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RETURN OF THE

BUDDHA
RETURN OF THE

BUDDHA
THE QINGZHOU DISCOVERIES

ROYAL ACADEMY OF ARTS


26 April – 14 July 2002
Supported by the RA Exhibition Patrons Group

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE EXHIBITION


Written by Olivia Callea
for the Education Department

© Royal Academy of Arts, 2002

On the cover: Cat. 18 Seated Buddha, Northern Qi dynasty (550–577)


Limestone, h. 64 cm. Qingzhou Municipal Museum, Shandong Province
Photo © The State Administration of Cultural Heritage, People’s Republic of China

Designed by Maggi Smith. Printed by Burlington


CONTENTS

ICONOGRAPHIC ILLUSTRATIONS 2

INTRODUCTION 4

THE DISCOVERY 4

CHINESE SOCIETY 5

CHINESE PHILOSOPHIES AND RELIGIONS 6

Confucianism 6

Daoism (Taoism) 6

Buddhism 6

The Spread of Buddhism in China 7

BUDDHIST ART AND SCULPTURE 7

Why were the sculptures made and who commissioned them? 8

How would these statues have been used for worship? 8

Why were the sculptures buried? 9

CONCLUSION 9

COMMENTS ON THE PLATES 10

Characteristics of the sculptures in this exhibition 10

GLOSSARY 21

BIBLIOGRAPHY 21
ICONOGRAPHIC ILLUSTRATIONS

BODHISATTVA

Hair knot
C. faji
Crown or diadem
C. baoguan

Necklace
C. xiangquan

Chest cloth
C. seng qizhi Stole
C. tianyi

Pearl chain
C. yingluo

Ornamental side sash Fan


C. kundai ‘Peach-shaped object’
C. taoxingqu

Stole
C. tianyi
Lower garment
C. shangqun

Lotus blossom- or
capsule-shaped pedestal
C. liantai

C. Chinese
S. Sanskrit

Iconographic Illustrations
© Museum Rietberg Zürich
Head nimbus BUDDHA
C. touguang

Protuberance
¯
C. rouji, S. ushnisha

Robe
C. shangzhuoyi,
S. uttarāsanga
Chest cloth
C. yanyeyi,
S. samkakshikā
Sash
C. dai, S. katisūtra

Mantle
C. jiasha, S. kashāya

Robe
C. shangzhuoyi,
S. uttarāsanga

Lower-body undergarment
C. neiyi, S. antarvāsa
INTRODUCTION
This exhibition of thirty-five Chinese Buddhist sculptures at the Royal Academy of Arts is the result of CE: Common Era
a chance discovery made by a group of construction workers in the city of Qingzhou, in the BCE: Before Common Era
northeastern province of Shandong. These extremely rare statues, made in the sixth century CE during a
period of much political and religious turmoil, are now considered to be among the 100 most significant CE and BCE correspond to
cultural monuments of China. Although the exceptionally fine statues of this exhibition are from the AD and BC, respectively,
grounds of the Longxing (Dragon Rise) Temple, more than a thousand such works have been found in and they may be employed,
the surroundings of Qingzhou. There have been a few other discoveries of Buddhist figures in other as in this case, when it is
parts of China, but neither the number of objects nor the artistic quality of these objects can equal those more appropriate to use a
of the figures from Qingzhou. non-Christian dating system.
During the first century CE, Buddhism arrived in China from India via Central Asia and brought
with it new intellectual and representational traditions. The Buddhist monks and the pilgrims who The term ‘Chinese’ as it is
travelled back and forth during this period enriched Chinese society and culture in a number of ways. used in the text refers to the
Han people, the dominant
Although China was in upheaval, or perhaps because of this unrest, the period from the fourth to the
ethnic constituent of China.
eighth century represents the golden age of Buddhism and of Buddhist sculpture.

THE DISCOVERY
The statues in the exhibition come from the northeastern province of Shandong, an area of economic
and political significance for several millennia. Shandong lay at the end of the Silk Road. The province
is dominated by the Yellow River which, as well as providing fertile agricultural land, serves as a
navigable link to the sea. To the south and west, the province is bordered by almost barren mountain
ranges, which stretch to the faraway mountain Taishan. Map of China (according to
In October 1996, workers levelling the sports field of the Shefan Primary School in Qingzhou official Chinese point of view)
Designed by Elizabeth Hefti
discovered a large pit filled with broken sculptures. This school was adjacent to the Qingzhou and Thomas Humm
Municipal Museum and, fortunately, once the museum staff were called in, they reacted with great © Museum Rietberg Zürich

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speed to save the statues from being pillaged and sold. Within ten days the staff had removed fragments
of around 400 statues. The haste of the excavation may have created some evidentiary problems, but it
certainly saved the statues from being dispersed. However, the main figure of the temple, which was
reputedly 12 metres high, was not found in the hoard.
In the pit, figures and steles (upright stone tablets) had been deposited in several layers, with the
better-preserved ones in the middle, surrounded by fragments and broken pieces. Smaller pieces and
heads of the Buddha (one who has attained enlightenment) and bodhisattvas (beings who have delayed
enlightenment to assist others in their quest for salvation) were found lining the wall of the pit. There
were 200 intact torsi, 144 Buddha heads and 46 bodhisattva heads. The majority of statues were made
from fine-grained limestone, which is still quarried in the area surrounding Qingzhou. At the bottom of
the pit, there were also fragments of marble, granite, cast iron and lacquered wood, as well as low-fired
earthenware and unfired clay. A white porcelain bowl dating from the Northern Song dynasty
(960–1127), three stone steles with su-tra inscriptions (from the holy Buddhist scriptures) and 119 coins
were found. The dates of the coins and the ceramic bowl suggest that the pit was closed in the first half
of the twelfth century. However, it is thought that the majority of the figures in the pit and in this
exhibition were carved much earlier, in the sixth century under the late Northern Wei (386–534),
Eastern Wei (534–550) and Northern Qi (550–577) dynasties.
The statues were found in what is now believed to be the site of the Longxing Temple, a monastery
which is thought to have been founded before 425. The temple is likely to have been of considerable
size; evidence suggests that a pagoda and various halls once stood there. After 1461 there were no more
references to the Longxing Temple, which may have burned down.

CHINESE SOCIETY
China has a recorded history of over 4000 millennia. From the third century BCE when the first emperor
unified China, it possessed an imperial system of government, which lasted until 1911. From the Han
dynasty period (206 BCE – 220 CE) onwards, political power was highly centralised. While successive
emperors were not tied to any organised religion, they asserted that their right to rule was bestowed by
‘heaven’s mandate’. Dynasties rose and fell through military action but the imperial state structure
endured through all these changes. The country was governed by a meritocratic bureaucracy of highly
literate administrators selected for their individual learning and ability. The government was separated
into three discrete hierarchies: the general administrative departments responsible for ritual, taxation,
justice and diplomatic relations; the military; and the censorate, which oversaw the other departments.
While China was ethnically, linguistically and economically diverse, it possessed a common script
from 1300 BCE, which served as a means of promoting a certain cultural unity. The character-based
script could be read by all those who had learned it, though different regions pronounced the ideograms
differently.
Although initially agrarian, China became an important, highly organised and efficient commercial
power during the Han dynasty. Salt, gold and fine silks were traded as far west as the Roman empire and
throughout southeast Asia. Because of its wealth, China was an attractive prize for the non-Chinese
nomadic people on its borders who took advantage of the periodic internal unrest. As the Han dynasty
began to wane, China suffered the Period of Disunity, a time marked by war, famine and mass
deportations. Han rule, which held a unified China, was replaced by a series of kingdoms led by non-
Chinese, which blended the governmental and military traditions of the nomads with those of the Chinese.
In 316 CE, a small tribe of nomadic herdsmen from southern Manchuria, the Toba, who had settled
in southeastern Mongolia, were given some land in north China as part of an alliance with the now-
settled Eastern Chin dynasty. By launching a series of offensives, the alliance succeeded in unifying
northern China in the first half of the fifth century. It adopted the name of Northern Wei and followed an
aggressive policy of state intervention in the control and distribution of the population. State employees
were practically kept prisoner in their workshops and farmers were controlled by a military-type
organisation. Above all, the Wei made use of deportation to populate the area around their capital,
Datong (west of Shandong).

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As the Northern Wei’s empire grew, so the need arose for the sophistication of Chinese institutions
and advisors. The capital was moved to Luoyang on the Yellow River in 494 CE. By the end of the fifth
century, as a result of the growing importance of agricultural revenues, the non-Chinese ruling elite
developed an increasing taste for luxury; Chinese culture and its crafts became fashionable, as did its
religion, Buddhism. The Toba’s traditional equestrian attire was forbidden and replaced by Chinese
mantles and robes. The use of Chinese family names and intermarriage with the Chinese was also
encouraged.
The initial warlike traditions of the Toba people became a thing of the past. A fervour for Buddhism,
characterised by lavish spending on outward display, took hold of high society. Buddhist monasteries
and towers rose everywhere, furnished with bells and statues. The city of Luoyang became the greatest
centre of Buddhism in east Asia.
In 523, the nomad armies, guarding the empire against incursions from the steppes, rebelled and,
after ten years of civil war, formed the Eastern Wei kingdom. This kingdom was hostile to Han Chinese
culture and intent on maintaining nomadic traditions. In 550 power was usurped again and the
Northern Qi dynasty (550 –77) which followed was formed along the same anti-Chinese lines.

CHINESE PHILOSOPHIES AND RELIGIONS


When Buddhism first arrived in China there was no organised religion with scriptures, monasteries and
clerics. Rather, there were sophisticated philosophies which evolved into more formal ‘religions’ as a
result of its influence.
At this time, China’s primary belief systems defined man’s relationship to his society through
ancestor worship. Through the ancestor’s intercessions, appeasement of the gods and spirits was sought.
The great philosophies of Confucianism and Daoism existed alongside these beliefs.

Confucianism
Confucius (551– 479 BCE) was a contemporary of Siddha-rta Gautama (he was the ‘historical’ Buddha –
see under ‘Buddhism’) in India (c. 563 BCE – 480 BCE) and a predecessor of the Greeks Plato (429–347
BCE) and Aristotle (384 –321 BCE). Confucius sought a rationale for a structured society
and his teachings emphasised the need for cosmic order. He posited a hierarchy of superior/inferior
relationships: parents were superior to children, men to women, and rulers to subjects. If everyone
performed the role assigned, then the social order would be sustained. He also emphasised the natural
equality of men at birth, believing that man was by nature good, possessed an innate moral sense,
and was perfectible through education.

Daoism (Taoism)
Dao means ‘the path’ and the main philosophical text is the Dao De Jing (also often seen spelt as Tao Te
Ching), which is attributed to Lao Tzu. Daoism is a philosophy of passivity, or ‘action by inaction’ which
teaches following one’s unadulterated inner nature and accepting without struggle the experiences of
life. It was seen as a reservoir of popular lore and an escape from Confucianism, and was characterised
by a belief in unseen spirits of nature, cosmology, animism, alchemy, early medicine, mysticism and
ancient magic, the search for the elixir of immortality, and for the Isles of the Blessed (paradise).

Buddhism
Buddhism originated in India in the fifth century BCE. Its founder was Siddha-rta (his given name)
Gautama (the clan name) (c. 563 BCE – 480 BCE). He was the son of the chief of the Sha-kya tribe,
whose territory straddled the modern India–Nepal border (hence he was also known as Sha-kyamuni –
the sage of the Sha-kyas). He renounced his life of privilege after being moved by the suffering of all life
forms trapped in the cycle of life, death and rebirth. After years of asceticism and meditation, he
achieved nirvana, the release from the cycle of existence, or, put another way, ‘the blowing out of the
fires of longing and attachment’. He was given the name Buddha (‘the awakened one’) upon attaining
this spiritual enlightenment. The historical Buddha Sha-kyamuni is regarded as one of a series of

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countless Buddhas of infinite worlds of the past and future. ‘Buddhas are as numerous as there are grains
of sand on the banks of the river Ganges.’
- - na (the Lesser Path), Maha-ya-na
Three main movements developed within Buddhism: Hinaya
(the Great Path) and Esoteric Buddhism. These movements have a variety of doctrines, practices and
philosophic paths. Most share as their ultimate goal the attainment of nirvana. The majority of believers
adhere to the middle way, the path between extreme asceticism and sumptuous living advocated,
according to tradition, by the Buddha himself. (Maha-ya-na was the version of the ‘middle way’ that was
-
popular in China during this period because it was more inclusive than Hinaya - na, allowing one to attain

nirvana without renouncing worldly pleasures. It emphasises the Buddha-nature in all things; everything
already is the Buddha-nature, and has only to realise what it is to attain nirvana.) The flexible nature of
Buddhism and absence of a single doctrinal authority enabled the religion to flourish in varied cultures,
and its adaptation to indigenous cultures contributed to its diversity.

The Spread of Buddhism in China


Buddhism was known in China in the second century BCE but was not established until the first century
CE. It probably came to China along the caravan routes of the Silk Road. As a result of this, central Asian
painting and sculpture influenced the Buddhist art that would be produced in China.
There are many legends surrounding Buddhism’s arrival in China. Historical texts state that the
Emperor Ming of the Eastern Han dynasty (57–75 CE) had a dream in which he saw a divine figure.
The body of the figure gleamed like gold and behind its head there was a halo resembling the shining
sun. The emperor’s advisors suggested that this might be a deity known in the west as the Buddha.
The Emperor sent his emissaries to India in search of this god. The emissaries had the Holy Scriptures
copied and a statue of Buddha Sha-kyamuni made, which was displayed in the capital, Luoyang.
Two Indian missionaries came to Luoyang with the returning Chinese delegation in 67 CE.
They are said to have brought, on the back of a white horse, copies of the first translated Buddhist
texts: the Scripture in Forty-Two Sections. Legend has it that to honour the two monks, the Emperor
had the Monastery of the White Horse built in the capital. This was the first Buddhist monastery
on Chinese soil.
The first Buddhist communities in China were probably established in the commercial quarters of
larger cities, thanks to foreign merchants. By the fourth century, Buddhism, with its promises of salvation
and bliss in the afterlife, had become a significant influence on Chinese life, penetrating all layers of
society. There were however, tensions between Buddhism, Daoism and Confucianism which were to
have major repercussions for the acceptance or rejection of Buddhism by different parts of China.
Buddhism often appropriated Daoist concepts and images (see the moon and sun in cat. 1) for its
teachings and iconography.
Buddhism’s popularity peaked in the fifth and sixth centuries, an unsettled time in Chinese history,
when people were suffering endless wars, deportations, famine, floods and droughts. Contrary to
Confucianism, whose emphasis on accepting one’s assigned role within the family and society was in
harmony with the feudal order, Buddhism was periodically in dispute with the authorities. This was
because Buddhist adherents left their families to take vows as monks and nuns and to pursue the service
of religion (or to take refuge from taxation, forced labour or conscription). The monasteries became
increasingly powerful as they attracted gifts of land and goods from the faithful. The emperors,
threatened by this challenge to their ‘divine’ authority, alternated between harnessing the religion and
its powerful following to their own ends, and embarking on prolonged persecutions, during which
monasteries were razed to the ground and lands were seized. For instance, between 444 and 451 there
were imperial decrees posted which threatened death to any ‘who dared to serve the barbarian gods or
make images, statues or figures in clay or in bronze’.

BUDDHIST ART AND SCULPTURE


Sculpture never enjoyed the high status accorded to it in the West because it was not originally used
to represent religious images and, unlike painting or calligraphy, it was made by artisans rather than

7
scholar-officials. It was, however, a popular art form, although before the arrival of Buddhism, deities
were never depicted in human form. Archeological finds tell us that pre-Buddhist sculptures were
stylised figures or animals in bronze, stone and ceramics. In later periods, sculpture became
progressively more realistic, such as in the life-size tomb figures of soldiers or the depictions in clay
of farms and farm animals in tombs of the Han and Tang dynasties.
In early Buddhist art there are no images of the Buddha. Rather, a small number of symbols are
used, such as footprints to represent the Buddha; the ‘wheel of doctrine’, which represents the first
-
sermon given by Siddha-rta; and stupas (originally ceremonial burial mounds; later they were smaller,
tower-like structures, or pagodas).
The most extensive surviving early Chinese Buddhist art is to be found in large cave-temple sites
such as Dunhuang. Caves were hollowed out of the cliff faces and painted or sculpted with figures.
Dated inscriptions are often found in these caves, enabling historians to trace styles and to date the
Qingzhou statues.
The sources of early Buddhist images were the kingdoms of central Asia, which in turn were in
contact with the Buddhist kingdoms in Gandha-ra (present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan). In this area
Alexander the Great had established his easternmost kingdoms and introduced provincial forms of
classical Greek architecture and sculpture.
By the beginning of the second century CE, changes in doctrine and religious consciousness had
led to the making of the first images of the Buddha, which demonstrated this classical Greek influence
in their idealisation of form. His figure became the central symbol of Buddhism, serving as a focus for
meditation, devotion or ritual and as an expression of the peace, harmony and power of enlightenment.
Easily-transported objects, such as sketches, descriptions, statuettes, reliquaries and coins, were the
inspiration for early Chinese Buddhas. Buddhas in human form appeared as ornaments in tombs, on
mirrors, on gold jewellery and on ceramic objects such as money trees or funerary urns. Under the rules
of the Northern and Eastern Wei and the Northern Qi, Buddhism enjoyed substantial patronage; the
making of images and the building of monasteries were encouraged.
On the sculptures, clear distinctions of size and style were made between each personage. Buddhas
were clothed simply, with idealised features, deeply carved in relief or in the round, in majestic, solemn,
seated or standing poses. The bodhisattvas were smaller, richly clothed and adorned (cat. 5) and showed
slight movement. The Buddha disciples were smaller still and the donors were the smallest of all.
On the triads (cat. 1) the intricate background designs were lightly etched into the stone.

Why were the sculptures made and who commissioned them?


A variety of holy scriptures encouraged the commissioning and making of Buddhist images. They
suggested formulas to the sculptors, which were based on ideal proportions rather than human ones.
There were probably manuals as well, but Chinese artists would have relied more on the descriptions
or sketches of pilgrims and monks returning from the Silk Road and India, and on small votive statues,
which had been made for personal use and had been brought back by the faithful.
The commissioning and the making of Buddhist images were acts of worship. Monks, nuns and
laity would commission such sculptures and insert inscriptions which professed their devotion.
Numerous artists, painters, metal workers, sculptors and architects lived on the commissions given to
them by monasteries, the lay communities or rich individual believers. The families of craftsmen passed
on the principles of and instructions for their carving from one generation to the next.

How would these statues have been used for worship?


The statue was not considered complete or sacred until the eyes had been painted on, but once this
‘eye-opening ceremony’ had taken place, these statues were shown the reverence afforded to religious
imagery all over the world. As the foci of respect in temples and temple grounds, they would have been
circumambulated (walked around) and flowers would have been strewn around them. During
ceremonies, as coloured silk banners flew and incense burned, believers would prostrate themselves
in front of the sculptures, which inspired meditation and contemplation.

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Why were the sculptures buried?
There were no inscriptions or dedications found with the hoard explaining the reasons for their
interment and so the true reasons for their burial are not known. However, we do know that Buddhism
suffered periodic persecutions in China, during which time images and monasteries were damaged or
destroyed, and monks and nuns were dispersed or killed. These persecutions took place in 446
(Northern Wei), 574 (Northern Zhou), between 842 and 845 (Tang), and then in 955 (late Zhou).
The Japanese monk Enmin (793– 864) kept a detailed diary of his sojourn in China and recorded
the violent, forced return to secular life of more than a quarter of a million monks and nuns. The
Emperor confiscated monastic properties; bronze bells and metal icons were melted down by the state.
In the entire empire no images of bronze, iron, gold or silver were permitted for public or private
worship. Only sculptures made of wood, stone, clay or other non-metallic materials are said to have
been exempt from devastation. One theory advanced for the burial is that these statues might have
been pillaged and vandalised during this time – some show signs of damage from fire – then recovered
and buried in an orderly fashion by monks.
Another theory posits that the figures were buried two centuries later due to an edict against
Buddhism by Emperor Huizong of the Song dynasty (r. 1101–1125). This decreed that Buddhist temples
had to assume Daoist names and that Buddhist monks had to wear Daoist robes and resume use of their
former Chinese names. However, as this edict was rescinded the following year and the faces of the
statues are not defaced, it seems likely that the statues were interred in less dramatic circumstances.
The discovery of a stele, and a hoard of statues and coins, in the foundations of a pagoda a few
miles from Qingzhou, at Mingdao temple, points to another theory. There, the stele inscription records
the work of two monks who interred already-destroyed sculpture as a pious deed. Although there was
no inscribed stele in the pit along with the find at Longxing temple, the care with which the pieces in
this exhibition had been buried would appear to indicate that they may also have been interred by
monks as a meritorious act.
A final theory speculates that not all of these statues are from Longxing Temple; that they may have
been brought there to be buried ceremoniously when beyond repair or use or when their style had
become outmoded.

CONCLUSION
These treasures from Shandong province help us to understand how the great impulse of Buddhist
religious fervour, which had its peak in the sixth century, influenced every aspect of Chinese life.
The sculptures also show how the spread of Buddhism gave rise to an entirely new sensibility,
introducing foreign representational traditions that were to revolutionise Chinese art. It introduced
figural religious iconography to China, as well as a taste for sumptuous ornamentation (statues covered
in gold and precious stones or silks), and for the repetition of motifs. All these tendencies were in
opposition to the classical Chinese tradition, and their immeasurable influence upon Chinese art
endures today.

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COMMENTS ON THE PLATES
Characteristics of the sculptures in this exhibition
These limestone sculptures were made within the fifty-year period between 529 and 577. Stylistically,
they can be divided into two groups: the Wei, comprising the Northern Wei (386–534) and the Eastern
Wei (534–550), and the Northern Qi (550–577), with the turning point occurring in 550. The sculptures
fall into three formats: figures of the Buddha, figures of bodhisattvas and figural triads (a central Buddha
flanked by two bodhisattvas). They vary in size and quality, as well as in style, illustrating differences in
the means of the donors and the artists’ skills.
The dynastic changes were often reflected in the philosophy and the artistic styles that were
adopted. The Sinocisation (‘Chinesification’) of the Northern Wei, for example, is reflected in the
clothing of the statues; by the end of the fifth century, Buddha figures were no longer shown in Indian
clothes but in more traditional Chinese robes. The most important stylistic elements of the Northern Wei
-
dynasty are combined in cat. 13: a high protuberance on the top of the head (ushnisha); large, open
eyes; a gentle smile; and tiered, decorative lower hems on the garments, which flare out sideways. The
drapery conceals the shape of the body. Linear forms dominate, emphasising the stylised folds.
In the case of the Northern Qi, however, these Chinese qualities were rejected. The Qi aristocracy
was led by military troops of nomadic origin who were hostile to Chinese influence and favoured the
foreign and the exotic in art. This led to a new style which was influenced by Indian Gupta art: the
bodies are now shown in slight motion, clad in thin robes which cling to their body in a naturalistic
way. This style was inspired by Greek sculpture and what is known as the Gandha-ran style (cat. 29)

Cat. 1 STELE OF HAN XIAOHUA, Northern Wei


The stele’s design is that of an altar platform with a surmounted triad. There is a donor inscription on
the right side of the stele which states the year and the object of the donation and makes pious vows:
‘On the fourth day of the second month of the second year Yong’an (529) the laywoman Han
Xiaohua humbly had a Maitreya statue made for her deceased husband Le Chou’er and her deceased
descendants Youxing and Huinu, as well as for her surviving child Ahu; she also vowed to serve and
worship the Buddha rebirth after rebirth and generation after generation after traversing this lower
existence.’
The base of the stele is engraved with a figure on a lotus blossom (symbolising purity), which
carries on its head a bowl with an incense burner. The figure is flanked by two lions beside each of
which there is the figure of a kneeling donor. Short inscriptions on the left and right edges of the base
say, respectively, ‘Le Chou’er, in reverence’ and ‘Han Xiaohua, in reverence’.
The preoccupation of the followers of the Buddha was to gain merit in this world in order to avoid
being reborn or being reborn of lower status. One way to obtain merit was by the commissioning of
religious figures. In his preface to the ‘Record of Buddhist Temples in Luoyang’ (547), the military leader
Yang Xuanzhi noted:
‘The people and wealthy families parted with their treasures as easily as with forgotten rubbish.
As a result, Buddhist temples were built side by side, and stu-pas rose up in row after row. People
competed among themselves in making or copying the Buddha’s portrait. Golden stu-pas matched the
imperial observatory in height, and Buddhist lecture halls were as magnificent as Efang (ostentatiously
decorated palaces of 221–207 BCE). Indeed (Buddhist activity was so intense) that it was not merely a
matter of clothing wooden (figures) in silk or painting earthen (idols) in rich colours.’
The Buddha is smiling and has an ushnisha,- which symbolises omniscience. He raises his right
hand in the position indicating ‘Fear Not’ and gestures ‘Your Wish is Granted’ with his left hand. These
would have been powerful gestures to the kneeling supplicant during times of uncertainty. The
reassuring figure is identified by the inscription as Maitreya, the Buddha of the future. The two gestures
occur frequently in representations of Buddha Sha-kyamuni and Maitreya during the sixth century. They
were probably the most popular deities of the time.

10
Cat. 1
Stele of Han Xiaohua
Northern Wei dynasty, dated 529
Limestone
H. 55 cm
Qingzhou Municipal Museum,
Shandong Province
Photo © The State
Administration of Cultural
Heritage, People’s Republic
of China

The two bodhisattvas are almost identical. Each holds a lotus bud in his right hand and a small
fan in his left hand.
Characteristics of the Northern Wei style are the flaring tips of the garment and the scalloped hems
forming lozenges on the bottom. The statues stand on pedestals with inverted lotus petals and behind
their heads are halos in the shape of double lotus blossoms. Three Buddha figures, seated in the cross-
legged lotus position, are etched into the background. Above these figures, two deities are sculpted
holding the sun and the moon.
Of all the statues found at Longxing Temple, this is the only one with a depiction of both the sun
and moon. These were powerful ancient Chinese symbols, representations of Daoist deities. During
this period, such iconography was incorporated into the Buddhist pantheon.

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Cat. 3
Triad with mandorla
Late Northern Wei (386-534) or
Eastern Wei dynasty (534-550)
Limestone
H. 125 cm
Qingzhou Municipal Museum,
Shandong Province
Photo © The State
Administration of Cultural
Heritage, People’s Republic
of China

Cat. 3 TRIAD WITH MANDORLA, late Northern Wei or Eastern Wei

This representation of the Buddha flanked by two bodhisattvas is amongst the best-preserved in
this exhibition.
The Buddha, with his high topknot and tight hair curls, has a round, smiling, ageless face,
suggesting his enlightened state. The head is rather large in comparison with the body. Coloured
pigments bring the Buddha’s features vividly to life, and gold is used to communicate his radiance.
The use of gold gave the offering greater value and thereby bestowed greater merit on the donor.
The other colours, although not as precious as gold, served a similar purpose: they made the donations
more spectacular and the act of devotion more effective. Traces of sapphire-blue pigment are usually
found on the curls of the Buddhas (cat. 28) while traces of black on the robes may indicate that the
monks wore black robes in China at that period (cats 10, 21 and 28).
The monastic robes of the Buddha are painted in a patchwork design with white stripes.
Black pupils would have been painted on the eyes during the eye-opening ceremony to consecrate
the statue. This custom can also be found in Brahmin India. References to giving life to statues
were first found in Mesopotamia back in 3000 BCE.
The bodhisattvas stand on lotus-flower pedestals, whose stems and leaves are growing out of
the mouths of two dragons. The dragon represents imperial power, and affords protection and fertility.
A dragon was a mythical Chinese animal, which decorated all types of Chinese art, and would have
been a powerful symbol to associate with Buddhism. Representation of dragons on these statues
was particularly popular in the area of Qingzhou during the Eastern Wei.
This triad is one of the few from the hoard to carry an inscription. Inscriptions provide information
about the donors who commissioned the sculpture to attain merit and ensure good karma. In this
example, the vertical rows of engraved text are not complete (to the side of the Buddha and to the right
side of the right bodhisattva), but they list the names of eleven lady donors who were nuns ‘awaiting
the time of the Buddha’. Beside the inscriptions, faded pictures of the eleven nuns can be seen.

12
Cat. 5 TRIAD WITH MANDORLA, Eastern Wei or Northern Qi

The largest image from the hoard weighs one ton, but its maximum thickness is only 35 centimetres.
In Buddhist temples in China, many statues would line the walls and some of the grounds, but there
would be a principal statue, usually of greater size than the others, to which the temple would be
dedicated. Despite its size, it is not thought that this triad with mandorla was the main Longxing
Cat. 5 Templepiece. The principal Luoyang statue is described in the chronicle written by Yang Xuanzhi:
Triad with mandorla
Eastern Wei (534–550) or
‘North of the stu-pa was a Buddhist hall, which was shaped like the palace of the Great Ultimate.
Northern Qi dynasty (550–577) In the hall was a golden statue of the Buddha 18 feet high, along with ten medium-sized images –
Limestone three of sewn pearls, five of woven golden threads and two of jade. The superb artistry was matchless,
H. 310 cm
Qingzhou Municipal Museum
unparalleled in its day…Here were kept all the su-tras and Buddhist images presented by foreign countries.’
Shandong Province This Buddha wears a red and green patchwork mantle draped over his body, his robe fastened
Photo © The State with a sash. Though his is made of stone, real mantles of silk made to adorn statues have been
Administration of Cultural
Heritage, People’s Republic
found. They were often made from robes given by donors during their lifetimes or as bequests.
of China The donation of silk was also considered good karma by the scriptures.
This Buddha is carved in higher relief
than the bodhisattvas. A mandorla (an
almond-shaped feature which frames figures
or groups, and signifies their holiness),
decorated with painted flames, surrounds
the concentric halos of the Buddha. At the
top of the mandorla, there is a flying stu-pa
carved in high relief. Four apsaras
(heavenly flying beings) are offering gifts,
dancing and playing music on either side.
Their scarves, which convey movement, are
flying out towards the edge of the sculpture.
Apsaras are low-ranking deities in the
Buddhist pantheon. They are the protectors
of the Buddha and the doctrine. They
derive from Indian mythology and occur
in Chinese art from an early date.
The architecture of the stu-pa is
unusual because there are no similar
Indian or Central Asian stu-pa. The acanthus
leaves on the roof corners are reminiscent
of those on Corinthian columns in ancient
Greek architecture. This might indicate
Gandharan influence.
The images of flying stu-pas can
represent different stories. One is that a
particular Buddha called Prabhu-tratna, who
had attained nirvana, vowed to appear every
time the Lotus Su-tra was being preached.
When another Buddha was preaching the
Lotus Su-tra (which was very popular in
sixth-century China) Prabhu-taratna appeared
in his stu-pa, in the air, and the Buddha rose
to sit beside him. Representations of two
Buddhas side by side are popular during
the fifth and sixth centuries.

13
Cat. 6 TRIAD WITH MANDORLA, late Northern Wei or Eastern Wei

This Buddha with two attendants is surmounted by eight apsaras. The uppermost two carry a stu-pa Cat. 6
while the others worship the Buddha by making music (as is described in many su-tras). Triad with mandorla
Late Northern Wei (386–534) or
A variety of instruments can be seen, some Chinese and others foreign (Indian and Central Asian). Eastern Wei dynasty (534–550)
The stu-pa (or pagoda) is one of the most distinctive kinds of Buddhist building in China. It is the Limestone
H. 76 cm
only tall building to be found in traditional Chinese architecture and takes the form of a storied tower,
Qingzhou Municipal Museum,
or an upturned bowl. Stu-pas were built first of wood then later of brick and masonry. They had a Shandong Province
general tetragonal (three-sided) shape until the Tang dynasty (618–920). In Luoyang in the sixth century Photo © The State
Administration of Cultural
there is written reference to a 400-foot-high pagoda. Perspective is attempted in this sculpture to make
Heritage, People’s Republic
the stu-pa appear a distant building. of China
Legend has it that in the third century BCE, two centuries after the Buddha Siddha-rta’s death, the
Indian king Ashoka had 84,000 stu-pas, each containing some of the Buddha’s ashes, erected all over the
world. Each sculpted stu-pa represents one of these reliquaries. Relics were very important in Chinese
culture, and most statues contained sacred texts (the copying and reciting of which was good karma) or
the mortal remains of the Buddha. This added to the mystique of the icons but also drew heavy
criticism from the authorities.
The founder of the Eastern Wei dynasty, Gao Huan (496–547), wrote that after the nine-story
pagoda in the Northern Wei capital had burnt down, people living on the coast of Shandong province
started seeing an apparition of the pagoda, which would disappear into the Eastern Sea. This was
interpreted as predicting the fall of the Northern Wei and legitimising the new ruler’s authority.

14
Cat. 18
Seated Buddha
Northern Qi dynasty (550–577)
Limestone
H. 64 cm
Qingzhou Municipal Museum,
Shandong Province
Photo © The State Administration
of Cultural Heritage, People’s
Republic of China

Cat. 18 SEATED BUDDHA, Northern Qi

Only a few sculptures from Qingzhou show the Buddha cross-legged, although the posture is quite
common on sculptures in Chinese cave temples. The Buddha is seated on a round lotus base with
double petals. The aquatic lotus has remained one of the primary symbols of Buddhism and is used
in all sorts of artistic devices. The half-closed eyes of this statue show the Buddha in meditation.
This figure shows a remarkable similarity with figures found in Hebei province (to the north of
Shandong), particularly in the rendering of the feet and the hands, and in the stylised representation
of overlapping drapery folds. It is likely that, during the Period of Disunity, a number of artisan families
from Hebei province were forcibly moved to Qingzhou.

16
Cat. 22 STANDING
BUDDHA WITH HEAD
NIMBUS, Northern Qi

This free-standing Buddha has a


nimbus (a halo) decorated with
seven small Buddhas. Most of
the free-standing Buddhas have
halos which are carved
separately and attached by an
iron hook, but this Buddha and
halo have been carved from the
same block of stone. When
unearthed, the halo was found
to be broken in three pieces.
The small Buddhas which can
be seen on this halo have been
identified as ‘manifestation
Buddhas’, illustrating that the
Cat. 22 Buddha can manifest itself in
Standing Buddha with head nimbus
different visual forms in order
Northern Qi dynasty (550–577)
Limestone to reach every living being with
H. 116 cm his message.
Qingzhou Municipal Museum
The oversized ears end in
Shandong Province
Photo © The State Administration elongated perforated earlobes,
of Cultural Heritage, People’s a sign of the renunciation of
Republic of China -
worldly pleasures. The ushnisha
(protuberance) is much smaller
than those on the earlier
sculptures we have seen.
In contrast to the
bodhisattva, the Buddha does
not wear any jewellery;
he is a fully enlightened being,
emancipated from this world
and its trappings, who is always
represented in simple monk’s
attire.

17
Cat. 26
Standing Buddha
Northern Qi dynasty (550–577)
Limestone
H. 115 cm
Qingzhou Municipal Museum,
Shandong Province
Photo © The State
Administration of Cultural
Heritage, People’s Republic
of China

Cat. 26 STANDING BUDDHA, Northern Qi

The damage this figure has sustained makes it difficult to decipher the intricate scenes carved on its
body. It would seem that the scenes were first painted on the sculpted figure, and then carved into
reliefs. The images cannot easily be identified without the polychromy, but a comparison with other
sculptures from this find suggests that they may depict various Realms of Rebirth (the spheres of the
gods, of human beings, of animals, hungry ghosts and hell). There may, however, be regional and
folkloristic additions and variations (such as dragons).

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Cat. 31 STANDING
BODHISATTVA, Northern Qi

This bodhisattva is one of the most


outstanding examples of Northern Qi
sculptures. It shows the tendency to
represent forms naturalistically, a
characteristic of Northern Qi: full, oval
face, meticulously modelled mouth,
curved, downward-looking eyes, fleshy
hands and a somewhat stiff posture.
The back of this statue is also carved,
exemplifying the sixth-century transition
from background-bound sculpture to
free-standing figures carved in the
round.
Bodhisattva sculptures are less
austere and inward-looking than
Buddhas. A bodhisattva is a person
on the path to enlightenment, who
delays his attainment of nirvana in
order to intercede on behalf of other
believers. A bodhisattva displays his
power and compassion through his
graceful gestures and elegant garments.
In addition to a sash and a long

Cat. 31 stole, the bodhisattva wears a long,


Standing bodhisattva deeply carved string of pearls, which
Northern Qi dynasty (550–577)
can be seen on the back and the front.
Limestone
H. 165 cm Opulent jewellery on the bodhisattva
Qingzhou Municipal Museum is meant to symbolise the splendour
Shandong Province
of another world. Pearls, gold, agate,
Photo © The State
Administration of Cultural silver, lapis lazuli and beryl were
Heritage, People’s Republic counted among the Seven Precious
of China
Materials mentioned by the Maha-ya-na
scriptures as favoured donations.
These were major imports to China
in exchange for silk. The necklace is
adorned with an animal mask which is spitting pearls. The mask can be traced back to Hindu models.
On the sash a figure in prayer, an animal mask, flame jewels and a Buddhist treasure flask are carved.
The head-dress shows a small seated figure holding a string of pearls, which is identified as
being Buddha Amita-bha.
The inscription on the back states that it was made on the ‘25th day of the 9th month’, but the
year is missing.

19
Cat. 32
Seated bodhisattva
Eastern Wei (534–550) or
Northern Qi dynasty (550–577)
Limestone
H. 90 cm
Qingzhou Municipal Museum,
Shandong Province
Photo © The State
Administration of Cultural
Heritage, People’s Republic
of China

Cat. 32 SEATED BODHISATTVA, Eastern Wei or Northern Qi

This bodhisattva in pensive posture sits on an hourglass-shaped throne. The left foot stands on a lotus-
capsule pedestal, which grows out of a coiling dragon’s mouth. The face is still golden, surrounded
by black hair styled with four bows. The diadem’s green ribbons on a red background are contained
within a pearl roundel, a typical central Asian stylistic device.
The styling of the robes and the body indicate a very early date for this sculpture. The style may be
recognised from inscriptions at the cave temple of Dunhuang. The statue may represent Prince Siddha-rta
waiting in paradise for his rebirth as a Buddha.

20
GLOSSARY

Amitabha: primary Buddha in the northern Maha-ya-na Karma: the accumulated good and bad actions that one
pantheon, ruler of the western paradise (the imaginary pure commits, which help shape the next incarnation
land where Buddhist devotees could hope to be reborn)
Lakshanas: precious attributes of the Buddha such as the
Apsaras (feitan): heavenly flying beings -
high protuberance on his head (ushnisha) or his elongated
earlobes
Bodhisattva: one on the path towards becoming a Buddha,
but who delays that final act to help others in their quests Maha-ya-na: the Buddhist doctrine of the Great Path which is
for nirvana -
more inclusive than Hinaya- na (the Lesser Path), the Buddhist
doctrine of the lesser vehicle which requires complete
Buddha: the enlightened one
abnegation and renunciation in order to be saved
Confucianism: Chinese philosophical system associated
Mandorla: almond-shaped sculptural feature which frames
with the structure of society
figures or groups and signifies their holiness
Daoism: native religion of China, based upon nature worship
Mantra: a mystic chant, which evokes the divinity
and shamanism
Maitreya: the Buddha of the future
Dharma (Wheel of doctrine): in Buddhist art the wheel of
doctrine symbolises the first sermon given by the Buddha Mudra-: hand gestures such as ‘fear not’ and ‘your wish is
granted’
Four Noble Truths of Buddhism (the teachings of Buddha)
• All life is suffering Nirvana: ultimate goal or condition, beyond existence
• This is caused by cravings /desires for material things and without form or definition
• Freedom from suffering /absence from craving = nirvana.
Nimbus: the halo or cloud surrounding the Buddha which
• This can be reached by following the Eightfold Path to
indicates his holy state
nirvana: 1. right understanding; 2. right directed thought;
3. right speech; 4. right action; 5. right livelihood; Stu-pa: originally a pre-Buddhist dome-shaped burial mound.
6. right effort; 7. right mindfulness; 8. right concentration Under Buddhism, the location of auspicious relics.

Gandha-ra: refers to an area in present-day Afghanistan and Su-tra: sacred scriptures of Buddhism, said to have been
Pakistan, which gave its name to a sculptural style inspired the word of the Buddha
by classical Greece, brought to the area by the Greek
Stele: an upright rectangular stone slab or tablet with
soldiers of Alexander the Great
a straight or rounded top known from the Han dynasty
Gupta: refers to the best-known period of Indian art of the onwards
fourth to seventh centuries, which is characterised by the
Swastika: symbol of good fortune
transcendental, ethereal images of the Buddha that are
most familiar today

BIBLIOGRAPHY

CLUNAS, Craig, Art in China, Oxford History of Art, 1997 Museum, Guggenheim Museum Publications, New York,
FISHER, Robert E., Buddhism Art and Architecture, 1998
Thames and Hudson, 1993 RAWSON, J. (ed.), The British Museum Book of Chinese Art,
GERNET, J., A History of Chinese Civilisation, British Museum Press, 1992
Cambridge University Press, 1982 SICKMAN, L., and SOPER, A., The Art and Architecture of
LEE, Sherman (ed.), China 5,000 Years: Innovation and China, Penguin Books, 1988
Transformation in the Arts, Solomon R. Guggenheim TREGEAR, Mary, The Art of China, Thames and Hudson, 1980

21
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