Unit 1: Vessels

Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

Vessels and Operations

Goals for this Unit:

• Being able to explain features of different types of vessels.

• Getting familiar with specific characteristics of different types of vessels.
• Learning technical vocabulary related to vessels.
• Being able to explain what type of operations a certain vessel is for.

Shipping, if we remember the basics, is a derived need.

The only reason we have vessels is because there is
Starting Point: something (cargo) to move from one place to another.
Consequently, vessels are tools being used for specific
1. What type of needs and conditions. Thus, for example, there are
vessels do you megaships that transport cargo from one continent to
know? another (be it dry-cargo or liquid-cargo) in quite a
convenient way. However, those same giant vessels will
not have an outstanding performance, or might even not
work at all, if used to service small ports along a coastal
2. Describe a line.
vessel you know
well.

3. Why do we have
so many
different types of
vessels?

1
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

1. Discuss the following questions related to the previous text.

1. Why do you think huge vessels might not work for cabotage?
2. Do you think it’s better to have really specialized vessels or more multifunction
ones?
3. What factors, in your opinion, could be decisive when choosing a vessel?
4. Are all vessels equally difficult to service in terms of bunkering?
5. What type of problems/challenges might different types of vessels present
during a bunkering service?
6. The place a vessel chooses for the bunkering services depends on its
characteristics or on other factors?

2. Look at the following technical vocabulary. State what you know about each term.

Crew wages Spares (spare parts) P&I insurance

Lubricants Sundries Registration costs

Provisions Operating costs DWT

Maintenance OpCost Drydock costs

Victualling In-water Survey

2
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

3. The following table of “Opcosts” includes technical terms and related vocabulary that will
greatly help you throughout the content of this unit.

Crew costs Crew wages Special working allowance, seniority pay, payroll.

Provisions Victualling.

Crew other Crew agency fee, crew change, crew costs, crew life assurance,
establishment costs, hold cleaning, housekeeping, laundry, leave
pay, manning, movement, representation, restaurant and bar,
social contributions, training, union fees, watchman, working
clothes.

Stores Lubricating oils Oils for the main engine, auxiliary engines and other equipment
on board.

Stores other Chemicals, consumables, engine stores, fresh water, new

equipment, purchasing, sea stock paints, ship stores, steward
stores, supplies.

Repairs and Spares Charts & nautical, deck machinery, freight & forwarding, main &
Maintenance auxiliary engine, other spares.

Repairs & Accommodation upgrading, equipment hire, equipment,

Maintenance improvements, radio & electronic maintenance, renewal class
(R&M) certificates, rentals, safety audit, safety program, ship
certificates, sludge, special, technical assistance expenses,
welding.

Insurance P&I insurance Club calls, freight, demurrage and defense calls.

Marine insurance Contractual liability, drug seizure, excess oil pollution, hull &
machinery, insurance, loss of earnings, war risks.

Insurance claims, insurance deductible, insurance irrecoverable,

off hire.

Administration Registration costs Annual ship registration fees and national authorities fees.

Management fees Fees for both in-house management services and management
contracted out to a third party are included. Management fees for
technical management, crew management and insurance
arrangements are included.

Sundry expenses Administration, agency fee, bank charges, communications,

general costs, legal & professional expense, miscellaneous non-
voyage expenses, OPA 90 expense, total owners agreed
expenses, travelling costs, unbudgeted items.

3
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

4. Discuss the following questions. Try to use as much technical vocabulary as you can.

a. From the table on the previous page, where would you locate the greatest
expenses related to Opcosts? Why?
b. Do you think crew management is a big challenge, or just as difficult as it would be
in any other trade?
c. Where would you say the main costs related to your companies’ vessels are?
d. In your opinion, is there anything your company can do to reduce Opcosts?
e. Where or under what heading would you include the cost of bunkers?
f. Is the cost of bunkers offered by your competitors relatively similar to yours?
g. In case the cost is similar, what added-value does your company offer?

5. Vocabulary review: look at the following technical terms. Write a definition using your own
words.

Berth

Dumping

Stowage

Mooring/Unmooring

Cargo

Towing

Demurrage

Break-bulk Carriers

4
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

6. Look at the following list of vessels. Explain what you know about each of them. What
common characteristics could you mention?

Bulk Carriers Oil Industry Vessels Specialist ships

Barges Cruise Ships Fishing Vessels

Auto Carriers Tankers Passenger Ships

Container Ships Break-bulk Carriers Ferries

Tow and Tug Boats Reefer Vessels

7. Answer the following questions:

a. Which of the vessels in the previous box are the most common?
b. Which would you say are the most specialized ones?
c. Which would you regard as the most dangerous ones?
d. If you had to choose one or two types of vessels to work in during the next five
years, which ones would you select? Why?
e. Have you ever been on aboard one of these types of vessels?
f. Which would you say are the ones that pollute more? Why?
g. In your opinion, which type of vessel will be impacted by technology in the future?
How?

5
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

Container Ships
8. Look at the following table about container ship seize:

• Do you think container ships will continue increasing their seize in the future?
• What type of positive and negative consequences do you think bigger vessels could
cause?
• How efficient do you think these vessels are compared to other types of cargo transport?
• Which are the biggest vessels your company services?

6
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

9. Watch the following video (The creation of container) about containers. Write down any
technical terms that might call your attention or questions that you may have.

10. Now answer the following questions about the video:

a. How did the use of containers change international trade?

b. What would be the average life of a container? Why?
c. How would you describe the purpose of containers?
d. What is “intermodal” system?
e. What are the three standard measures of containers?
f. Do you think containers could be replaced in the future?
g. According to the video, what was the very first version of containers?

7
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

11. Here we have some interesting facts about container vessels. Take a look at them and
provide your opinion:

• A large container ship engine has about 1,000 times more power than a
family car.

• The gantry cranes that load and unload container ships can be 430 feet
tall and weigh up to 2,000 tons.

• Container ships are technologically advanced. A good example is the

computer software that enables precise planning for the loading and
unloading of containers and keeps the vessel balanced by increasing
and decreasing ballast at the touch of a button.

• A recent study by Lloyd’s Register found that the fuel efficiency of

container ships (4,500 TEU capacity) has improved 35% between 1985
and 2008.

• It is estimated that on average a container ship emits around 40 times

less CO2 than a large freight aircraft and over three times less than a
heavy truck.

• Container shipping is estimated to be two and a half times more energy

efficient than rail and 7 times more so than road.

• Weekly safety and fire drill sessions take place for all crewmembers
when the vessel is at sea to make sure that they are practiced for any
real emergencies.

12. Discuss the following questions:

a. What is the process to place a container on a container vessel?

b. What type of safety measures are essential within a container vessel?
c. Can you mention some technical terms related to containers?
d. How does a container vessel keep balance facing rough weather conditions?

8
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

13. Take a look at the following pictures and explanations. Pay close attention to technical
vocabulary and formulate as many questions as you can.

• A container is loaded and then brought to the port by a trucking company. Bringing
containers to the port or from the port is called "drayage".

• The most common containers are 20 and 40 foot dry containers. There are
refers (refrigerated), high cube, 45 foot, flat racks, open top, open side, liquid and many
other specialty containers available for every conceivable cargo load.

• Once the designated ship has arrived, the

container is brought to the ships side by a
special chassis and cab called a bomb
cart (photo on the side). At most ports
container movement is computer
controlled. It is necessary to place each
container in its correct position on the ship
based on important factors such as
container weight and the port
designated for off loading.

• The container gantry crane attaches

to the container and lifts it off the
truck. The truck drives out from under
the container. The container is held at
the truck flat bed height for attachment
of the securing fittings.

• Depending on the ship configuration

and if the container will be secured
above decks or below the hatch
covers the Stevedores (1 on each end of the container) take the proper container fitting
out of the flat rack twistlock bins and attach them to the container corners.

9
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

14. Take a look at the following vocabulary box. These terms will greatly help you understand
the video you’ll watch next. If you don’t know any of these terms, try to locate them in the
video and understand them first using the context.

Crane Consolidated TEU

Pre-Check Clerk RTG Crane Stack / Pile

Dockside Machine House

Hoist Trolley.

15. Watch the following video about the port of Baltimore and its cargo operations. Take
notes on the aspects that call your attention or on any questions you may have.

10
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

16. Discuss the following questions, then take a look at the process below. Make sure you
understand all technical terms.

a. How do containers stay in place within the ship?

b. What sort of mechanisms do we use to secure containers?
c. Where are containers placed once they are loaded onboard?

• The first "tier" of containers that are carried

abovedeck are secured to deck sockets
using "twist-locks." In the photo, you see
one container locked to the deck using a
twistlock, and, in the foreground, a twist-lock
with no container on it. When you slide the
lever to the locked position, the container
is fairly well connected to the ship.

• Notice also in the photo that there are two

threaded thingamajigs that are connected to "padeyes" on the deck. These are part of
the "lashing rods", and are used to add additional strength to the stacks.

• In the following picture we can see

lashing rods connecting the bottom
corners of the second tier of
containers to the deck. In short,
one end of the rod is hooked into
the container, one end to the deck,
and the threaded "turnbuckle" is
tightened.

• For higher tiers, normal twist-locks

become difficult or impossible to
use. For these containers, we
usually use some sort of automatic
twist-lock. These are generally
attached right after the container is raised from the pier. When placed on top of another

11
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

container, the auto twist-lock pops into the locked position. Then, when unloading
that container, it can be switched to the unlocked position using a long pole with a hook.

• For containers stowed inside the holds,

things are usually much easier. Most ships
have cells (vertical slots made by long metal
rails) in the cargo holds, that do most of the
work of keeping containers from sliding side-
to-side. Additionally, the bottom tier will be
twist-locked to the deck, and "stacking
cones" (a super-simplified version of a twist-
lock that doesn't twist or lock) do the rest of
the work.

• The cargo officer (typically the Chief

Officer/Chief Mate) is responsible for
ensuring that the containers are secured in
accordance with a plan (in the US, we call it
the "Cargo Securing Manual") developed by
a naval architect and authorized by the
government (in our case, the US Coast
Guard).

• Some estimates state that 10,000 containers

end up in the ocean every year, including
containers that are on ships that sink. This is out of about 200 million container
movements by ship each year. So, it's rare, but conscientious mates always keep in mind
that it could happen, and spend a fair amount of time checking and rechecking the stacks
during a voyage.

17. Now watch the following video about “how containers are loaded”. Pay attention to the
difference between placing containers in the holds and abovedeck. Take notes on any
questions that might call your attention.

12
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

Bulk Carriers

1. What is a bulk carrier? Why are they important within the maritime industry?
2. In what aspects would you say a bulk carrier is different to a container vessel?
3. In your own experience, how is it different to service a container vessel and a bulk carrier
in terms of bunkers?
4. If you had the chance of boarding a container ship and a bulk carrier, which of the two
would you prefer? Why?

5. Look at the following types of bulk carriers and their features

(reference: http://stockcargo.eu/es/types-of-bulk-carriers-ship-blogarticle/)

Mini Bulk Carrier

Employed mostly, in short sea

shipping trades, or as coastal
trade, serving also as feeder
vessels to large ships, carrying
limited quantities of bulk cargoes
generally to smaller ports without
restriction-on size of vessel.
Some can load in river
terminals if draught is suitable.

DWT, Length, Draught, Cargo

Cargo Type
Deadweight (m) (m) Holds
3000-14,999 up to-130 Less than 10 1-3 Varies of Dry cargo, including Containers

13
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

Handysize, Bulker
Medium size, can carry cargoes
to many ports, may carry
considerable variety and
quantity of cargoes.
Traditionally together with
Handymax, the workhorses of
the dry bulk market, the
Handy and more recent
Handymax types remain
popular ships with less than
60,000 DWT. Both Handysize
and Handymax carriers are ideal for shipments of different cargoes from smaller
ports.

DWT, Length, Draught, Cargo

Cargo Type
Deadweight (m) (m) Holds
15,000- 130- Cereals, Coal, Steels, Cement, Potash, Rice, Sugar, Gypsum, Forest
10 5
34,999 150 Products, Scrap, Sulfur, Salt, Vehicles

Handymax, with cranes

Both Handysize and
Handymax carriers are ideal
for shipments of different
cargoes from smaller ports.
Though certain bulk terminal
restrictions such as those in
Japan mean that many
Handymax ships are just
under 190 meters in overall
length. Compared to very
large bulk freighter;
handysize and handymax can
transport a greater variety of cargo types.

DWT, Length, Draught, Cargo

Cargo Type
Deadweight (m) (m) Holds
35,000- 150- Cereals, Coal, Steels, Cement, Potash, Rice, Sugar, Gypsum, Forest
11-12 5
59,999 200 Products, Logs, Wood chips, Scrap, Sulfur, Salt, Vehicles

14
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

Panamax
The dimensions of these ships are
determined by the dimensions of
the lock chambers, and the
depth of the water in the
Panama Canal. Largest vessel
that can go through the locks of
the Panama canal – breadth 32.2
m, LOA 289.5 m, Draught not
more than 12 m.A Panamax
vessel shouldn’t exceed these
dimensional, in order to easily
and safely fit to the lock chambers and the height of the Bridge of Americas at
Balboa. More than 90% of the spot fixtures are based on Voyage-charter.
Average size of Panamax is 65,000 DWT, and could carry about 55,000T of coal.

DWT, Length, Draught, Cargo

Cargo Type
Deadweight (m) (m) Holds
60,000- 200- Oil seeds, Grains, Bauxite, Coal, Iron Ore, Phosphate, Gypsum,
13-15 6-7
79,999 230 Wood chips, Wood Pellets, Sulfur

Capesize
Capesize bulk carriers are the
biggest common bulk carrier.
Vessel is too big to cross the
Panama or Suez canals. Known
as Capesize vessels because
they have to go around the
Cape of Good Hope or Cape
Horn. Due to the large size,
only big harbors are able to
accommodate this super huge
class in fully loaded condition.

Subcategory: Suezmax, with maximum capacity of 150,000DWT, The largest

vessel that can pass through the Suez canal. The maximum allowed Draught of the
Suez canal is currently 18.90 m (62 feet).

Length, Draught, Cargo

DWT, Deadweight Cargo Type
(m) (m) Holds
80,000-179,999 230-270 17 9 Oil seeds, Cereals, Grains, Coal, Iron Ore

15
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

6. Answer the following comprehension and vocabulary questions about the types of bulk
carriers you just saw in the previous pages:

a. What are mini bulk carriers normally used for?

b. What’s the maximum length of a mini bulk carrier?
c. Can you mention some types of cargo a handysize bulker can carry?
d. How would you define or explain “draught”?
e. What’s the top length for a handymax?
f. According to the info on the previous pages, what would be the maximum draught
for the Panama Canal?
g. How would you explain what a “hold” is?
h. How many holds does a Panamax have?
i. What happens to vessels bigger than the Panamax type?
j. What’s the average size of a Panamax?
k. If the Panama or Suez Canals are such convenient routes of transport, why do you
think we have vessels which are too big to use these connection points?
l. What size (DWT) is the largest vessel that can pass through the Suez Canal?
m. Have you ever serviced one of these types of bulk carriers?

7. Choose one type of bulk carrier and make a brief presentation. Make sure you talk about
its characteristics and benefits.

8. Over to you…

a. Why do you think some countries (ex. Japan) restrict or limit the size of vessels
accessing their ports?
b. To service (bunkering) the big bulk carriers, can you use any method (RTW, pipes
and barges), or are there some restrictions because of the size of the vessels?

16
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

Tankers

• How would you explain what a “tanker” is?

• What types of tanker ships can you mention?
• Have you ever been on board a tanker?
• How do you think a bunkering operation in a tanker vessel would be different from one in a
bulk carrier?
• What type of vessel do you think needs more crew members: a tanker, a container ship or
a bulk carrier? Why?
• Would you like to work in a tanker?
• What could be dangerous about a tanker ship?

The design of tankers

Ships are designed at ship design offices or at the
design offices in shipyards, by naval architects,
marine engineers, and other engineers and
technicians. These design professionals develop
the arrangement and hull form of the tanker and
apply the CSR and engineering design principles
and techniques to determine the ship’s scantlings.
The classification society rules serve as a minimum
standard.

• How difficult do you think designing a vessel

could be?
• What type of factors do you think engineers must consider when designing a ship?

• CSR: Common Structural Rules. These are rules covering structural requirements for
Bulk Carriers and Tankers.
• Scantling: scantling refers to the collective dimensions of the framing to which planks
or plates are attached to form the hull. The word is most often used in the plural to
describe how much structural strength in the form of girders, I-beams, etc. is in a given
section. The scantling length refers to the structural length of a ship

17
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

Ship owners may specify increased scantlings with the intent that maintenance costs will be
reduced over the vessel’s life. The loads on a ship structure include:

• static loads (weight of structure, sea pressure, tank pressure, etc.)

• dynamic loads (forces arising from the ship’s motions),
• sloshing loads (forces due to the motion of liquids within tanks)
• impact loads (e.g. wave impact loads and bow slamming).

The CSR describes in detail how loads

are to be determined and the phase
relationship between loads. Prescriptive
formulas are provided dictating minimum
scantlings that must be satisfied.
Scantlings are then verified applying
finite element analysis to confirm that
stresses, deflections and resistance to
buckling are within specified criteria.

• Now, how would you explain, in your own words, what scantling is?
• How much do you think is the useful life time of a bulk carrier or tanker?
• Why would you say such a detailed analysis of the “loads” is necessary?

Use your own words to define the following technical words:

• Loads:

• Stress:

• Hull form:

• CSR:

18
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

Crude oil and petroleum products have been carried in ships for more than 100 years. The
practice of carrying the oil directly inside the single hull of a ship has been common since this
type of ship was first built in 1886. The hull provided far better security for the cargo than barrels,
or casks, which could split and spill oil, creating fire and explosion hazards.

Tanker designs established in

the late 1880s remained
virtually unchanged until shortly
after World War II. Tankers
commonly were of 10,000 to
15,000 DWT, with a single
skin, the engine to the stern,
and multiple compartmentation
with either two or three tanks
across. Cargoes were usually
refined products, most often
light or "white" oils, which were
not considered polluting as
they rapidly evaporated if
spilled. The non-polluting cargo
meant that tanks could be rinsed out with water (which then was dumped at sea), and the same
tanks could be used for ballast (sea water).

Separate ballast tanks, other than the peak tanks (at the ends of the ship), were virtually
unheard-of until after World War II.

After the war, the world economy expanded with a resulting huge increase in demand for
energy in the form of oil. At the same time, a new shipping pattern evolved: Crude oil often was
transported from distant sources, such as the Persian Gulf, to major marketing areas, notably
North America, Northern Europe, and Japan, where the crude was refined and redistributed as
product. These long voyages set the stage for a dramatic increase in ship size, which
started about 1950. Between 1950 and 1975, the largest tanker in the world grew from about
25,000 DWT to over 500,000 DWT. The numbers of tankers in the world fleet also multiplied
many times over.

19
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

Meanwhile, significant technical developments were afoot, including the following:

• Welding replaced riveting, a major benefit to the tanker industry in assuring tightness of
tanks. The practice initially led to some cracking, and ships breaking in half, but these
problems were solved with better materials, welding, and design.

• The empirical, or rule-of-thumb, design approach was augmented and partially

supplanted by theoretical techniques. This trend was facilitated by the introduction of
computers in the 1950s and 1960s, and, in fact, was necessitated by the growth in ship
size from vessels of around 500 feet to over 1,400 feet, with an increase in deadweight of
over twenty-fold in less than 20 years.

• While the basic types of static and dynamic forces acting on ship structure had been
known in general for years, it was not until the 1960s that naval architects were able
to quantify the loads precisely and to carry out the stress analysis needed to design
ships on a theoretically sophisticated basis. By the 1970s, reliable theoretical
quantification of loads and structural response was common for tankers; however,
practical service experience remains vital to verify structural integrity and detail design.

• As newer design techniques were introduced, "safety factors" (design allowances for
unknown factors) were reduced, in the desire to keep costs down and to get
maximum deadweight for minimum draft (the depth of water a vessel draws). The
significant reduction in ratio of lightweight (ship weight without cargo, crew, fuel, or stores)
to deadweight directly reduces the cost of a ship per ton of cargo; this means a ship can
carry more cargo for a given draft. It also implies more efficient structure, and, in general,
less margin to tolerate construction or maintenance errors or unusual operational events.

• Structural weight reductions were accompanied by a reduction in the number (and

resulting increase in size) of compartments; the intent was to lower construction cost
and simplify operations.

20
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

9. Answer the following questions based on the text you have just read.

• Briefly explain the difference between a single hull and a double hull in the case of
tankers. Why was this improvement introduced?
• What event prompted the expansion of the tanker fleet and the increase in ship size?
• Can you mention some of the technical developments introduced in the design of tankers?
• How would you explain the following phrase: “get maximum deadweight for minimum
draft”?
• What is the difference between lightweight and deadweight?

TABLE 2-1 Reduction in Tanker Lightweight to Deadweight Over Time

Years Deadweight Approximate lightweight LW/DW

1940s 16,500 (T-Z) 6,000 .36
1950s 50,000 12,000 .24
1960s 100,000 27,000 .27
1960s 200,000 (VLCC) 30,000 .15
1970s 300,000 40,000 .13
1970s 500,000 65,000 .13

As tanker design practices evolved, problems, of course, periodically surfaced. Among the more
significant problems was buckling of internal structures, encountered in larger tankers in the
late 1960s and early 1970s. The solution was use of more precise finite element and more
sophisticated frame analysis techniques. The most dramatic problem from the industry standpoint
was explosions, especially after three VLCCs exploded (two were total losses) in one week
in 1969. The solution was inert gas systems which were mandated by international agreement for
progressively smaller ships during the 1970s.

In sum, there are two key features of modern structural design of tankers. First, introduction of
new stress analysis techniques (employing finite element analysis and three-dimensional
frame analysis) have permitted reductions in the structural weight. This in turn has led to a
substantial reduction in cost (steel, measured by weight, is a major component in ship cost), and

21
 Unit 1: Vessels
Real Time: English for the Port Industry – Bunkers 2 and Operations

a modest increase in cargo-carrying capability. Second, improved welding and steel-making

techniques have led to increased use of high-strength steel in tanker hulls, with attendant
economic benefits. Even with these more sophisticated methods, however, ship design still must
be conservative because loads never can be precisely predicted for all environments.

The exact design of a tanker vessel depends on many factors. There are 10 basic ship
characteristics that must be considered:

• ship dimensions
• hull form
• machinery size, type, and location
• speed and endurance
• cargo capacity and deadweight
• accommodations arrangements
• cargo/ballast tanks arrangements
• subdivision and stability accommodations
• relative amounts of mild or high-tensile steel
• basic scantling and structural arrangement

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r8p5iSHmSBY (video on how tankers are built)

22