moist concrete being darker) after a given length of time. This is the value of e in Valenta’s
expression given above. It is also possible to use the depth of penetration of water as a
qualitative assessment of concrete: a depth of less than 50 mm classifies the concrete as
‘impermeable’; a depth of less than 30 mm, as ‘impermeable under aggressive conditions’. (
Bonzel et al, 1966)

For cement pastes hydrated to the same degree, the permeability is lower the higher the
cement content of the paste, i.e. the lower the water/ cement ratio. Fig 2.26 shows values
obtained for pastes in which 93 per cent of the cement has hydrated. From fig 2-26 it can be
seen that a reduction of water/cement ratio from, say, 0.7 to 0.3 lowers the coefficient of
permeability by 3 orders of magnitude. The same reduction occurs in a paste with water/
cement ratio of 0.7 between the ages of 7 days and one year. (Neville, 1995)

33
 Fig 2-26 Relation between Permeability and Water/Cement Ratio for Mature Cement
Pastes (Neville, 1995)

Table 2.11 gives values of the coefficient of permeability at different ages for a cement paste
with a water/cement ratio of 0.7. The reduction in the coefficient of permeability is faster the
lower the water/cement ratio of the paste, so that there is little reduction after wet curing for a
period. (Neville, 1995)

Table 2-11 Reduction in Permeability of Cement Paste (Water/Cement Ratio = 0.7) with
the Progress of Hydration (Neville, 1995)

Age days Coefficient of permeability.

K (m/s)
-6
Fresh 2x10
5 4 x10-10
6 1 x10-10
8 4 x10-11
13 5 x10-12
24 1 x10-12
Unlimited 6 x10-13 (calculated)

Table 2-12 shows the coefficient of permeability of the concrete mixes taken at 28 days for
Grade 30, Grade 40 and Grade 50. From Table 2-12, it can be seen that RHA concretes were
less permeable than the OPC control concretes for all the three grades. In fact for concrete
mixes of higher grade and with lower w/b ratio, the depth of water penetration or the
coefficient of permeability of RHA concretes further reduces, i.e. less permeable with
increased in the percentage of replacement of OPC with RHA. The reason is that the

34
pozzolanic material (RHA) occupies the empty space in the pore structure and substantially
reduces the permeability of the concrete. It is also obvious that the dosage of Sp in the mixes
played an important role in enhancing the fluidity of RHA concrete, and maximizes the
compaction resulting in high impermeable of RHA concrete. Studies by Sugita et al (1997)
Speare et al (1999) and Cook (1984) also show that the presence of RHA resulted in lower
coefficient of permeability.

Table 2-12 Permeability Coefficients of Concrete Mixes (Kartini. K, 2011)

Mixture Grade w/b Sp Depth Coefficients of permeability

(%) of (m/sec)x10-10
Penetration
(mm)
OPC30 0.63 - 102.82 4.073
RHA3020 30 0.68 - 60.84 1.426
OPC30Sp 0.63 0.4 100.1 3.86
RHA3030Sp 0.63 1.61 38.03 0.572
OPC40SP 0.5 - 61.03 1.437
RHA4010SP 0.5 1 60.93 1.434
RHA4015SP 0.5 1 58.59 1.327
40
RHA4020SP 0.5 1 57.45 1.274
RHA4025SP 0.5 1 55.4 1. 184
RHA4030SP 0.5 1 53.17 1.092
OPC50SP 0.43 - 55.01 1.166
RHA5010SP 0.43 1 54.95 1.163
RHA50l5Sp 0.43 1 51.46 1.02
50
RHA5020Sp 0.43 1 49.34 0.938
RHA5025Sp 0.43 1 48.67 0.913
RHA5030Sp 0.43 1 46.68 0.839

Table 2.13 Typical Values of Permeability Coefficients of Concrete Materials

(Li, 2011)

Type Porosity (%) Average Pore Size Permeability Coefficient

(cm/sec)
HCP 20 100nm 6 x 10-12
Aggregate 3-10 10µ 10X10-12
Concrete 20-40 nm-mm 100-300 x 10-12

35
 CHAPTER 3

3 CHAPTER 3: MATERIALS, MIXDESIGN AND EXPERIMENTAL

PROCEDURES
3.1 GENERAL

Research on producing rice husk ash (RHA) that can be incorporated to concrete and mortars
are not recent. Since then, a lot of studies have been developed to improve the mechanical
and durability properties of concrete. The potential reactivity of aggregate like brick and
stone was investigated and mechanical properties like compressive strength, splitting tensile
strength, water penetration were verified. The samples are tested at different days of age.

3.2 METHODOLOGY OF CONCRETE MADE OF BRICK CHIPS AND STONE

CHIPS USING RICE HUSK ASH

Concrete made of brick chips is most commonly used in the construction work of
Bangladesh. So it is necessary to get the important behavior of concrete made of brick chips.
Generally, bricks are gathered from kilns in Bangladesh. Though machine made bricks are
not that uncommon now a days. These brick kilns are of various qualities. They produce
wide variety of bricks. In order to get the representative result, bricks from three different
kilns were collected to perform the test.

Rice husk ash is largely considered as an agricultural waste. Its discovery and utilization as
an alternative building material will not only help rice mill owners dispose these agricultural
wastes but also provide additional revenue. The investigation of the viability of rice husk ash
(RHA) as supplementary material in cement paste and concrete is needed. So the inducement
of RHA in cement is determined by normal consistency test of cement initial and final setting
time test of cement and mortar compressive strength test according to ASTM C187, C191
and C109 respectively. The properties of cement and RHA compared with fly ash and it will
show in the result.

Some general tests of bricks like water absorption test, moisture content test, crushing
strength of bricks were performed in the laboratory. Tests of aggregates (both fine and
coarse) like sieve analysis, moisture content were also performed to get the fineness modulus
(F.M) and water absorption of the aggregate.

36
Based on the test results, a mix design was established to get the required strength of
concrete, which were counter checked by the compressive strength ,tensile strength ,
shrinkage & depth of water penetration test using rice husk ash as cement replacing materials
after 7 ,14,28 and 90 days as per ASTM C39-86 ,C 496, C 157and EN 123908.

BURNING ,GRIDING&
COLLECTION OF RICE PROPERTY TEST OF
PROCESSING OF RICE
HUSK AGGREGATES
HUSK ASH

TESTING OF RHA CASTING CYLINDERS

CEMENT MORTAR AND AND CUBES FOR MIX DESIGN
CONCRETE TESTING

DATA COLLECTION &

ANALYSIS

Fig 3-1Test Methodology of Concrete Made of Brick & Stone Chips Using RHA
Cement

3.3 TESTING MATERIALS & TESTING SPECIFICATIONS

3.3.1 Cement

Cement is the main component of concrete. It's an economical, high-quality construction

material used in construction projects worldwide. Cement is a fine grey powder which when
reacted with water hardens to form a rigid chemical mineral structure which gives concrete
its high strengths. Cement is in effect the glue that holds concrete together.

37
 Table 3-1 The Common Cements, Covered by EN 197-1

ASTM Traditional
Description British
Description
CEM I Portland cement
CEM II Portland-composite cement
CEM III Blastfurnace cement
CEM IV Pozzolanic cement
CEM V Composite cement

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) was used as the binding agent of concrete for this test. The
chemical compositions and physical characteristics of OPC are presented in Tables 3.2.

Table 3-2 Chemical Compositions of Portland Cement

Chemical Compositions Provided Results by Percentage (%)

Suppliers
Percentage (%)
Silica, SiO2 21.7 20.0 – 22.5

Alumina, Al2O3 4.98 4.8 – 6.0

Ferum Oxide, Fe2O3 3.05 2.4 – 2.5

Calcium Oxide, CaO 63.99 Min 62.0

Magnesium Oxide, MgO 1.28 Max 3.5

Sulphuric Anhydrite, SO3 2.3 2.1 – 2.4

Insoluble Residue, IR 0.58 Max 2.5

Loss of Ignition, LOI 1.02 Max 2.0

3.3.2 Normal Consistency Test of Cement

The amount of water content that brings the cement paste to a standard condition of wetness
is called “normal consistency”. This test method conforms to the ASTM standard
requirements of specification C187. The usual range of values is being between 22 to 35
percent by weight of dry cement.

38
3.3.3 Initial and Final Setting Time Test of Cement

This test method conforms to the ASTM standard requirements of specification C191. As per
ASTM C150, Ordinary Portland Cement should have the initial setting time not less than 45
minutes and final setting time not more 375 minutes. The apparatus used here is Vicat
Apparatus.

3.3.4 Mortar Compressive Strength Test

This test method conforms to the ASTM standard requirements of specification C109. The
standard requirement of minimum compressive strength as per ASTM C150 for Ordinary
Portland cement (type I) is as follows.

Table 3-3 Minimum Compressive Strength of Mortar

Age (Days) Minimum Compressive Strength in psi (Mpa)

3 1800 (12.4)

7 2800 (19.3)

28 4000 (27.6)

Fig 3-2 Compression Testing Machine

3.3.5 Rice Husk Ash (RHA)

RHA is used as CRM of cement of concrete for this test. The chemical compositions and
physical characteristics of RHA are presented in Table 3-4

39
 Table 3-4 Chemical Compositions of RHA

Constituents Percentage
(Bui et al, 2005)
Silica (SiO2) 86.98
Alumina (Al2O3) 0.84
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 0.73
Calcium Oxide (CaO) 1.4
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 0.57
Sodium Oxide (Na2O) 0.11
Potassium Oxide (K2O) 2.46
Sulfur Oxide (SO3) -
LOI 5.14

3.3.5.1 Processing and Production of RHA

Preparing rice husk ash has two parts one is Combustion and other is grinding. Firstly, to
produce the best pozzolanas, the RH is carefully burnt. The second step in processing is
grinding the RHA to a fine powder, and Los Angeles machine is used.

Fig 3-3 Los Angeles Machine

3.3.5.2 Rice Husk Burner

Husk is obtained as a by-product of threshing padi. In fact, about 20% of the dry mass of
harvested padi is husk. Of this residue, somewhere between 25-30% by weight is left as ash
when the husk is burned. The larger basket should be about 450 mm in diameter and about
900 mm high as shown in the sketch. The attached sketch shows how there are two opening

40
to ensure that sufficient air can get to the rice-husks in the basket about 150 mm width and
height.

Fig 3-4 Rice Husk –Burner setup

Fig 3-5 Rice Husk –Burner

41
3.3.5.3 Sieve Analysis of Rice Husk and Rice Husk Ash

The sieve analysis consists of shaking the materials through a stack of wire screens with
opening of known sizes as per ASTM C136. A horizontal motion and rotation for 10 minutes
differentiate the materials in different sieve. The weights of the materials retained in different
sieve were taken and thus the gradation of the material was found with the help of the
gradation curve. The retain of pan after passing #200 ASTM sieve of rice husk, rice husk
ash(RHA) without grinding and rice husk ash(RHA) with grinding are 1.37, 31.94 and
84.80% respectively. Then sieve all the RHA with #200 ASTM sieve for the use in mortar
and concrete.

3.3.5.4 Change in Weight of RHA after Burning of Rice Husk

This test method covers the determination of weight rice husk ash after burning in furnace at
700oC for 6 hours Della et al, 2002. Change in weight after burning is calculated and around
20 to 30 percent weight left after it’s become rice husk ash. The average reduction of weight
is 68.05%.

Fig 3-6 Burning Rice Husk in Furnace

3.3.5.5 Dry Roded Unit Weight of RHA

This test method covers the determination of unit weight a compacted or loose condition of
fine and coarse aggregates. Unit weight values of aggregates are necessary for use for many
methods of selecting proportions for concrete mixtures. They may also be used for
determining mass/volume relationships for conversions and calculating the percentages of

42
voids in aggregates. Voids with him particles, either permeable or impermeable, are not
included in voids as determined by this test method. This test method conforms to the ASTM
standard requirements of specification C29. The dry roded unit weight of rice husk, rice husk
ash (RHA without grinding) rice husk ash (RHA with grinding), rice husk ash (RHA with
grinding and manual sieving) are 19.18, 25.57, 35.01 and 48.2 lb/ft3 respectively.

3.3.5.6 Specific Gravity Test of RHA

These test methods cover the determination of the specific gravity of soil solids that pass the
4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve, by means of a water pycnometer. When the soil contains particles
larger than the 4.75-mm sieve, Test Method C 127 shall be used for the soil solids retained
on the 4.75-mm sieve and these test methods shall be used for the soil solids passing the
4.75-mm sieve. This test method covers the determination of specific gravity RHA. This test
method conforms to the ASTM standard requirements of specification D854. The specific
gravity of RHA is 2.12.

3.3.5.7 Specific Gravity Test of Fly Ash

These test methods cover the determination of the specific gravity of soil solids that pass the
4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve, by means of a water pycnometer. When the soil contains particles
larger than the 4.75-mm sieve, Test Method C 127 shall be used for the soil solids retained
on the 4.75-mm sieve and these test methods shall be used for the soil solids passing the
4.75-mm sieve. This test method covers the determination of specific gravity fly ash. This
test method conforms to the ASTM standard requirements of specification D854. The
specific gravity of fly ash is 2.11.

3.3.5.8 Moisture Content Test of RHA

The difference in weight between the sample at field condition and the sample at oven dry
condition indicates the moisture content of that particular sample. The computed average
field moisture content was 5.88%. After that all the RHA is oven dried for the use of mortar
and concrete.

43
3.3.5.9 Fineness Test of RHA

Standard test method for fineness of hydraulic cement by air-permeability apparatus covers
determination of the fineness of hydraulic cement, using the blaine air-permeability apparatus
in terms of the specific surface expressed as total surface area as per ASTM C204

Fig 3-7 Blaine Air-Permeability Apparatus

3.3.6 Aggregate

3.3.6.1 Fine Aggregate as Sand

Best quality coarse sand (brown in color) locally known as ‘Sylhet sand’ was used as the fine
aggregate. The sieve analysis was carried out in accordance with ASTM C136 (ASTM
2006). The sieve analysis result indicates that the used sand is well graded having fineness
modulus (F.M) in the range of 2.6 to 2.8 (avg-2.7) and it fitted within the limits set out in
ASTM C33 (ASTM 2003).

3.3.6.2 Coarse Aggregate as Clay Brick and Stone Aggregate

Brick aggregate was produced by breaking down whole new bricks on a solid concrete
surface using a hammer. Natural crushed sandstone boulders were used as stone aggregate.
For comparison purpose, bricks and stone boulders were crushed in a way so that they
possess similar gradation and approximately same fineness modulus (FM) to negate the
effect of size and shape on concrete. Additionally, it was also ensured that grading limits set
out in ASTM C33 (ASTM 2003) is strictly maintained. Size distribution and gradation of

44
both type of aggregate achieved from these concepts are shown in Fig 3.8 from which, FM
of stone and brick aggregate were found to be 7.78 and 7.05respectively.

120

100

Upper Limit
80
Lower Limit
% Passing

Brick Aggregate
60
Stone Aggregate

40

20

0
1 10 100
Sieve Size (mm)

Fig 3-8 Gradation of Natural Stone and Brick Aggregate

In order to get the superior quality brick chips, best ‘picked jhama’ bricks were collected
from three different kilns having frog marks ‘NBM’, ‘EBS’ and ‘MEB’ respectively. After
necessary property testing like moisture content, water absorption, crushing strength test,
these bricks were crushed into ¾ inch maximum sizes and were used as coarse aggregates.

3.3.6.3 Specific Gravity Test of Fine Aggregates

This method is a modification of ASTM Designation: C 128 and provides a standardized

procedure for determining the specific gravity of fine aggregate that pass the 4.75-mm (No.
4) sieve, by means of a water pycnometer. The specific gravity of sand is 2.61.

3.3.6.4 Specific Gravity Test of Coarse Aggregates

This method is a modification of ASTM Designation: C 127 and provides a standardized

procedure for determining the specific gravity of coarse aggregate that retain the 4.75-mm
(No. 4) sieve. The specific gravity of brick and stone aggregate are 2.05 and 2.63 respectively.

45
3.3.6.5 Absorption Test of Aggregates

In order to perform this test, each brick from each category were taken and were divided into
two parts. Half of each brick were kept in a jar full of water for 24 hours. The rest half were
kept in oven to make it oven dry. The difference in weight in percentage gave the water
absorption capacity of each specimen. This test method conforms to ASTM C127.

[ . . ] %
(%) = .
…….. (3.1)

The average water absorption capacity of the brick and stone used for the coarse aggregate
was found as 18 and 1.37 % respectively. The absorption capacity of sand is 1.87%.

3.3.6.6 Moisture Content Test of Aggregates

The difference in weight between the sample at field condition and the sample at oven dry
condition indicates the moisture content of that particular sample. The computed average
field moisture content of sand, brick and stone are 6.14, 16.59 and 0.57%.

3.3.6.7 Dry Roded Unit Weight of Aggregates

This test method covers the determination of unit weight a compacted or loose condition of
fine and coarse aggregates. Unit weight values of aggregates are necessary for use for many
methods of selecting proportions for concrete mixtures. They may also be used for
determining mass/volume relationships for conversions and calculating the percentages of
voids in aggregates. Voids with him particles, either permeable or impermeable, are not
included in voids as determined by this test method. This test method conforms to the ASTM
standard requirements of specification C29. The dry roded unit weight of brick, sand and
stone aggregate is 61.65, 98.9and 95.09%.

3.3.7 Water

Water is a key ingredient in the concrete production. The property of water that was used in
the concrete work is being potable, free from oil and other organic impurities. Ordinary tap
water was used as mixing water throughout the mixing procedure.

46
3.4 Mix Design

In this work, mix design ratios for both stone and brick aggregate with target strength of 34
MPa are evaluated from ACI 211 method (ACI 2002) with cement replacing with RHA. Mix
ratios thus evaluated are converted to equivalent weight and are shown in table 3-5.
Table 3-5 Material Properties of Concrete

Properties Materials
Brick Stone Sand
Dry Roded Unit Weight (lb/ft3) 61.65 95.092 98.9
Specific Gravity (SSD) 2.057 2.635 2.617
Fineness Modulus (FM) 7.05 7.78 2.5
Absorption Capacity (% ) 18 1.37 1.87
Moisture Content (%) 16.59 0.57 6.14

Table 3-6 Concrete Mix Design (weight basis) (Quantity for 1 yd3)

Materials W/C Aggregate 95% 5% 90% 10% 85% 15%

CEMENT RHA CEMENT RHA CEMENT RHA
(Kg) (Kg) (Kg) (Kg) (Kg) (Kg)
Brick Stone
Chips Chips
Cement 635.4 635.4 603.63 31.77 571.86 63.54 540.09 95.31
(kg)
Water 255.4 255.74
(kg) 0.48
Sand 1289.71 1231.45
(kg)
Coarse 1276.91 1691
Aggregate
(kg)

3.4.1 Concrete Mixing

Before mixing the concrete, cement was kept dry and placed in a moisture-proof container to
prevent the initiation of hydration and difficulties in handling. Fine and coarse aggregate was
maintained in a saturated surface-dry condition 24 hours prior to use. All the concrete
materials were stored at room temperature in the range of 20ᵒ to 30ᵒC in accordance with
ASTM C 192-90a (1990) ‘Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Laboratory’.

It is important to have proper mixing to ensure all surfaces of the aggregate particles were
coated with cement paste and the ingredients were blended into a uniform mass. In this study,
the drum type mixer was used. The workability tests adopted in this investigation was slump

47
test for the concrete. The slump test was carried out in accordance to ASTM C143-90a
(1990) ‘Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete’.

3.4.2 Curing of Specimen

Concrete must be properly cured to develop its optimum properties. To prevent evaporation
of water from the un-hydrated concrete, the specimens were immediately covered with wet
gunny sack after molded. The specimens were removed from the molds after 24 ± 8 hours
(ASTM C192, 1990), moist cured at 23˚ ±1.7˚C until the age of 90
After the completion of moist curing, the specimens were loaded for compressive strength
test splitting tensile strength test, depth of water penetration test, shrinkage test. For
shrinkage test, molds are stored at the control room until completion of the test.

3.5 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

A mix design was established to get the required strength of concrete based on the test
results, which were counter checked by the compressive strength, tensile strength, shrinkage
and depth of water penetration test using rice husk ash as cement replacing materials as per
ASTM C39-86, C 496, C 157and EN 123908.

3.5.1 Compressive Strength Test

Cylinder specimens with 6 inch diameter and 12 inch height were prepared for compressive
strength test. The specimens prepared were tested at the age of 7, 14, 28 and 90 days. The
compressive strength test was performed in accordance with ASTM C 39 (1993).

Fig 3-9 Compression Machine

48
The specimens were tested in a compression machine as shown in Fig 3.9 in the concrete
laboratory of BUET with a loading rate of 3.0 KN/sec. The load was applied continuously
until the specimen fails and the maximum load carried by the specimen during the test was
recorded.

3.5.2 Splitting Tensile Strength Test

Specimens Cylinder specimens with 6 inch diameter and 12 inch height were prepared for
Splitting Tensile Strength test. The specimens prepared were tested at the age of 7, 14, 28
and 90 days.
The Splitting Tensile Strength test was performed in accordance with ASTM C 496.

Fig 3-10 Splitting Tensile Strength Test in Compression Machine

3.5.3 Shrinkage Test

This method is a modification of ASTM Designation: C 157 and provides a standardized

procedure for determining the drying shrinkage of lightweight concrete. This test method
covers the determination of the length changes that are produced by causes other than
externally applied forces and temperature changes in hardened hydraulic cement mortar and
concrete specimens made in the laboratory and exposed in the laboratory to controlled
conditions of temperature and moisture.

3.5.3.1 Preparation of Specimen

The test specimen for concrete, in which all of the aggregate passes a 1-in. [25-mm] sieve,
shall be a prism of 3-in. [75-mm] square cross-section and approximately 11¼ in. [285 mm]
long. Three specimens shall be prepared for each.

49
Mix concrete in a suitable laboratory mixer in accordance with the applicable provisions of
Practice C 192. Determine the slump of the concrete using Test Method C 143, and use
sufficient mixing water to produce a slump of 3.5 ± 1⁄2 in. [90 ±15 mm].

3.5.3.2 Shrinkage Testing Apparatus

The molds for casting test specimens and the length comparator for measuring length change
shall conform to the requirements of Specification ASTM C 490.

Fig 3-11 Length Comparator for Measuring Length Change

3.5.3.3 Shrinkage Calculation

Length Change—Calculate the length change of any specimen at any age after the initial
comparator reading as follows:

∆ Lx = (CRD- initial CRD)/GX100

Where,
Lx = length change of specimen at any age, %,
CRD = difference between the comparator reading of the specimen and the reference bar at
any age, and
G =the gage length (10 in. [250 mm])

50
3.5.4 Depth of Water Penetration Test

The Depth of penetration of water under pressure test is under EN 123908 and DIN 1048. In
these tests, the pressure under which water is forced to flow through the concrete specimen is
high, and this may alter the natural state of the concrete; blocking of some pores by silting is
also possible.

3.5.4.1 Preparation of Specimen

The test shall be started when the specimen (150mmx150mmx150mm) is at least 28 days
old. The test is performed clamping the specimen cubic, cylindrical or prismatic of length of
edge, or diameter not less than 150 mm between two flanges with special circular gaskets.
The water, under controlled pressure, is then applied to the surface of the concrete specimen.
The penetration of water is measured, after the testing period, by breaking the specimen. The
quantity of penetrated water, can also be measured through the graduated burettes fitted on
top of the apparatus.

3.5.4.2 Depth of Water Penetration Testing Apparatus

Water permeability apparatus is used to determine the depth of penetration of water under
pressure in the concrete specimens. For testing the water permeability on concrete specimens
according to EN 123908 and DIN 1048.

Fig 3-12 Water Permeability Apparatus

51
3.5.4.3 Depth of Water Penetration Testing Procedure

Immediately after the specimen is de-moulded , roughen the surface to be exposed to water
pressure with a wire brush. Place the specimen in the apparatus and apply a water pressure of
(500~50) kPa for (72~2) hr. During the test periodically observe the appearance of the
surfaces of the test specimen not exposed to the water pressure to note the pressure of water.
After remove the specimen there is need to split specimen and take reading as soon as
possible.

3.5.4.4 Depth of Water Penetration Calculation

The maximum depth of penetration, expressed to nearest millimetre, is the test result. It is
also possible to use the depth of penetration of water as a qualitative assessment of concrete:
a depth of less than 50 mm classifies the concrete as ‘impermeable’; a depth of less than 30
mm, as impermeable under aggressive conditions.

52
 CHAPTER 4

4 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 GENERAL
The investigated tests using RHA cement as binding materials are compressive strength,
tensile strength, depth of water penetration and shrinkage test of concrete. Also, Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM) and other materials tests like consistency, setting time of
cement, compressive strength of mortar are also conducted. This chapter reports the test
results, critical evaluations and general discussion of those results.

4.2 FINENESS OF RHA

The fineness of RHA cement is being tested by Blaine–air permeability apparatus (ASTM
C204) and it is determined by specific surface area. The result determined by the test is
368.47 m2/kg which is above as per ASTM C150 cement specification is 280 m2/kg. The
fineness of OPC is 326 m2/kg whereas RHA has fineness of 368.47 m2/kg.

4.3 NORMAL CONSISTENCY OF CEMENT WITH RHA

Fig 4.1 represents the percent of water requirement for normal consistency for OPC and here
5%, 10%, 15% and 20% of cement replaced by RHA as per ASTM C187. When 100% OPC
is used water requirement of normal consistency is 27.9%. As RHA replacement is increased
from 0 to 20% water requirement increases 27.9 to 38.65 %. A normal consistency value up
to 40% is acceptable. However a value of 26-34% is considered as reasonable for normal use.
From fig 4-1, it is observed that for up to 15% of cement replaced by RHA, we get a normal
consistency value of 34%. Beyond that water requirement for normal consistency increases
further. For this, it may be said up to 15% cement may be replaced by RHA considering
normal consistency value. Consistency of cement depends upon its fineness. RHA has
greater fineness (368.47 m2/kg) than cement (326 m2/kg) and correspondingly greater surface
area so the water requirement increases greatly.

53
 40

% Water requirement for

38

Normal Consistency
36
34
32
30 OPC
28
26
24
22 % of Rice Husk Ash (RHA)
20
0 5 10 15 20

Fig 4-1 Normal Consistency of RHA Cement

4.4 SETTING TIME OF CEMENT WITH RHA

Setting time of RHA cement is determined as per ASTM C191. The initial setting time of
0, 5, 10, 15 and 20% of cement replaced by RHA replacing is 95,129,164,184 and
215 min respectively whereas the final setting time is found to be 235, 275, 320, 345 and
385 min respectively. These values are well within the permissible limits as per ASTM C
191(375min) except last one at 20 % RHA replacement of cement. As this is higher than
code specified i.e. up to 15% of cement may be replaced by RHA from setting time
consideration.

Variation in Initial and final setting time is shown in Fig4-2. Maximum variation in initial
and final setting time was observed 20% Cement Replacement by RHA. For all replacement
level the initial and final setting time observed is higher than the OPC samples.

425 Initial Setting Time (Mins) Final Setting Time (Mins)

400
375 ASTM Maximum for Final Setting Time(375 min)
350
325
Setting Time (Mins)

300
275
250
225
200 OPC
175
150
125 OPC
100
75
50
25 ASTM Minimum for Setting Time( 45 min)
0
%RHA
0 5 10 15 20

Fig 4-2 Increasing Setting Time using RHA Cement

54
4.5 MORTAR COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST

The Compressive strength test was conducted at 3, 7 and 28 days to evaluate the strength
development of cement mortar paste containing various percentage of RHA as per
ASTM C 109. Fig 4-3 shows compressive strength of mortar cube of different age for
0%, 5%, 10% and 15% of RHA replaced cements. As RHA content increase, the
strength decreased. However for 5 % of RHA replaced cement, strength gain in initial
days is less than 100% OPC whereas at 28 days their strength is almost same. For 10%
and 15% of RHA replaced cement, strength gain almost about 11% and 20% less
corresponding 100% OPC.

Behavior of RHA replaced cement is next corresponded with fly ash replaced cement.
Fig 4-4(a), (b) and (c) show comparison of strength gain for 5%, 10% and 15% of RHA
and fly ash replaced cement with that 100% OPC.10% RHA replaced cement mortar is
shown higher result of compressive strength than 10 % fly ash replaced cement mortar
even though both have lower values of compressive strength than 100 % OPC mortar.
15% RHA replaced cement mortar is shown lower result of compressive strength than
fly ash replaced cement mortar.

40

35
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)

30

0%RHA
25
5%RHA

10%RHA
20
15%RHA
AGE (DAYS)

15
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Fig 4-3 The Compressive Strength of Mortar Using RHA Cement

55
 40

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
35

( MPa) 30

25
OPC
20
5%RHA

5%FLYASH
15
AGE (DAYS)
STANDARD LIMIT
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Fig 4-4 (a) The Compressive Strength of Mortar Using 5% RHA Cement

40

35
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)

30

25
OPC
20
10%RHA

15 10%FLYASH
AGE (DAYS)
STANDARD LIMIT
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Fig 4-4 (b) The Compressive Strength of Mortar Using 10% RHA Cement

56
 40

35

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)

30

25
OPC

20 15%RHA

15 15%FLYASH

AGE (DAYS) STANDARD LIMIT

10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Fig 4-4 (c) The Compressive Strength of Mortar Using 15% RHA Cement

4.5.1 Optimum (%) Content between Fly ash and RHA

The fig 4-5 following shows the compressive strength of RHA and fly ash mortar at 28 days.
Both RHA and fly ash mortar have achieved the standard limit (ASTM C109) of 28 MPa.
The optimum content of RHA is 12.5% in comparison with fly ash. Fly ash has a steady
result after increasing percent of mixing.

44 %RHA %FLYASH
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)

42
40
38
36
34
32
30
28
26 28 MPa
24
22
20
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15
% CEMENT REPLACING MATERIALS

Fig 4-5 Variation of Mortar Strength using Fly Ash and RHA at 28 Days

57
4.6 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

The compressive strength of RHA concrete was investigated at 7, 14, 28 and 90 days curing
age as per ASTM C 39 with a design strength of 34 Mpa.

4.6.1 Compressive Strength of Brick and Stone Aggregate Concrete

The summary of the results are presented graphically in a fig 4-6 below for different
replacement percentages of RHA of brick aggregate concrete. According to results (ACI 211
mixes) 5 % RHA concrete is shown higher compressive strength than normal concrete. The
difference between normal concrete to 5 % RHA concrete in compressive strength is about
5% others have decrement. But all percentage ( 0%, 5%, 10% and 15%) of cement replaced
by RHA have achieved its desire strength except 15 % cement replaced by RHA in brick
aggregate concrete at 28 days although it has achieved the design strength at 90 days.

The results are shown in Fig 4-8 for stone aggregate concrete. The pattern of graph both
brick and stone aggregate concrete is same. Here also 5% RHA concrete has shown higher
compressive strength than normal concrete. The difference between normal concrete to 5%
RHA concrete in compressive strength is about 6%.OPC stone aggregate concrete have
achieved its strength almost within 14 days . In fig 4-10(a), (b), (c) and (d) show the
individual comparison of stone and brick aggregate concrete with or without using RHA. The
results are shown that all brick aggregate concrete are given higher results even using RHA
except 15 % cement replaced by RHA but it also shows similar results. OPC concrete has
achieved its strength almost within 7 to 14 days but RHA concrete has achieved its strength
at 28 to 90 days.

45
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)

40

35
0%RHA BRICK
30
5%RHA BRICK
10%RHA BRICK
25
AGE OF CONCRTE (DAYS) 15% RHA BRICK

20
0 20 40 60 80 100

Fig 4-6 Relationship between Compressive Strength and Age of RHA Brick Aggregate
Concrete

58
 45 7 DAYS BRICK 14DAYS BRICK
28DAYS BRICK 90DAYS BRICK

40
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)

35

30

25

20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
% RHA

Fig 4-7 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Compressive Strength of Brick Aggregate
Concrete

45
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)

40

35
0%RHA
5%RHA
30 10%RHA
15% RHA
25

20
0 20 40 60 80 100
AGE OF CONCRTE (DAYS)

Fig 4-8 Relationship between Compressive Strength and Age of RHA Stone Aggregate
Concrete

59
 45 7DAYS STONE 14DAYS STONE
28DAYS STONE 90DAYS STONE

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa) 40

35

30

25

%RHA
20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Fig 4-9 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Compressive Strength of Stone Aggregate
Concrete

41

39
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)

37
0%RHA BRICK

0%RHA STONE
35

33

31
AGE OF CONCRTE (DAYS)
29
0 20 40 60 80 100

Fig 4-10 (a) Relationship between Compressive Strength and Age of Concrete

60
 43

41

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)

39
5%RHA BRICK
37
5%RHA STONE
35

33

31
AGE OF CONCRTE (DAYS)
29
0 20 40 60 80 100

Fig 4-10 (b) Relationship between Compressive Strength and Age of 5%RHA Concrete

39

37
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH ( MPa)

35
10%RHA BRICK

33 10%RHA STONE

31

29

27
AGE OF CONCRTE (DAYS)
25
0 20 40 60 80 100

Fig 4-10(c) Relationship between Compressive Strength and Age of 10% RHA Concrete

61
 36

34

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)

32
15% RHA BRICK
30 15%RHA STONE

28

26

24
AGE OF CONCRTE (DAYS)
22
0 20 40 60 80 100

Fig 4-10 (d) Relationship between Compressive Strength and Age of 15% RHA
Concrete

4.6.2 Optimum (%) Content of RHA in the Compressive Strength of Concrete

The shape in the graphs in fig 4-11 and fig 4-12 are similar in both brick and stone aggregate
concrete and both 5% RHA concrete has higher values than OPC concrete and 7% RHA
concrete is similar to OPC concrete. So optimum content may be 10-15% but similar content
as OPC is 6-7% RHA replacement using brick and stone aggregate.

42
28DAYS BRICK 28DAYS STONE
41
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH ( MPa)

40
39
38
37
36
35 34 MPa
34
33 %RHA
32
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Fig 4-11 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Compressive Strength of RHA Concrete at
28 Days

62
 42
90DAYS BRICK 90DAYS STONE
41

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)

40
39
38
37
36
35 34 MPa
34
33 %RHA
32
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Fig 4-12 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Compressive Strength of RHA Concrete at
90 Days

4.6.3 Effect of Age on Strength of RHA Concrete

From the following fig 4-13 shows that brick aggregate concrete gets more early strength at 7
days whereas stone aggregate concrete almost gets its design strength at 14 days. Only 15 %
RHA replaced in cement both brick and stone aggregate concrete does not fulfill its strength
at 28 days although it has achieved its desire strength at 90 days. So the stone aggregate
needs 14 days of cuing but brick aggregate concrete needs more curing time to get its
strength.

120

100 0%RHA BRICK

% of 28 days strength

5%RHA BRICK
80
10%RHA BRICK
60 15%RHA BRICK
0%RHA STONE
40
5%RHA STONE
20 10%RHA STONE
15%RHA STONE
0
7 14 28
AGE (DAYS)

Fig 4-13 Relative Gain of Strength Variation with Time of RHA Concrete

63
4.6.4 Effect of Size of Aggregate on Compressive Strength of Aggregates RHA
Concrete

Natural aggregates like stones are tougher than brick aggregates. Smaller size will affect the
strength (Neville, 1995) and there is a basic difference ½ inch aggregate of brick and stone
that’s why the strength of brick aggregate concrete is always lower than stone aggregate
concrete. But in ¾ inch down aggregate concrete has no problem such that brick aggregate
concrete gets its desire strength. After adding RHA the difference of strength is reduced to
11% to 5%. Fig 4-14 represents that the compressive strength ½ inch brick aggregate
concrete is lower than ½ inch stone aggregate concrete but in case of ¾ inch aggregate
concrete, brick aggregate shows higher results than stone aggregate.

41.50

40.50

39.50 1/2'' BRICK

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)

38.50 1/2'' STONE

37.50 3/4" STONE

36.50 3/4" BRICK

35.50

34.50

33.50

32.50
%RHA
31.50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Fig 4-14 Effect of Size of Aggregates on Compressive Strength of RHA Concrete

64
4.6.5 Effect of Using RHA as Admixture in Brick Aggregate

The following fig 4-15 shows compressive strength of 5% extra RHA mixed concrete and
about 10% increment has been observed. There is a need in the concrete construction to gain
its desire strength and using admixture because of uncertainty of achieving desire strength.

Fig 4-16 shows strength increment comparison of using RHA as admixture. There is an
increment occurs using 0% to 15% RHA for brick aggregate concrete is 15.41% to17.18%
and again 12.09 % to 16.08% for stone aggregate concrete. Using RHA replacing cement
means that water cement ratio will increase but although all the percentage have achieved its
desire strength (34 MPa). So RHA can be used as strength gaining admixture.

35
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

30
(MPa)

25
5% extra RHA

20
OPC
DESIGN STRENGTH (MPa)
15
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26

Fig 4-15 Effect of Using as Admixture in Brick Aggregate

BRICK AGGREGATE
45 STONE AGGREGATE
0% RHA 5% RHA
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IN

40 10% RHA 15% RHA

35
30
25
MPa

20
15
10
5
0
0.48 0.5 0.53 0.56
Actual w/c RATIO

Fig 4-16 Strength Increment Comparison of Using RHA as Admixture

65
4.6.6 Comparison of Compressive Strength of Concrete & Mortar

Form the fig 4-17, comparison of compressive strength of concrete and mortar, there is
similarity between stone and brick chips. The shape of curve is quite similar at different days.
From the result both at 7 and 28 days brick aggregate concrete using RHA is shown higher
results than RHA stone aggregate concrete.

40
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

35

7 Days BRICK
(MPa)

30 28 Days BRICK

28 Days STONE

25 7 Days STONE

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF MORTAR (MPa)

20
22 27 32 37

Fig 4-17 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Compressive Strength of Concrete &
Mortar

4.7 SPLITTING TENSILE STRENGTH

The indirect tensile strength test is according to ASTM C 496 shows the strength at
different ages for concrete with different contents of RHA. The Indirect tensile strength of
the concrete specimens at ages 7, 14, 28 and 90 days was tested.

4.7.1 Splitting Tensile Strength of Brick Aggregate Concrete and Stone Aggregate

Fig 4-19 shows effect of RHA on splitting tensile strength of brick aggregate concrete. There
is an increment shown the results of using 5% RHA concrete is about 2.5% than OPC of
strength. Otherwise all percentage (10 and 15%) is shown lower values and a decrement is

66
observed almost 10 and 16% than OPC concrete using 10 and 15 % RHA concrete. For stone
aggregate concrete results are shown in fig 4-21 and there is an increment about 2% of
strength than OPC others have decrements about 5 and 8% than OPC concrete.

Fig 4-22 (a), (b), (c) and (d) show comparative splitting tensile strength of brick and stone
aggregate concrete for 0, 5, 10 and 15% of cement replaced by RHA. From all the graphs
there is a distinctive change observed and in all fig, the shape of the curve same and only 15
% RHA stone aggregate concrete has higher results than 15 % RHA brick aggregate
concrete. In other cases brick aggregate concrete has shown higher results. As an increase of
RHA in concrete, there is a decrease of tensile strength.

3.5

3.3

3.1

2.9
TENSILE STRENGTH (MPa)

2.7
0%RHA
2.5
5%RHA
2.3 10%RHA
15%RHA
2.1

1.9

1.7

1.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
AGE IN DAYS

Fig 4-18 Relationship between Splitting Tensile Strength and Age of RHA Brick
Aggregate Concrete

67
 7days
3.4
14days
3.2
28days
TENSILE STRENGTH (MPa)

3 90days

2.8

2.6

2.4

2.2
%RHA

2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Fig 4-19 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Splitting Tensile Strength of Brick
Aggregate Concrete

3.3

3.1

2.9
TENSILE STRENGTH (MPa)

2.7

2.5
0%RHA
2.3 5%RHA

2.1 10%RHA
15%RHA
1.9 AGE (DAYS)

1.7
0 20 40 60 80 100

Fig 4-20 Relationship between Splitting Tensile Strength and Age of RHA Brick
Aggregate Concrete

68
 3.5
7days
3.3
14days
3.1
28days
TENSILE STRENGTH ( MPa)

2.9 90days
2.7

2.5

2.3

2.1

1.9

1.7
%RHA
1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Fig 4-21 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Splitting Tensile Strength of Stone
Aggregate Concrete

3.5

3.3
TENSILE STRENGTH (MPa)

3.1

2.9

2.7

2.5 0% RHA STONE

2.3 0%RHA BRICK

2.1 AGE (DAYS)
1.9
0 20 40 60 80 100

Fig 4-22 (a) Splitting Tensile Strength of Normal Concrete

69
 3.5

3.3

3.1
TENSILE STRENGTH (MPa)

2.9

2.7 5% RHA STONE

2.5
5%RHA BRICK

2.3

2.1
AGE (DAYS)

1.9
0 20 40 60 80 100

Fig 4-22 (b) Splitting Tensile Strength of 5% RHA Concrete

3.1

2.9
TENSILE STRENGTH (MPa)

2.7

10% RHA STONE

2.5

10%RHA BRICK
2.3

2.1 AGE (DAYS)

1.9
0 20 40 60 80 100

Fig 4-22(c) Splitting Tensile Strength of 10% RHA Concrete

70
 2.9
2.8
2.7
TENSILE STRENGTH (MPa)
2.6
2.5 15% RHA STONE
2.4
15%RHA BRICK
2.3
2.2
2.1
AGE (DAYS)
2
1.9
0 20 40 60 80 100

Fig 4-22 (d) Splitting Tensile Strength of 15% RHA Concrete

4.7.2 Optimum Content of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Splitting Tensile Strength

Fig 4-23 represents effect of RHA on splitting tensile strength of concrete. The same tensile
strength as optimum content of RHA concrete in both brick and stone aggregate is 12.5 %.
There is an increment in 5% RHA concrete otherwise all values are lower. Similar results
like OPC concrete are around 6-7 % RHA replacement of cement.

28DAYS STONE 28 DAYS BRICK

3.4
TENSILE STRENGTH (MPa)

3.2
3
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
%RHA
2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Fig 4-23 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Splitting Tensile Strength of Concrete at 28
Days

71
4.7.3 Relationships between Tensile Strength and Compressive Strength of RHA
Concrete

Fig 4-24 represents Relationships between tensile strength and compressive strength of RHA
concrete and compare with compressive strength, the percent of tensile strength is higher
with adding RHA in both case of stone and brick aggregate. But it is less than one percent.
Fig 4-25 shows that the percent of tensile strength with compressive strength of RHA
concrete at different days. All 0, 5, 10 ,15 % of RHA concrete, the percent of tensile
strength is higher initially and with time all values are more stable. In all other cases 5%
RHA concrete has higher results.

3.3

3.1

2.9
TENSILE STRENGTH ( MPa)

2.7

0% RHA STONE
2.5
5% RHA STONE
10% RHA STONE

2.3 15% RHA STONE

0%RHA BRICK
5%RHA BRICK
2.1
10%RHA BRICK
15%RHA BRICK
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)
1.9
22 27 32 37 42

Fig 4-24 Relationships between Tensile Strength and Compressive Strength of RHA
Concrete

72
 9 0% RHA STONE 5% RHA STONE 10% RHA STONE

15% RHA STONE 0%RHA BRICK 5%RHA BRICK

8.8 10%RHA BRICK 15%RHA BRICK

8.6

8.4
TENSILE STRENGTH %

8.2

7.8

7.6

7.4
AGE (DAYS)

7.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Fig 4-25 %Tensile Strength with Compressive Strength of RHA Concrete at Different
Days

4.7.4 Comparison between Theoretical and Actual Splitting Tensile Strength

Fig 4-26 represents the comparison between theoretical and actual splitting tensile strength.
The deviation of theoretical to casting is almost 0.49 for brick aggregate concrete and 0.48
for stone aggregate concrete.

73
 0% RHA STONE 5% RHA STONE 10% RHA STONE
3.4 15% RHA STONE 0%RHA BRICK 5%RHA BRICK
3.2

TENSILE STRENGTH ( MPa) 3

2.8

2.6

2.4

2.2
Theoritical Tensile strength (MPa)
2
2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.5 3.7

Fig 4-26 Comparison between Theoretical and Actual Splitting Tensile Strength

4.8 DEPTH OF WATER PENETRATION OF CONCRETE

As per DIN 1048, the samples are tested at 28 days after casting. Two samples were prepared
for both brick and stone aggregate concrete for 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% RHA respected
cement. Permeability coefficient is evaluated from the corresponding depth of water
penetration value using approximate equation.

4.8.1 Depth of Water Penetration of Brick and Stone Aggregate Concrete

Table 4-1 shows the depth of penetration for concrete samples prepared for both brick and
stone aggregate. As in the previous test, RHA content in varied from 0% to 15% of required
cement. For most of the cases brick aggregate concrete show slightly higher depth of
penetration than that of stone aggregate concrete. For both brick and stone aggregate concrete
5% of cement replaced by RHA, depth of water penetration is same as for 0% of cement
replaced by RHA. Depth of water penetration increases up to 10% of cement replaced by
RHA. But for higher RHA content, i.e. 15% depth of water penetration is reduced.

Fig 4-28 show that the line of penetration for each (set-1 and set-2) samples. Brick aggregate
samples are shown in fig 4-28 (a) whereas stone aggregates are shown in fig 4-28 (b). These
lines of penetration are graphically represented in fig 4-29 (a), (b), fig 4-30 (a) and (b). Fig 4-
31 (a), (b), (c) and (d) shows comparison of depth of water penetration variation of 0%, 5%,
10% and 15% of cement replaced by RHA for both stone and brick aggregate concrete.
From these figures, it is apparent that, depth of water penetration is more or less uniform for

74
stone aggregate. On the other hand, for brick aggregate concrete penetration lines show sharp
variation over the breadth of the samples. These are spots where water has penetrated far
more than other adjacent areas.
For both stone and brick aggregate 0% and 5 % RHA concrete are impermeable under
aggressive conditions as below 30 mm depth of water penetration whereas 10% and 15 %
RHA concrete are impermeable as above 30 mm but less than 50 mm of depth of penetration
of water. (J. Bonzel, et al., 1966)

Table 4-1 Depth of Water Penetration of RHA Concrete

Maximum Water Average MAX Statement

Aggregate %RHA Penetration (mm) Penetration (mm) (J. Bonzel, et al., 1966)
0 30 Impermeable under
25 27.5 aggressive conditions
5 25 Impermeable under
Brick 30 27.5 aggressive conditions
10 37 Impermeable
38 37.5
15 35 Impermeable
30 32.5
0 26 Impermeable under
26 26 aggressive conditions
5 26 Impermeable under
Stone 26 26 aggressive conditions
10 32 Impermeable
35 33.5
15 30 Impermeable
32 31

50
DEPTH OF WATER PENETRATION

45
BRICK CHIPS STONE CHIPS
40
(mm)

35

30
%RHA
25

20
0 5 10 15

Fig 4-27 Depth of Water Penetration of RHA Concrete

75
Fig 4-28(a) Penetration Curve for RHA Brick Aggregate Concrete

Fig 4-28(b) Penetration Curve for RHA Stone Aggregate Concrete

76
 45
40 0%RHA BRICK
DEPTH OF WATER PENETRATION 35 5%RHA BRICK
30 10%RHA BRICK
25 15%RHA BRICK
(mm)

20
15
10
5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
DISTANCE (mm)

Fig 4-29 (a) Depth of Water Penetration Variation of Brick Aggregate Concrete at
Different Distance (set 1)

45
40
DEPTH OF WATER PENETRATION

35
0%RHA BRICK
30
5%RHA BRICK
25
(mm)

10%RHA BRICK
20
15%RHA BRICK
15
10
5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
DISTANCE (mm)

Fig 4-29 (b) Depth of Water Penetration Variation of Brick Aggregate Concrete at
Different Distance (set 2)

77
 40
35
DEPTH OF WATER PENETRATION
30
25
0%RHA STONE
20
(mm)

5%RHA STONE
15
10%RHA STONE
10
15%RHA STONE
5
0
-5 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

DISTANCE (mm)

Fig 4-30 (a) Depth of Water Penetration Variation of Stone Aggregate Concrete at
Different Distance (set 1)

40

35
DEPTH OF WATER PENETRATION

30 0%RHA STONE
5%RHA STONE
25
10%RHA STONE
(mm)

20 15%RHA STONE

15

10

5 DISTANCE (mm)

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Fig 4-30(b) Depth of Water Penetration Variation of Stone Aggregate Concrete at

Different Distance (set 2)

78
 35 0%RHA BRICK-1 0%RHA STONE-1
0% RHA BRICK-2 0% RHA STONE-2
DEPTH OF WATER PENETRATION 30

25

20
(mm)

15

10

0
-10 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150
DISTANCE (mm)

Fig 4-31 (a) Depth of Water Penetration Variation of OPC Concrete

35 5%RHA BRICK-1 5%RHA STONE-1

5 % RHA BRICK-2 5% RHA STONE-2
30
DEPTH OF WATER PENETRATION

25

20
(mm)

15

10

0
-10 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150
DISTANCE (mm)

Fig 4-31 (b) Depth of Water Penetration Variation of 5 %RHA Concrete

79
 45 10%RHA BRICK-1 10%RHA STONE-1
40 10% RHA BRICK-2 10% RHA STONE-2

DEPTH OF WATER PENETRATION

35
30
25
(mm) 20
15
10
5
0
-10-5 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150

DISTANCE (mm)

Fig 4-31 (c) Depth of Water Penetration Variation of 10 %RHA Concrete

40 15%RHA BRICK-1 15%RHA STONE-1

15% RHA BRICK-2 15% RHA STONE-2
35
DEPTH OF WATER PENETRATION

30

25
(mm)

20

15

10

0
-10 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150
DISTANCE (mm)

Fig 4-31 (d) Depth of Water Penetration Variation of 15%RHA Concrete

80
4.8.2 The Coefficient of Permeability of Brick and Stone Aggregates Concrete

Table 4-2 shows the coefficient of permeability for concrete samples prepared for both brick
and stone aggregate concrete. As in the previous test, RHA content in varied from 0% to 15%
of required cement. For 10% and 15% of cement replaced by RHA, stone aggregate concrete
show slightly higher coefficient of permeability than that of brick aggregate concrete. For
stone aggregate concrete 0% and 5% of cement replaced by RHA, the coefficient of
permeability is higher than brick aggregate concrete. Coefficient of permeability increases up
to 10% of cement replaced by RHA. But for higher RHA content, i.e. 15% depth of
coefficient of permeability is reduced for both brick and stone aggregate concrete. Fig 4-32
shows the variation of coefficient of permeability for both brick and stone aggregate
concrete.

Table 4-2 The Coefficient of Permeability of Brick and Stone Aggregates Concrete

Sl. Maximum Water AVG

No. %RHA Penetration, e The coefficient of Permeability, K (m/s)X10-12 K
Aggregate (mm) X10-12
(m/s)
1 0 30 2.08 1.77
2 0 25 1.45
Brick
1 5 25 1.45 1.77
2 5 30 2.08
1 10 37 3.17 3.26
2 10 38 3.34
1 15 35 2.84 2.46
2 15 30 2.08
1 0 26 1.56 1.56
2 0 26 1.56
Stone
1 5 26 1.56 1.56
2 5 26 1.56
1 10 32 2.37 2.60
2 10 35 2.84
1 15 30 2.08 2.23
2 15 32 2.37

81
 3.5

COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY 2.5

K X 10-12M/S

1.5

0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
RHA %

Fig 4-32 Variation of the Coefficient of Permeability of Concrete

4.8.3 Relationship between Depth of Penetration of Water and Compressive Strength

of Concrete

Table 4-3 shows that the effect of RHA on depth of water penetration and Compressive
Strength of concrete. It shows that any increment of compressive strength decreases depth of
penetration of water but replacing cement by RHA in concrete up to 10% increase depth of
penetration after that replacing more cement by RHA decrease water penetration although
compressive strength hasn’t increase.

Table 4-3 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Depth of Water Penetration and
Compressive Strength of Concrete

Brick Aggregate Stone Aggregate

Compressive MAX Compressive MAX
%RHA Strength Penetration Strength Penetration
(MPa) (mm) (MPa) (mm)

0 39.24 27.50 38.11 26.00

5 40.93 27.50 39.11 26.00
10 36.02 37.50 35.20 33.50
15 33.69 32.50 33.37 31.00

82
4.9 SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE

Shrinkage test is prescribed in ASTM C157. The samples are measured at 3,7, 14,21, 28, 35,
56, 112 and 140 days of age . Cement is more shrinkable than other materials in concrete like
CA, FA. So there is an opportunity to reduce % of shrinkage in concrete to use prozzonnic
materials like RHA. (Neville, 1995)

4.9.1 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Shrinkage of Brick and stone Aggregate
Concrete

Fig 4-33 and 4-34 show the percent of shrinkage of brick and stone aggregate concrete using
RHA. Fig 4-35 (a), (b), (c) and (d) show comparative shrinkage of brick and stone aggregate
concrete for 0, 5, 10 and 15% of cement replaced by RHA. In these graphs, abscissa denotes
the age in days at which shrinkage is measured and ordinates denotes linear shrinkage in
percentage. The samples are kept immersed in water for curing for the first 28 days. During
this period, volume of concrete expands which is marked by positive shrinkage value in the
graphs. After 28 days, the samples are kept in open space to let it dry. From 28 days onwards,
the samples contracts due to shrinkage and gives negative linear strain. This part of shrinkage
is termed as drying shrinkage. As may be seen from these figs, shrinkage behavior of brick
and stone aggregate concrete is almost similar in pattern and in absolute value for this 34
MPa concrete. For no replacement of cement by RHA (0%), shrinkage of brick aggregate
concrete is slightly higher initially up to around 110 days. But after that, shrinkage of stone
aggregate concrete is found to be higher. As percent of RHA content is increased,
correspondingly, shrinkage of concrete increases. Stone aggregate concrete is found to be
more sensitive to RHA content. For 0% RHA content, shrinkage of stone aggregate concrete
is slightly less than brick aggregate concrete. As the RHA content is increased from 0% to
15%, shrinkage of stone aggregate concrete becomes slightly more than brick aggregate
concrete. Up to 5% of cement replaced by RHA, there is little difference in net shrinkage
value corresponding to concrete made from 0% r of cement replaced by RHA. After that,
with increasing amount of cement replaced by RHA, shrinkage increases. For 15% RHA
replacement, shrinkage of both stone and brick aggregate concrete is increased by about
25%.

83
 -0.06

-0.05

-0.04

-0.03
SHRINKAGE %

-0.02

-0.01
0 50 100 150
0
0% RHA BRICK
0.01 5% RHA BRICK
AGE (DAYS)
10% RHA BRICK
0.02 15% RHA BRICK

Fig 4-33 Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of Brick Aggregate Concrete

-0.065

-0.055

-0.045

-0.035
%SHRINKAGE

-0.025

-0.015

-0.005 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

0% RHA STONE
0.005
AGE (DAYS)
5% RHA STONE
0.015
10% RHA STONE
0.025
15% RHA STONE

Fig 4-34 Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of Stone Aggregate Concrete

84
 0% RHA STONE 0% RHA BRICK
-0.05

%SHRINKAGE
-0.04
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01 0 50 100 150
0
AGE (DAYS)
0.01
0.02
0.03

Fig 4-35 (a) Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of Normal Concrete

-0.05 5% RHA STONE 5% RHA BRICK

-0.04
%SHRINKAGE

-0.03
-0.02
-0.01 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
0
AGE (DAYS)
0.01
0.02
0.03

Fig 4-35 (b) Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of 5% RHA Concrete

10% RHA STONE 10% RHA BRICK

-0.05
%SHRINKAGE

-0.04
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01 0 50 100 150
0
AGE (DAYS)
0.01
0.02
0.03

Fig 4-35 (c) Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of 10% RHA Concrete

85
 15% RHA STONE
-0.06

%SHRINKAGE
15% RHA BRICK
-0.05

-0.04

-0.03

-0.02

-0.01
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
0
AGE ( DAYS)
0.01

0.02

0.03

Fig 4-35 (d) Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of 15% RHA Concrete

4.9.2 Effect of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) on Dry Shrinkage of Brick and Stone Aggregate
Concrete
Fig 4-38 (a), (b), (c) and (d) show comparative dry shrinkage of brick and stone aggregate
concrete for 0, 5, 10 and 15% of cement replaced by RHA. Fig 4-37 shows drying shrinkage
pattern of stone aggregate concrete with cement replaced by RHA by different amount.
Effect of RHA replacement of cement is clearly visible in this curve. For 5% replacement,
there is practically no effect on shrinkage behavior of stone aggregate concrete. But
shrinkage increases if RHA replacement is increased. Fig. 4-36 shows same curves and
similar pattern for brick aggregate concrete. Likewise in stone aggregate concrete, there is no
significant effect if 5% of cement is replaced by RHA on shrinkage behavior. However,
shrinkage significantly increases if more amount of cement is replaced by RHA. As may be
seen from both Fig. 4-36 and 5-66, absolute value of shrinkage remains same for both brick
and stone aggregate concrete.

86
 -0.09

-0.08

-0.07

-0.06
DRY SHRINKAGE %

-0.05

-0.04 0% RHA BRICK

5% RHA BRICK
-0.03
10% RHA BRICK
-0.02 AGE (DAYS) 15% RHA BRICK

-0.01
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0

Fig 4-36 Dry Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of Brick Aggregate Concrete after
Curing

-0.09

-0.08

-0.07

-0.06
DRY SHRINKAGE %

-0.05

-0.04

-0.03 0% RHA STONE

-0.02 5% RHA STONE

AGE (DAYS)
-0.01 10% RHA STONE
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
15% RHA STONE
0

Fig 4-37 Dry Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of Stone Aggregate Concrete after
Curing

87
 -0.08
-0.07
-0.06
%SHRINKAGE

-0.05
-0.04 0% RHA STONE
0% RHA BRICK
-0.03
-0.02
AGE (DAYS)
-0.01 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0

Fig 4-38 (a) Dry Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of 0% RHA Concrete

-0.07
-0.06
-0.05
%SHRINKAGE

5% RHA STONE
-0.04
5% RHA BRICK
-0.03
-0.02 AGE (DAYS)
-0.01 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0

Fig 4-38 (b) Dry Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of 5% RHA Concrete

-0.1

-0.08
%SHRINKAGE

-0.06
10% RHA STONE
-0.04 10% RHA BRICK
AGE (DAYS)
-0.02
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0

Fig 4-38(c) Dry Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of 10% RHA Concrete

88
 -0.09
-0.08
-0.07
-0.06
%SHRINKAGE

-0.05 15% RHA STONE

-0.04 15% RHA BRICK
-0.03
-0.02 AGE (DAYS)
-0.01 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0

Fig 4-38 (d) Dry Shrinkage Values at Various Ages of 15% RHA Concrete

4.10 COST EFFECTIVENESS AND ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF RICE

HUSK ASH CONCRETE

T o determine cement requirement there buildings, two six storied and one nine storied were
assessed. It was found the average cement requirement varies between 0.22 to 0.23 beg/ sft of
casting. Considering 12 % as optimum value for cement to be replaced by RHA without
changing any properties of concrete, we can see there is a scope of saving both in terms of
environmental and monetary point of view. Average cost of approximate 0.23 beg of cement
is almost Tk 115 (price per beg of cement is considered as Tk 500) and about 15 taka is
saved for each square meter by using RHA cement. In terms of volume of concrete there is a
saving about Tk1000 for each cubic meter of concrete casting.

21 10001 OPC
OPC 8001 RHA Cement
16
Requirement of
Cement/m3

RHA Cement 6001

Cost/m3
(Begs)

(taka)

11
4001
6
2001

1 1
Cement (a) Cement (b)

Fig 4-39(a)Change in Requirement & (b)Cost of Cement using RHA

89
4.11 COLOR OF RICE HUSK ASH CONCRETE

There is a distinctive color change when we add RHA in concrete. Since color of RHA is
dark ash, mixing this to concrete gives a light bleaching shade of color to the concrete
surface. This may be aesthetically more desirable for fair facing of concrete. Fig 4-40
represents color of rice husk, rice husk ash (before grinding), and rice husk ash (after
grinding) and Fig 4-41 and Fig 4-42 show change in color of RHA concrete and change in
color of RHA cement.

Fig 4-40 Color of Rice Husk, Rice Husk Ash (before grinding), and Rice Husk Ash
(after grinding)

Fig 4-41 Change in Color of Rice Husk Ash Concrete

90
 Fig 4-42 Change in Color of Rice Husk Ash Cement

4.12 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Of Cement, RHA, Fly Ash, Mortar & Sand

The presented results obtained by means of scanning electron microscopy indicate the
practical opportunity to observe change in size, shape, porosity and bonding. Fig 4-44 shows
SEM of Cement which is almost round in size, irregular shape, and sharpness edge and less
porous. Rice husk ash have irregular and crushed shaped particle. Fig 4-44 shows a SEM
micrograph of a sample of rice husk ash obtained, showing a very porous tracery surface
morphology, with a high surface area. The spherical particles in a fly ash samples are shown
in Fig 4-45 and its outstanding features especially in the context of its use as a pozzolana. Fly
ash particles are Smooth, Glassy surface.RHA is more like cement than OPC. On the other
hand lime has unsmooth rocky surface, porous, and uncombined binding. Binding materials
binds with sand as filler materials; the surface of sand is unsmooth and curvy in nature. Fig
4-48, 4-74, 4-75 and 4-76 show SEM of mortar of 0 %, 5%, 10%, and 15% RHA replacing
cement. In the microstructure of mature cement paste and RHA cement paste, 5% RHA has
less porous and smooth surface and better bonding. OPC mortar also has less porosity but
sharp surface. 10 % RHA mortar is more porous and rough in surface and 15 % RHA mortar
is relatively same as OPC.

91
Fig 4-43 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of Cement

Fig 4-44 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of RHA

92
Fig 4-45 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of Fly Ash

Fig 4-46 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of Lime

93
 Fig 4-47 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of Sand

Fig 4-48 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of OPC Mortar

94
Fig 4-49 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of 5%RHA Mortar

Fig 4-50 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of 10% RHA Mortar

95
 Fig 4-51 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of 15% RHA Mortar

4.13 Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) of Cement, RHA, Fly Ash & Lime

The emitted X-ray has an energy characteristic of the parent element. Detection and
measurement of the energy permits elemental analysis (Energy Dispersive X-ray
Spectroscopy or EDS). Fig 4-52, 4-53, 4-54 and 4-55 are presented the results of cement,
RHA, Fly ash and lime respectively which are obtained by means of scanning electron
microscopy with chemical microanalysis (SEM-EDS). Those results indicate the practical
opportunity to observe changes in the microstructure of cement, RHA, Fly ash and lime.
Cement has high calcium and RHA has more silica than fly ash that means more pozolana.
The chemical values are in mass % and details are given below table 4-4.

Table 4-4 Chemical Properties of RHA, Cement, Fly Ash & Lime

RHA CEMENT Fly Ash Lime

COMPONENT % of Mass
O 68.34 37.53 50.53 56.87
Ai 0.63 0.59 13.84 3.62
Si 28.73 4.71 24.52 3.97
Ca 2.30 57.17 11.12 35.54

96
Fig 4-52 Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) of Cement

97
Fig 4-53 Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) of RHA

98
Fig 4-54 Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) of Fly Ash

99
Fig 4-55 Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) of Lime

100
 CHAPTER 5

5 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 GENERAL

Since the basic objective of this work is to examine the effect of RHA in concrete under
Bangladeshi environment, a several number of tests (both long term and short term) have
been performed in the concrete laboratory.

Specifically, the study intends to determine the effect of rice husk ash when blended with
Portland cement at different dosages. The resulting mixtures is analyzed in terms of several
significant properties of cement paste and concrete, namely, normal consistency of cement
paste, setting time of cement paste, workability of fresh concrete, and compressive strength
of hardened concrete, splitting tensile strength depth of water penetration and shrinkage test
of RHA concrete. The use of RHA in civil construction, besides reducing the environmental
polluter’s factors, may bring several improvements for the concrete properties. Moreover, a
reducing on waste Portland cement was verified, obtaining the same resistance of control
sample.

RHA blended into cement is increased retarder values and increased mortar strength. The
compressive Strength is increased with the addition of RHA within a limit in both brick and
stone aggregate concrete. According to the results of splitting tensile test, all the replacement
degrees of RHA researched, achieve different results but as per as compressive strength its
percentage is increased. The use of RHA concrete is considerably similar to normal concrete
in depth of water penetration test .Thus, concrete containing RHA can be effectively used in
places where the concrete can come in contact with water or moisture. RHA has the potential
to act as an admixture, which increases the strength, workability and pozzolanic properties of
concrete. Thus, the use of RHA in concrete leads to around 8-12% saving in material cost.
So, the addition of RHA in concrete helps in making an economical concrete.

5.2 RESEARCH FINDINGS

The following conclusions can be drawn:

 Rice husk ash addition has contributed to strength improvement of concrete at all
ages.

101
 Performance characteristics of RHA-blended mixtures show significant improvement
up to the 15% RHA level.
 At the 5% RHA level, the mixtures attained strength comparable to that of respective
reference mixtures and showed improved resistance to performance characteristics.
Hence, 5% of ordinary portland concrete can be replaced with rice husk ash without
affecting strength and durability properties.
 A linear relationship exists between measured permeability properties of RHA-
blended concrete irrespective of water binder ratio, age, and cement content.
 The compressive strength of RHA-blended concrete mixtures is well correlated with
resistance to water permeability.
 Considering the maximum strength, cost effectiveness, and performance
characteristics, 15 % replacement of cement by RHA addition is found to be the
optimum dosage in concrete making.
 By the investigation of RHA and fly ash, it is seen that RHA is better with certain
percentage than fly ash and its fineness and prozzolonic properties are better than fly
ash.
 RHA can be used as retarder and up to 15% RHA replacement has a considerable
water requirement. So it better to use up to 15 % of cement replaced by RHA.
 5% RHA concrete has less shrinkable than others and 10 % RHA concrete quite
similar to OPC concrete. RHA concrete has better performance in shrinkage than
OPC concrete.
 In addition, The RHA concrete showed higher compressive strength at various ages in
comparison with that of the concrete without RHA. Also, the RHA concrete had
higher splitting tensile strength in comparison with that of the concrete without RHA.
It is concluded that produced RHA provides a positive effect on the compressive
strength of concretes. 5% RHA concrete has increment of 5% compressive strength
than normal concrete.
 The performance of concrete with cement replacement by RHA is outstanding
considering resistance to water penetrations which are in many cases the most
important characteristic concerning durability and corrosion prevention. RHA
concrete is similar to normal concrete in depth of water penetration. Although
permeability coefficient is higher in RHA concrete than OPC concrete but it is
permissible considerable limit. For most of the cases brick aggregate concrete show
slightly higher depth of penetration and coefficient of permeability than that of stone
aggregate concrete.
 The more Rice Husk Ash that is used in the mix, the lighter the finished concrete
becomes. Replacement up to 15% of cement with Rice Husk Ash causes reduction in
utilization of cement, and expenditures, also can improve quality of concrete at the
age of more than 28 days.

102
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDY

The following recommendations are drawn and there are several areas in which this work can
be extended:

 In future, more batches of different mix to ensure a wide range of compressive

strength should be tested. This will not only increase the number of data but also
enhance the verification of obtained results.
 More field tests can be conducted to assess the effectiveness of using appropriate
technology to grind RHA to make RHA concrete. Different methods of low-tech
grinding can be explored to determine which methods are most suitable for use in
rural areas of developing countries.
 The variation in RHA combustion processes currently employed in Bangladesh can
be investigated to determine the best source for obtaining RHA for use in concrete.
 The effect of water quality on the strength characteristics of RHA concrete produced
in a field setting is another variable that should be studied in future work and water
reactivity of RHA need to be studied.
 Most importantly, the logistics of implementing the use of RHA concrete in
developing country construction should also be investigated to ensure that this low-
cost construction material is helping the people who need it most.
 In order to establish standard specifications on fineness and chemical
compositions more work should be done on RHA concrete and its properties.
 More research should be carried out on the hydration of RHA cement, so that a better
insight can be gained in the chemical reaction process of the ash. Other raw materials
containing slightly higher calcium oxide and alumina could be used to improve the
used of RHA as cement replacement. Different blends of RHA cement with other
prozzolanic materials should be used to investigate their quality as cement replacing
materials (CRM).
 Different blends of RHA cement should be used; the fine aggregate content should be
varied.
 Optimum limit of other admixtures be incorporated with rice husk ash concrete
should be studied.
 Additional studies related to durability, color, and reflectivity, chloride permeability,
acid resistance and other important test of RHA concrete are needed to be
investigated.

103
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 APPENDIX A

Percentage of shrinkage : Sample calculation

Length Change—Calculate the length change of any specimen at any age after the initial
comparator reading as follows:

∆ Lx = (CRD- initial CRD)/GX100

Where,
Lx = length change of specimen at any age, %,
CRD = difference between the comparator reading of the specimen and the reference bar at
any age, and
G =the gage length (10 in. [250 mm])

For 0% cement replaced by RHA at 3 days

Here, concrete with brick chips having target strength 34 Mpa,

For each sample 3 concrete bars is being measured

Initial CRD at 1 day

For deflectometer-1

Reading from starter = 1.826 mm

Reading from mold = 2.54 mm

Difference in reading = 0.714 mm

For deflectometer-2

Reading from starter = 1.38 mm

Reading from mold = 1.974 mm

Difference in reading = 0.594 mm

CRD at 3 days

For deflectometer-1

Reading from starter = 1.818 mm

Reading from mold = 2.546 mm

Difference in reading = 0.728 mm

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For deflectometer-2

Reading from starter = 1.39 mm

Reading from mold = 1.988 mm

Difference in reading = 0.598 mm

For deflectometer-1

% shrinkage at 3 days = (0.598 -0.594)/250x100 = 0.0016 %

For deflectometer-2

% shrinkage at 3 days = (0.728 -0.714)/250x100 = 0.0056 %

Average % shrinkage =(0.0016+ 0.0056)/2=0.0036 %

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 APPENDIX B

Permeability Calculation: Sample calculation

K= e2v/2ht
Where,
e = depth of penetration of concrete in metres,
h = hydraulic head in metres,
t = time under pressure in seconds, and
v = the fraction of the volume of concrete occupied by pores (Typically, v lies between 0.02
and 0.06) (J.Vuorinen, 1985)

Brick aggregate concrete

k = m/sec.
Here,
e= depth of penetration of concrete = 30 mm = 0.03 m

h= hydraulic head = 50 m
t= time under pressure = 72 h = 72x60x60 s = 259200 sec
v= the fraction of the volume of concrete = 0.06 (J.Vuorinen, 1985)
Therefore,

k = (0.032x0.06)/(2x50x259200) = 2.08x10‐12 m/s

Stone aggregate concrete

k = m/sec.
Here,
e= depth of penetration of concrete = 26 mm = 0.026 m
h= hydraulic head = 50 m
t= time under pressure = 72 h = 72x60x60 s = 259200 s
v= the fraction of the volume of concrete = 0.06 (J.Vuorinen, 1985)
Therefore,
k = (0.0262x0.06)/(2x50x259200) = 1.56x10‐12 m/s

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