J. Construct.

Steel Research 10 (1988) 321—354

Seismic Eccentrically Braced Frames

Egor P. Popov & Michael D. Engelhardt

Department of Civil Engineering, Davis Hall, University of California, Berkeley,
California, CA 94720, USA

ABSTRACT

This paper provides an introduction and an overview of the design and behavior
ofseismic-resistant eccentrically braced frames (EBFs). Within the last ten
years, EBFs have become a widely recognized lateral load-resisting system for
steel buildings in areas ofhigh seismicity. The primary purpose of this paper is
to present design recommendations for links and connections in EBFs. Some
basic concepts on the behavior of EBFs are reviewed, and highlights of
significant experimental results are presented. The important effects of link
length on both the elastic and inelastic response of EBFs under lateral load are
emphasized. The paper focuses on EBFs constructed with shear links, as these
provide for the maximum stiffness, strength, ductility and energy dissipation
capacity of an EBF. Suggested details are provided for links and for selected
connections in EBFs.

INTRODUCTION

Eccentrically braced frames (EBFs) are a lateral load-resisting system for

steel buildings that can be considered a hybrid between conventional
moment-resisting frames (MRFs) and concentrically braced frames
(CBFs). EBFs are in effect an attempt to combine the individual
advantages of MRFs and CBFs, while minimizing their respective
disadvantages. Figure I illustrates several common EBF arrangements.
Many other satisfactory arrangements can be devised.
The distinguishing characteristic of an EBF is that at least one end of
every brace is connected so that the brace force is transmitted either to
321
 E. P. Popov M. D. Engelhardt
J. Construct. Steel Research 0 1988 Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd,
England. Printed in Great Britain

322

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. l. Typical bracing arrangements for EBFs.

another brace or to a column through shear and bending in a beam

segment called a link. The link lengths in Fig. 1 are identified by the letter
e. Although eccentric bracing has been long known for wind bracing, I its
application to seismic-resistant construction is only very recent. The
excellent performance of EBFs under severe earthquake loading was
demonstrated on one-third-scale model frames at the University of
California in 1977. 2 3 Soon after this study, several major buildings were
constructed incorporating EBFs as part of their lateral seismic-resisting
systems, including the nineteen story Bank of America Building in San
Dieg04 and the forty-seven story Embarcadero 4 Building in San
Francisco? both constructed in about 1981. Since that time, numerous
applications of this system have been adopted in practice.
The most attractive feature of EBFs for seismic-resistant design is their
high stiffness combined with excellent ductility and energy-dissipation
capacity. The bracing members in EBFs provide the high elastic stiffness
characteristic of CBFs, permitting code drift requirements to be met
economically. Yet, under very severe earthquake loading, properly
designed and detailed EBFs provide the ductility and energy dissipation
capacity characteristic of MRFs. The excellent ductility of EBFs can be
attributed to two factors. First, inelastic activity under severe cyclic
loading is restricted primarily to the links, which are designed and
 Seismic eccentrically braced frames 323
detailed to sustain large inelastic deformations without loss of strength.
Secondly, braces are designed not to buckle, regardless of the severity of
lateral loading on the frame. The yielding of the links in EBFs serves to
limit the maximum force transferred to the brace, acting, in effect, as a
fuse for bracing member loads. The ultimate strength of the link can be
accurately estimated. Thus, by designing the brace to be stronger than the
link, the designer can be assured with a high degree of confidence that
the brace will not buckle, regardless of the severity of the earthquake
load. The rapid deterioration of buckled braces under cyclic loads is well
documented. 6 Thus, the preclusion of brace buckling in EBFs permits
stable hysteretic behavior under the most severe cyclic loading
conditions. Note that the links not only limit brace forces, but also the
load transmitted to the columns, permitting reliable design for column
stability, and offering some possible advantages for difficult foundation
design problems.
The ductility and energy dissipation capacity of EBFs may be better
understood by comparing the actual behavior of typical frames under
cyclic load. Figure 2 shows typical experimentally obtained lateral load
versus displacement plots for an MRF, CBF, and an EBF. The full and
stable hysteretic loops in Fig. 2a illustrate the MRFs ability to sustain
large deformations without strength loss and are indicative of the
excellent energy dissipation capacity of a moment-resisting frame. In
contrast, the loops in Fig. 2b are pinched and deteriorate as the number
of loading cycles increases, demonstrating the rather poor energy
dissipation capacity of concentrically braced frames. This poor behavior
is a result of the buckling of braces and their ensuing rapid deterioration
under cyclic load. Finally, Fig. 2c illustrates the hysteretic behavior of a
well-designed EBF. Because brace buckling is prevented and because the
link can sustain large defonnations without strength loss, full and stable
hysteretic loops similar to those of the MRF are obtained.
An additional benefit of eccentric over concentric bracing is the greater
architectural freedom permitted with EBFs. The offset braces in EBFs
provide larger spaces for doors, windows, or other openings in the frame.
In its 1985 edition of the NEHRP Recommended Provisions for the
Development of Seismic Regulations for New Buildings, 10 the Federal
Emergency Management Agency provides tentative recommendations
for the design of EBFs. The Structural Engineers' Association of
California carried the process further and in 1986 completed a concensus
document on Recommended Lateral Force Requirements, including
specific provisions for the design and detailing of seismic-resistant EBFs.
The number of recently constructed buildings incorporating eccentric
bracing as well as the recognition of EBFs by the model earthquake
 E. P. Popov M. D. Engelhardt
design codes in the USA attests to the rapid acceptance of this framing
concept by the building construction industry.
The primary purpose of this paper is to present design
recommendations for links and connections in seismic-resistant EBFs.
Some basic concepts on the behavior, analysis, and design of EBFs are
briefly reviewed and signi-

LATERAL DISPLACEMENT UN)

A. INCHES
 Seismic eccentrically braced frames 325
Fig. 2. Typical experimental frame behavior under cyclic lateral load. (a) MRF (after
Wakabayashi7 )•, (b) CBF; 8 (c) EBF. 9

ficant experimental results related to EBFs are presented. This paper is

concerned primarily with EBFs constructed with short links, i.e. links
that yield primarily in shear. Virtually all research on EBFs to date, both
experimental and analytical, has been concerned with short links, as these
provide for the maximum stiffness, strength, ductility, and energy
dissipation capacity of an EBF. However, some of the potential problems
and advantages of longer links in EBFs are also briefly discussed. Finally,
a few notes on non-seismic applications of EBFs are included.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EBFs

Some characteristics of stiffness, strength, internal force distributions

and inelastic deformations of EBFs are reviewed in this section. An
understanding of the overall behavior of EBFs is a prerequisite to the
proper design of links and connections in EBFs.

Stiffness and strength

It is instructive to consider the variation of the elastic lateral stiffness of

an EBF as a function of the link length e. This variation is illustrated in
Fig. 3 for two simple eccentric framing arrangements. For e = L, one has
a momentresisting frame and the elastic stiffness is at a minimum. For
e/L > 0•5, little stiffness is gained from the bracing. However, as the
length of the link
10

(a) (b)
 E. P. Popov M. D. Engelhardt
Fig. 3. Variation of elastic lateral stiffness with e/L for two simple EBFs. 12
 Seismic eccentrically braced frames 327

decreases, a rapid increase in stiffness occurs. Maximum stiffness

develops when e = 0, corresponding to a concentrically braced frame. It
is this situation of course that EBFs are intended to avoid. When e = 0,
there is no link present to act as a fuse for brace member forces. Figure 3
clearly illustrates that in order to gain maximum possible frame stiffness,
the links must be kept short. However, as discussed later links cannot be
made too short because the inelastic deformation demand on the link
becomes excessive. It is also interesting to consider the variation of the
fundamental period of vibration of an EBF as a function of link length.
Figure 4, which illustrates this variation for a five-story EBF, suggests
the interesting possibility of varying the link length in order to adjust the
first period of a building. This
4

02 0.8

Fig. 4. Variation of first natural period with e/ L for a five-story EBF.

concept could presumably be used to move the first period of a building

away from a peak in the response spectrum for a particular site. The
authors are, however, unaware of any instance of EBFs being used for
this purpose.
In addition to influencing the elastic stiffness, the link length also
significantly affects the strength of an EBF under lateral load. Figure 5
illustrates the ultimate strength of a three-story EBF as a function of e/L,
assuming elastic-perfectly plastic behavior. Frame capacity is normalized
by the quantity 2Mp/h which represents the strength of an MRF. Frame
strength rapidly increases with decreasing link length, until the frame
strength is limited by the fully plastic shear capacity of the links. This
region of frame behavior is represented by the horizontal lines in Fig. 5.
Clearly, maximum frame strength is achieved with short links.
It must be recognized that the effects of link length illustrated in Figs
3, 4, and 5 represent idealized situations for small frames, assuming
328 E. P. Popov, M. D. Engelhardt

constant member sizes as e is varied. The actual effects will depend on

many factors, including building height and code-imposed drift
limitations. However, these figures are representative of the significant
trends in behavior as link length is varied.
10

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I.O

Fig. 5. Variation of frame plastic capacity with e/L. 13

Forces in links

Typical distributions of bending moment M, shear V, and axial force P

in the beams and links of an EBF under lateral load are qualitatively
illustrated in Fig. 6. Two common eccentric framing arrangements are
considered. From this figure, it is clear that the link is subject to high
shear force along its entire length and high bending moments at its ends.
If the links are kept very short, then under increasing lateral load on the
frame the links will yield in shear (forming plastic shear hinges) with
relatively little moment yielding at its ends. On the other hand, if they are
very long, the links will form conventional plastic moment hinges at the
ends, with little or no shear yielding. As a result, short links are
sometimes referred to as shear links, and long links as moment links. The
energy dissipation and ultimate failure mechanisms for these two classes
of links differ substantially. There is, of course, an intermediate length
range of links where significant amounts of both shear and moment
 Seismic eccentrically braced frames 329

yielding occur. As discussed later, the short shear links provide for the
best overall EBF behavior.
Forces acting on an isolated link, and the relationship between shear
and bending moment in the link based on static equilibrium are illustrated
in Fig. 7. In the case where the link end moments are of equal magnitude,
as in Fig. 6(b), then Ma = Mb = M, and the equation reduces to Ve = 2M.
For this case, if one considers simple plastic theory, i.e. no strain
hardening and no

(a) (b)
Fig. 6. Typical force distributions in beams and links of EBFs under lateral load.

Fig. 7. Static equilibrium of link.

M—V interaction, it is simple to derive that a link of length e = 2Mp/Vp

is the theoretical dividing line between a link that yields in shear and one
that yields in bending moment. In this equation, Mp = ZFy is the fully
plastic moment of the W section and Vp = 0•55 Fydtw is the fully plastic
shear capacity of the section. Fv is the yield strength of the steel, Z is the
plastic modulus, d is beam depth, and tw is the web thickness. Thus,
based on simple plastic theory, if e < 2Mp/Vp, the link shear will reach
Vp before the end moments reach MP , and the link will yield in shear.
However, experiments clearly show that the effect of strain hardening in
links is very important and cannot be neglected. As a result, in order to
assure the more desirable behavior of links that yield in shear, it is
recommended that the link length comply with the following equation:
330 E. P. Popov, M. D. Engelhardt

(l)
The basis for this recommendation is discussed later.

Energy dissipation mechanisms

In the design of a seismic-resistant EBF, it is necessary to estimate the plastic

rotation demand on the links. This is most easily accomplished through the

(a) (b) (c) Fig. 8. Energy dissipation

mechanisms.

use of energy dissipation mechanisms (also commonly called collapse

mechanisms), constructed by assuming rigid plastic behavior of the
members. Mechanisms for an MRF and two types of EBF are illustrated
in Fig. 8. In each case, 9 represents the overall frame drift. For the MRF,
the rotation demand at the plastic hinges of the beams is also 8. However,
for the EBFs the rotation demand on the links is much larger than 9, and
from the geometry of the mechanism can be determined to be as follows:

9 (2)

Link rotation, particularly for short links, is typically denoted by the

symbol y as a reminder of the importance of shear yielding in supplying
the link rotation. In Fig. 8, the links are cross-hatched to indicate that
they have yielded in shear and have formed a shear hinge. The
relationship between frame drift 9 and link rotation y depends on the
configuration of the EBF and must be determined from the appropriate
mechanism. Equation (2) applies for the EBF configurations in Fig. 8(b)
and 8(c), but may not apply to other configurations. For example, an
EBF of the type shown in Fig. I(c) requires only one half of the link
rotation given by eqn (2) for the same frame drift 9. 13 This reduced link
 Seismic eccentrically braced frames 331

rotation demand is an advantage of this EBF type, particularly in cases

where link rotation capacity controls the design of the frame.
Figure 9 is a plot of link rotation demand versus e/L ratio for the EBF
types shown in Figs 8(b) and 8(c). This plot clearly illustrates that plastic
rotation demands are much larger in EBFs than in MRFs. The link
rotation demand grows rapidly as link length decreases. However, these
large plastic rotation demands can be met by links that yield in shear, i.e.
links that satisfy eqn (1). Figure 9 also demonstrates that links should not
be too short, or else the rotation demand becomes excessive, even for a
shear link. The actual plastic rotation capacity of shear links has been
well established experimentally, and is discussed in the next section.

Fig. 9. Variation of link rotation demand with e/L.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ON EBFs

Since about 1977, a great deal of experimental research has been

conducted on EBFs, verifying their excellent structural characteristics
and providing a number of useful design rules. This section briefly
reviews significant experimental work on EBFs, and summarizes key
results from each series of tests. The vast majority of experimental work
has been conducted on shear links that meet the criteria of eqn (1).
Extrapolation of results to longer links is not recommended, as the
behavior and failure mechanisms of long links differ substantially from
those of shear links.
332 E. P. Popov, M. D. Engelhardt

Tests on three-story EBF subassemblages

The excellent overall behavior of EBFs with shear links was

demonstrated in a series of tests on one-third scale, three-story EBFs in
1977. 2 • 3 In addition to verifying the advantages of EBFs for seismic-
resistant design, these tests also demonstrated the extensive strain
hardening that occurs in shear links. As noted earlier, the braces in EBFs
are designed to be stronger than the links in order to preclude brace
buckling. Based on this first series of tests, it was recommended that
braces be designed assuming the ultimate link shear force reaches at least
1 •5 vp, where Vp is the shear capacity of the section as defined
previously. This recommendation has been adopted by both SEAOC II
and NEHRP. IO As observed in later experiments, somewhat larger link
forces may be generated due to the presence of a composite

Fig. 10. Set-up for testing links with equal end moments. 12

concrete deck and overstrength of the web, i.e. the actual yield strength
of the web exceeding the nominal specified yield strength.
A second series of one-third scale, three-story EBF tests9 was
conducted in which beam sections with thinner webs were used, more
accurately modeling the typical W sections used in building construction.
The results of one test are shown in Fig. 2(c). Due to the more realistic,
thinner webs used in these tests, inelastic web buckling (buckling after
shear yielding had occurred) was observed in the links, resulting in
deterioration of link performance.

Tests on links with equal end moments

 Seismic eccentrically braced frames 333

In order to study the effects of inelastic web buckling in links and to

better understand link behavior, two series of tests were conducted on
isolated links. The experimental set-up used for both series of tests,
illustrated in Fig. 10, subjects the link to constant shear force with equal
end moments and no axial force, similar to the link forces shown in Fig.
6(b). A total of twentyeight links was tested in these two series of
experiments.
In the first series, I fifteen full-size links were subjected to
quasistatically applied cycles of increasing relative end displacement. An
example of link behavior from this first series is shown in Fig. l l. Both
specimens shown are W 18 x 40 sections, 28 inches in length (e = I •11
Mp/Vp) of A36 steel. The unstiffened specimen illustrated in Fig. Il(a)
experienced severe web buckling shortly after shear yield had occurred,
causing deterioration of load-carrying capacity. The pinched hysteretic
loops indicate poor energy dissipation and ductility. The specimen
provided with three pair of stiffeners (Fig. Il(b)) showed dramatic
improvement in performance. The specimen

DISPLACEMENT ( IN ) DISPLACEMENT ( IN )
334 E. P. Popov, M. D. Engelhardt

Fig. 11. Hysteretic behavior of (a) unstiffened shear link; (b) stiffened shear link. I

achieved large inelastic rotations and the hysteretic loops remained full
for a large number of severe loading cycles, indicating enormous energy
dissipation capacity. For shear links, the plastic rotation y can be closely
estimated by the relative end displacement of the link divided by the link
length. The elastic component of the relative end displacement for shear
links is very small and can be neglected when computing y. The stiffened
specimen achieved relative end displacements of ±3 in, giving a plastic
rotation capacity of about 10 radian. Other tests have confirmed that
plastic rotation capacities of y radian can be achieved by
wellstiffened shear links. Note also that the stiffened specimen achieved
an ultimate shear strength of approximately 210 kips. The nominal shear
yield capacity of an A36 W 18 x 40 section is Vp = 112 kips. The actual
shear capacity of this specimen, based on coupon tests on the web (Fy =
39•5 ksi for the web) was 122 kips. Thus, this specimen achieved an
ultimate shear strength of about 1 •9 times the nominal Vp or 1 •7 times
the actual vp. Although this particular specimen experienced a rather
unusually high degree of strain hardening, it does illustrate that the code-
specified ultimate strength of a shear link (1 •5 times the nominal vp) is
not overly conservative and can be exceeded.
In the first series of link tests, two longer links were also tested. Both
were WI 2 x 22 sections, 36 inches in length (e = 2•15 Mp/Vp). The
 Seismic eccentrically braced frames 335

unstiffened specimen showed poor behavior due to web and flange

buckling combined with lateral torsional buckling. The other W 12 x 22
specimen was provided with a pair of stiffeners placed 6 inches from each
end of the link in an attempt to delay flange buckling. These stiffeners
were very effective in controlling flange buckling and lateral torsional
buckling and significantly improved the behavior of the link, which
achieved a plastic rotation capacity of about y radian. However,
overall ductility and energy dissipation were still inferior to the stiffened
shear links. Further, the stiffened long link ultimately failed in a brittle
manner by tearing of the flanges in the heat-affected zone at the weld.
This points to a potential danger in long links. The very high bending
strains required to achieve significant plastic rotations in long links may
induce brittle failure at flange-to-column welds. However, this single test
on a long link is insufficient to draw any firm conclusions.
In the second series of isolated link tests, I thirteen additional full-size
links were tested using the set-up in Fig. 10. All specimens were 36
inches long and were either W 18 x 40 or W 18 x 60 sections of A36
steel. All specimens in this series were shear links meeting the criteria of
eqn (1). The objectives of these tests were to determine the effects of
loading history, stiffener detail and spacing, and end connection details.
One specimen was designed to investigate the effects of providing
shear links with one-sided stiffeners. The hysteretic loops for this
specimen, shown in Fig. 12, were remarkably similar to those of an
earlier specimen which was identical except that it employed pairs of
stiffeners placed on both sides of the web. Additional tests also confirmed
the adequacy of one-sided stiffeners. At present, SEAOC II and NEHRP
IO
permit one-sided intermediate stiffeners on links whose overall depth
is less than 24 in. For links of deeper sections, stiffeners are required on
both sides of the web. The use of one-sided stiffeners reduces fabrication
costs.
In some EBF configurations, one end of the link is connected to a
column, as in Figs I(a) and I(c). Therefore, several link end connection
details were employed in order to gain insight into the link-to-column
connection. The end connection details included:
 E. P. Popov M. D. Engelhardt
(a) flange and web provided with all-around fillet welds;
(b) full penetration groove welds at flanges and web;
(c) full penetration groove welds at the flanges; web fillet welded to a
shear tab; and
(d) full penetration groove welds at the flanges; web bolted to a shear
tab.
The EBFs in which both the web and flanges were fully welded (details
a, b, and c) showed excellent performance. Two specimens utilized detail
d, i.e. the conventional seismic moment connection with a welded flange
and a bolted web. In both specimens, the large shear forces generated in
the links induced bolt slippage in the web connection. This bolt slippage
transferred
200

100

-100

-200
DISPLACEMENT ( IN )
 Seismic eccentrically braced frames 337
Fig. 12. Shear link with one-sided stiffeners.

DISPLACEMENT ( I N )

Fig. 13. Shear link with bolted web connection.

large forces to the flanges, resulting in sudden flange failures. Results of

these tests, one of which is shown in Fig. 13, demonstrate the need for
welded web connections for the severe loading conditions in shear links.
SEAOC II and NEHRP IO require fully welded flange and web
connections between links and columns.
Some important observations from these two series of tests are
summarized below:
(l) Shear links can achieve larger plastic rotations and greater energy
dissipation than moment links.
(2) Inelastic web buckling in shear links leads to significant loss in
loadcarrying capacity, plastic rotation capacity, and energy dissipation.
 E. P. Popov M. D. Engelhardt
Web buckling can be substantially delayed by reinforcing the web of a
shear link with stiffeners.
336

(3) A well-stiffened shear link can achieve plastic rotations up to

radian under cyclic load or y = 0•20 radian under monotonic
load.
(4) Shear links strain-harden, achieving ultimate shear strengths on
the order of 40% to 50% or more of the initial shear yield capacity
vp.
(5) Stiffeners on only one side of the web appear to be adequate in
shear links for beams of moderate depth.
(6) For the severe service intended for shear links, fully welded web
connections should be used at link-to-column connections.

Tests on links with unequal end moments

When the link of an EBF is located next to a column, the initial elastic
moment in the link at the column face is generally much larger than the
moment at the other end of the link, as illustrated in Fig. 6(a). Typically,
the ratio of elastic end moments for such links can be on the order of 2
to 4 or more. If steel behaved as a perfectly plastic material, equalization
of link end moments would occur as the link is loaded to its ultimate
state. Since steel strain hardens, however, this end moment equalization
may not occur. The degree to which end moment equalization occurs in
links next to columns is an important issue in EBF design. The structural
elements adjoining the link, i.e. either a column or the adjoining beam
and brace, must be strong enough to resist the ultimate link end moments.
A reasonable estimate of these moments is therefore essential to proper
EBF design.
A series of tests was conducted that examined the redistribution of
initially unequal end moments in shear links and the effect on overall link
behavior. 13 ' 14 The effect of axial force on link behavior was also
examined in this study, an issue not considered in previous tests.
The conceptual set-up for this study is shown in Fig. 14(a), and the
actual test set-up in Fig. 14(b). This experimental arrangement was
devised by noting the similarity between the kinematics of Fig. 14(a) and
the kinematics of the inelastically deformed EBF in Fig 8(c). One end of
the link is attached to a stiff support, simulating a heavy column, and the
other end to a beam. Equal displacements of the beam are imposed by
 Seismic eccentrically braced frames 339
jacks 1 and 2 shown in Fig. 14(b), enforcing the kinematics of Fig. 14(a).
For tests with axial force in the link, jack 3 was controlled so that the link
axial force equalled the link shear at all times. Seven links were tested,
some with and some without axial force. All specimens were W8 x 10
sections, approximately half scale of a W 18 x 35. Link lengths varied
from about 1 •0 to 1 •6 MP/ vp.
Some significant observations from this series of tests are as follows:
(1) For very short links, say e = Mp/Vp, initially unequal end moments
remain unequal throughout the loading history up to link failure.
The ultimate link end moment at the column face is therefore
significantly larger than would be predicted by assuming moment
equalization. This larger end moment is important in column
design for EBFs. As link length increases, the ultimate link end
moments tend to equalize. When link length reaches about e = 1 •3
MP/ vp, full equalization of end moments can be expected. An
equation for estimating ultimate link moments for various length
links is given later in this paper.
(2) The initially unequal end moments have little effect on the plastic rotation
capacity or overall hysteretic behavior of a shear link. Test results for a
link with initially unequal end moments, shown in Fig. 15(a), are
essentially identical to previous specimens with equal end moments.
(3) Axial force in the link can cause significant deterioration in link
behavior. The specimen shown in Fig. 15(b) is identical to that in
Fig. 15(a), except that a cyclic axial force equal to the link shear
force was applied to the link. The plastic rotation and energy
dissipation

c
(a)
 E. P. Popov M. D. Engelhardt

(b)
Fig. 14. Set-up for testing links with initially unequal end moments. (a) Schematic; (b)
actual. 13
338

Fig. 15. Shear links with unequal end moments with (a) no axial force; (b) axial force.

capacities have clearly degraded. Further, it appears that the longer

the link, the more severe is the deterioration. EBF framing
 Seismic eccentrically braced frames 341
arrangements should therefore always be chosen to minimize axial
force in the links. If axial force in the link is unavoidable, link
length should be reduced. Recommendations for this situation are
given in Ref. 14.
(4) Interaction between bending moment and shear force can be neglected
when predicting the yield limit state of a link. That is, even in the
presence of very high shear, the fully plastic moment can be taken as Mp,
rather than a reduced value based on the flanges only. This result
contradicts predictions from simple plastic theory (see for example Ref.
18), but is confirmed by all available link tests. Neglecting M—V
interaction permits simplifications in analysis and design of links.

Tests on composite links

A further series of tests was conducted to investigate the behavior of

composite steel—concrete floor systems in EBFs. 19 The specific
objectives of this program included comparing the behavior of composite
shear links with bare steel shear links, determining the effectiveness of
the composite deck in
COMPOSITE DECK

Fig. 16. Test set-up for composite links.

 E. P. Popov M. D. Engelhardt

Fig. 17. Deformed composite shear link. 19

34()

providing lateral restraint for the link, and obtaining experimental data
on the effective width of composite floor beams under cyclic load.
A schematic of the experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 16. A total of
eight links was tested in this program. Four tests simulated interior links,
such as in Fig. I(b); the other four simulated links next to columns. In
each case, one bare steel and three composite links were tested. All
links were W 12 x 19 sections, 19 inches in length (e = 1 •2 Mp/Vp). The
composite beams were constructed by casting a lightweight concrete
slab on a ribbed metal deck, with the ribs oriented perpendicular to the
test beam. Shear studs welded to the steel beams were used to develop
composite action.
Some principal conclusions from this test series are as follows:
(1) The overall hysteretic behavior of composite shear links is very
similar to that of bare steel shear links. The composite links yield
in shear and dissipate energy primarily through web yielding, as
do the bare steel shear links. A photo of a deformed composite
link shows essentially the same type of behavior as a bare steel
link (Fig. 17). Composite shear links achieve the same plastic
rotations as bare links.
 Seismic eccentrically braced frames 343
(2) Damage to the concrete floor deck due to link deformation is
localized in the link region. Damage occurs in the form of cracking
and spalling of the slab above the link, slippage of the shear studs,
and

Fig. 18. Floor damage in composite link. 19

separation of the deck from the beam. At a link deformation of y =
0•06 radian, floor damage is remarkably small. As link deformation
is increased, however, floor damage becomes more extensive.
Figure 18 shows typical floor damage in the more advanced stages
of link deformation.
(3) Ultimate shear forces developed in the composite links were from
1 greater than those in the corresponding bare links.
(4) The composite floor system was not effective in providing lateral
restraint at the link ends. Transverse beams must be used to
laterally brace both ends of the link.

US—Japan tests

As part of the US—Japan Cooperative Program in earthquake

engineering, a full-scale six-story, two-bay steel building with eccentric
braces was tested in Tsukuba, Japan in 1984. 20 21 The building had a
single EBF bay of the type shown in Fig. I(b). Using recently developed
 E. P. Popov M. D. Engelhardt
pseudo-dynamic testing techniques, the building was subjected to a
major earthquake, using the 1952

Fig. 19. Detail of Tsukuba connection.

Taft earthquake accelerogram scaled to a peak ground acceleration of g.
The building survived the simulated earthquake in excellent condition
with relatively little visible damage. The test was then extended to
produce larger frame displacements and to determine the final failure
mechanism of the frame. During the extended tests, the gusset plates
connecting the braces to the second and third floor links buckled
severely. The connection detail that ultimately failed is shown in Fig. 19.
(An improved connection detail is suggested later in this paper.) Despite
the failure of the brace connection, the overall performance of the
building was excellent.
A O•3-scale replica of the Tsukuba test structure was later tested on a
shaking table at Berkeley. 22 The building was subjected to several severe
earthquakes and survived in excellent condition.
 Seismic eccentrically braced frames 345

LINK LENGTH AND STIFFENER REQUIREMENTS

Link length

As noted earlier, if one assumes perfect plasticity and no M—V

interaction, the theoretical dividing line between a shear and a moment
link is a length of e = 2 M / vp. The experimental results described above
indicate that the assumption of no M—V interaction is reasonable, but an
assumption of perfect plasticity is not. Substantial strain hardening
occurs in shear links, permitting ultimate shear forces on the order of 14
to 1 •5 Vp to develop. One implication of this strain hardening is that
both shear and moment yielding will occur over a range of link lengths.
For shear links, end moments substantially greater than Mp can develop.
The large end moments combined with the steep strain gradients that
occur in links lead to very large flange strains, which in turn can lead to
failure at flange welds. In order to prevent excessive flange strains, Kasai
and Popov 13 suggest limiting link end moments to Mp. Thus, from the
link statics of Fig. 7, if the end moments are limited to Mp and the link
shear is assumed to achieve 1-5 vp, the limiting link length is = 2(1-2
Mp)/1-5 vp = 1-6 Mp/Vp. This is the limit previously given by eqn (1).
Longer links offer some attractive architectural advantages, permitting
even larger openings in the frame. Also, as Fig. 9 illustrates, plastic
rotation demand is reduced as link length increases. However, the very
limited experimental data on longer links indicate that the reduced
rotation demand may be insufficient to offset the lower available rotation
capacity of longer links. Further, very large end moments on the order of
1 •5 Mp may develop in longer links, leading to substantial yielding in
the adjoining beam and brace. Because of potentially severe problems in
long links, as well as the lack of experimental data, the authors at present
recommend that the length limitation of eqn (1) be observed in the design
of EBFs.

Stiffener spacing and link rotation

Using the rather extensive body of experimental research described

above, Kasai and Popov 13 ' 23 developed definitive stiffener-spacing
criteria for shear links satisfying eqn (1). Combining classical monotonic
plastic plate buckling theory with all available experimental results, a
remarkably simple yet accurate rule was developed relating stiffener
spacing to available plastic rotation capacity up to the onset of inelastic
web buckling.
346 E. P. Popov, M. D. Engelhardt

As noted earlier, a well-stiffened shear link can achieve cyclic plastic

rotations of y radian. However, as a conservative measure, SEAOC II and
NEHRP IO recommend limiting y to radian. On this basis, the following
equations provide the required stiffener spacing:
d
radian (3)
d
radian or less (4)
where a is the stiffener spacing, d is the beam depth, and tw is the web
thickness. For values of y between and it is appropriate to interpolate.
After the designer estimates the required plastic rotation at a link, eqns
(3) and (4) provide the stiffener spacing needed to achieve it. For shear
links, stiffeners should be equally spaced along the length of the link. It
must be emphasized that the stiffener spacing criteria given above have
been developed for and are applicable to shear links that satisfy eqn (1).
Definitive recommendations for locating stiffeners in longer links are not
yet available.

EBF DESIGN
Some basic concepts and key aspects of EBF design are reviewed in this
section. Proper design of links and connections in EBFs requires an
understanding of the overall EBF design philosophy. The material in this
section is applicable to EBFs with shear links that meet the criteria of eqn
(1), and may not necessarily be appropriate for EBFs with longer links.
Preliminary considerations

An early decision in the EBF design process is the choice of bracing

arrangement. EBF types favored by the authors are shown in Fig. 1. The
arrangement of Fig. I(a) is useful for narrow bays. This EBF type should
preferably be used in symmetrically opposing pairs to maintain overall
symmetry in the bracing system. The EBF arrangement of Fig. I(b) has
the advantage of symmetry, and since the links are not adjacent to the
columns, link-to-column connections are avoided. The EBF type in Fig.
I(c) also has the advantage of symmetry, and, as previously noted,
reduced rotation demand at the links. As an additional guideline in
choosing a bracing arrangement, it is generally best to avoid brace-to-
beam angles less than about 40 degrees. As the brace-to-beam angle
 Seismic eccentrically braced frames 347

becomes smaller, very large axial forces are generated in the beam
segment adjoining the link, leading to potential strength and stability
problems in this member. Also, as noted earlier, bracing arrangements
that transfer large axial forces through the links should be avoided.
The designer must also choose a link length at the preliminary stages.
Again, it is emphasized that based on the present state of research on link
behavior, the use of shear links meeting the criteria of eqn (1) is
recommended. Lengths on the order of to 1 •3 MP/ Vp appear to be
particularly effective. A useful guide at the early stages of design is to
choose a link length on the order of 1 •5 to times the nominal beam depth.
For example, if the designer anticipates using W 18 sections, a
preliminary link length of about 27—36 inches would provide a
reasonable starting point. Of course, after member sizes are chosen, link
length should be checked against eqn (1). In general, it is possible to use
longer links while still satisfying eqn (1) by choosing heavier beam
sections.
In many applications, EBFs are combined with MRFs in the same
structure. For example, perimeter moment frames combined with EBFs
in the building core have been used in several tall buildings. The
redundancy provided by MRF-EBF combined systems is recognized by
both SEAOC II and NEHRP IO in the form of reduced lateral forces. In
many instances, moment-resisting connections are used at all beam—
column joints within the EBF itself, not only at the link-to-column
connections. Though moment connections at the non-link end of beams
are not essential in an EBF. they provide additional redundancy and
safety.

Design philosophy and procedures

Strength and ductility are the two key design requirements for any
seismicresistant structure. In a well-designed EBF, the strength and
ductility of the frame are directly related to the strength and ductility of
the links. As a result of this relationship, the basic design philosophy for
EBFs can be summarized as follows:
(l) Size the links to provide the required level of frame strength; detail
the links to provide the required level of ductility.
(2) Design and detail the other frame members to be stronger than the
links so that the strength and ductility of the links, and therefore
the frame, can be fully developed.
348 E. P. Popov, M. D. Engelhardt

With this approach, the links are designed for code or other specified
earthquake forces. All other frame members, however, are not designed
for code level forces, but rather for the forces generated by the fully
yielded and strain-hardened links. These represent the maximum forces
that can occur in these members regardless of earthquake magnitude. If
this design philosophy is followed, the maximum strength and ductility
of the EBF will be achieved by assuring that yielding in the frame is
restricted to the links. This approach is often referred to as capacity
design, because the other frame members are designed for the capacity
of the links. ms is analogous to the usual approach to MRF design
wherein yielding is restricted to the beam ends by assuring that the
columns are stronger than the beams.
Sizing members in EBFs to achieve this design philosophy is best
accomplished through the use of plastic design procedures. A
straightforward plastic design technique based on a generalized portal
method of analysis has been developed for EBFs by Kasai. 13 Some
highlights are described below.
The first members to be sized in an EBF are the links. For most EBF
configurations, there is a remarkably simple relationship between the link
shear force and the lateral forces on the frame. A highly simplified free
body diagram of a portion of a K-braced EBF is illustrated in Fig. 20. In
this figure, vcum is the accumulated story shear from the top of the
structure down to the level under consideration, and vlink is the resulting
shear force in the link. The forces not shown on the free-body diagram
either tend to cancel each other out or are small enough to be neglected.
By summing moments about point A, one obtains the following
relationship:

link cum (5)

A more formal derivation of this equation is found in Ref. 13, where it is

shown that eqn (5) also applies to single diagonal EBFs of the type shown
in Fig. I(a).
Equation (5) provides an extraordinarily simple and powerful tool for
estimating the shear force in the links. Once this shear force is computed,
a member is chosen to provide the required shear strength. If vcum is
based on
 Seismic eccentrically braced frames 349

Fig. 20. Simplified free-body diagram of eccentric K-brace frame.

factored earthquake loads, then a beam section is selected that provides

a Vp equal at least to the vlink given by eqn (5). Note that if the link is
adjacent to a column, an elastic frame analysis will show a very high
bending moment in the link at the column face. The link should, however,
still be sized on the basis of the required shear strength given by eqn (5).
This high end moment at the column face can essentially be ignored in
the link design (but not in the column design!). As the experimental
results simulating this situation have demonstrated, the early formation
of a plastic moment hinge at one end of a shear link has little effect on
the overall strength or rotation capacity of the

Once the link sections have been selected, all other frame members are
designed to remain essentially elastic under the forces generated by the
fully yielded and strain-hardened links. This requires an estimate of the
ultimate shear force and end moments that can be achieved by a [ink. The
ultimate shear force Vult should be taken as at [east:

(6)

For links adjacent to columns, ultimate link end moments can be taken
as. 13

for (7)
2

Ma = M Mb = Vulte- Mp (8)
350 E. P. Popov, M. D. Engelhardt

where Ma and Mb are the link end moments at the column face and at
the opposite end of the link, respectively. For links not adjacent to
columns, as in Fig. I(b), the ultimate moments given by eqn (7) are
appropriate for links of any length.
A basic premise of EBF design is that braces must not buckle. Braces
are therefore designed for the axial force generated by the ultimate link
shear given by eqn (6). As noted in the review of experimental results,
ultimate link shear forces may sometimes exceed somewhat the value of
1 •5 Vp due to overstrength of the web or due to the presence of a thick
composite concrete deck. A conservative design of the brace is therefore
appropriate. Note from Fig. 6 that the shear force in the beam segment
outside the link also contributes to the axial force in the brace. Also, a
portion of the ultimate link end moment given by eqns (7) and (8) will be
transferred to the brace, and this moment should be included in the brace
strength and stability computations. However, if short links are used, the
brace end moments will generally be small.
As illustrated in Fig. 6, the beam segrnent adjoining the link is subject
to a large axial force and a large bending moment, and must therefore be
treated as a beam—column in design. The large axial force reduces the
Mp of this member, and, in some instances, it may be reduced so far that
the beam will be unable to resist the ultimate link end moment given by
eqns (7) and (8). This will result in significant yielding of the beam, as
well as a transfer of large bending moments to the brace. This problem
can often be avoided by choosing a shorter link or by choosing a beam
section with about the same Vp but with a larger MP. As noted earlier,
selecting an EBF arrangement where the brace-to-beam angle is not too
small will result in smaller axial forces in the beam segment adjoining
the brace and is helpful in avoiding the above problems. Due to the high
axial force in these beam segments, adequate lateral bracing must be
provided to assure their stability, particularly in cases where a composite
deck is not present.
Columns in EBFs must be designed to remain essentially elastic under
the ultimate link forces (eqns (6), (7), and (8)), as well as the appropriate
gravity load contributions. The usual static analysis procedures typically
show inflection points (points of zero moment) near midheight of the
columns. Pauley24 has shown by dynamic analysis of a reinforced
concrete moment frame that such results can be misleading. At various
times during an earthquake, the column inflection points move about,
resulting in substantially different moment distributions than those
predicted by static analysis. The same phenomenon has been observed by
Ricles and Popov 19 in the inelastic dynamic analysis of EBFs in cases
 Seismic eccentrically braced frames 351

where the links are adjacent to the columns. There are two important
implications from this observation. First, the column end moments
predicted by static analysis must be amplified when checking column
strength. Secondly, column splices cannot be designed on the assumption
that bending moments are small near the column midheight, as these
moments may be very large at various instants during an earthquake.
Recommendations for handling this aspect of column design in EBFs are
provided in Ref. 19. An additional concern in column design occurs when
a single column forms part of two lateral-resisting frames in a building.
In this situation, the column must be designed considering biaxial effects.
SEAOC II recommends designing such columns for 100% of the forces in
one direction plus 30% of the forces in the orthogonal direction.
After sizing the members of the EBF, the designer must check the
rotation demand on the link to assure that the required frame ductility can
be achieved. SEAOC II and NEHRP IO provide simple procedures for
estimating the ultimate frame drift 8. The procedure essentially consists
of multiplying the elastic drift under code level forces by a specified
factor. Once the ultimate drift has been estimated, the rotation demand
on the link, y, can be computed from the appropriate equation for the
particular EBF type. For the EBF types of Fig. I(a) and I(b), the
appropriate relationship is given by eqn (2). Both SEAOC and NEHRP
conservatively recommend limiting y to radian. After the required
rotation has been computed, link stiffener spacing can be computed from
eqns (3) and (4).

LINK AND CONNECTION DETAILS

This section provides recommended details for links and selected

connections in seismic-resistant EBFs. Developing the ductility needed
to ride out a major earthquake is largely dependent on the proper detailing
of the critical frame elements and connections. The details illustrated in
this section are believed to be both safe and practical, based on the
present state of research on EBFs. 25 Many of the recommendations
contained in this section, particularly regarding links and link-to-column
connections, are consistent with recently adopted provisions of SEAOC
II
and NEHRP. 10

Link details
352 E. P. Popov, M. D. Engelhardt

Key elements in developing the full strength and rotation capacity of

shear links are proper stiffening and lateral bracing. Typical stiffening of
shear links is illustrated in Figs 21 and 22. Two-sided, full-depth
stiffeners must be provided at the link end (at the locations marked
'Lateral brace on this line' in Figs 21 and 22). Intermediate stiffeners,
equally spaced according to eqns (3) and (4), may be single sided for
beam depths less than 24 inches, but are required on both sides of the
web in deeper beams. If the web of the link is
LATERAL BRACE

ON THIS LINE

Fig. 21. Link and brace detail adjacent to column.25

LATERAL BRACE
 Seismic eccentrically braced frames 353

ON THIS LINE

Fig. 22. Typical detail for tube brace at link.'5

welded to a shear tab, as in Fig. 21, the intermediate stiffeners may be

spaced starting at the erection bolt line rather than the column face.
In general, stiffeners in a shear link should be full depth, welded to the
web and to both flanges. Although the primary function of the stiffener
is to reinforce the web, full-depth stiffeners provide additional restraint
against flange buckling and lateral-torsional buckling. Full-depth
stiffeners are therefore preferred over stiffeners welded to the web only
or to the web and one flange only. Stiffener size does not appear to be a
critical issue affecting shear link performance. Analytical considerations
regarding stiffener size can be found in Ref. 16. Simple rules for
sizing stiffeners and the stiffenerto-beam welds are provided by SEAOC
II
and NEHRP.
Lateral bracing must be provided at the link ends at the locations
shown in Figs 21 and 22. Strong and stiff lateral bracing at these locations
is critical to the stability of both the link and the brace. The function of
the lateral bracing is not only to restrain lateral-torsional buckling of the
beam, but also to hold the brace end within the plane of the frame. Any
out-of-plane eccentricity of the brace end will produce twisting of the
beam and the link whenever the brace is in compression. Thus, the brace
ends must be firmly held in place. As noted earlier, a composite deck by
itself cannot be counted upon to provide adequate lateral support for the
link ends. Rather, transverse beams are the preferred lateral-bracing
system.
354 E. P. Popov, M. D. Engelhardt

Connection details

Figure 21 illustrates a typical shear link-to-column connection. This

connection must be capable of developing the full bending and shear
 Seismic eccentrically braced frames 355
strength of the link. SEAOC II requires full-penetration flange welds and
a welded web connection capable of developing the shear capacity of the
link. Either fillet welding the web to a shear tab, as shown, or providing
a full penetration weld between the web and the column flange is
acceptable. The welding sequence should be chosen to minimize locked-
in stresses due to restraint. As previously noted, for the severe service
intended for links, bolted web connections show inadequate ductility due
to bolt slippage and should not be used. The authors also recommend
avoiding connections of links to column webs. The reliability of
connections to column webs has not been firmly established
experimentally, and design recommendations cannot be provided.
Some recommended brace-to-link connection details are illustrated in
Figs 21 and 22. Many other satisfactory details can be devised. SEAOC
II
recommends designing brace connections for the compression strength
of the brace. It must also be recognized that in certain cases significant
bending moments will be developed at the brace end, which must be
considered in the brace connection design. Large brace end moments are
most likely to be encountered when longer shear links, approaching the
upper length limit of eqn ( l), are used in combination with a very shallow
brace-to-beam angle. Direct welding of a W-section brace to the beam,
as in Fig. 21, is particularly effective in cases where large end moments
may develop in the brace. It also avoids the rather large gusset and splice
plates sometimes needed for a W-section bracing connection, though
care is required in the fabrication and erection process to avoid fit-up
problems. Figure 22 shows recommended connections for rectangular
and square tube braces. These details are intended to avoid the gusset
buckling type of failure observed in the Tsukuba test. Bending moments
in the beam produce large compressive stresses along the edge of the
gusset nearest the link. Stiffening of this edge, as shown in Fig. 22, is
therefore recommended. The connection can also be made more compact
by cutting the brace end parallel to the beam and locating it as close to
the beam as practical.
Nominally, the brace centerline should intersect the beam centerline at
the end of the link, as shown on the left side of Fig. 22. However,
analytical studies have shown that it is acceptable for the brace and beam
centerlines to intersect somewhat inside the link, as shown in Fig. 21 and
on the right side of Fig. 22. This will, in some cases, permit a more
compact brace connection. The centerlines should not, however, intersect
outside of the link.
Some suggested details for the nominally concentric connection at the
non-link end of the brace are illustrated in Figs 23 and 24. The case of
 E. P. Popov M. D. Engelhardt
the brace framing into a moment-resisting beam—column connection is
shown in Fig. 23. An alternative approach to this particular connection
would be to provide a welded rather than a bolted beam—web
connection. The advant-

Fig. 23. Typical detail for brace at moment beam—column connection.25

(b)
Fig. 24. Typical detail for brace at non-moment beam—column connection. 25 (a) Beam-
tocolumn flange connection. (b) Section A—A.

age of a welded beam web is a more predictable distribution of vertical

forces at the connection between the gusset and the beam web. If
simple beam-column framing is used, a suggested detail is shown in Fig.
 Seismic eccentrically braced frames 357
24. A problem observed in tests on EBFs with simple framing at the non-
link end of the beam is the out-of-plane twisting of the beam at the
connection. The connection must provide restraint against such
twisting, and a single plate
352

shear tab may not by itself be adequate for this purpose. For the detail
shown in Fig. 24, additional restraint against twisting is provided by the
extended plates at the top and bottom of the beam. A more compact brace
connection can sometimes be achieved by offsetting the work point from
the column centerline to, for example, the column face, as shown in Fig.
24. The same concept can be used to advantage for the type of connection
in Fig. 23. The additional moment produced by an offset in the work
point should be included in the column design.

NON-SEISMIC APPLICATIONS OF EBFs

Although the advantages of EBFs in seismic-resistant construction have

only recently been fully recognized and developed, the use of eccentric
bracing itself is an old concept, particularly for wind bracing
applications. Here, EBFs provide the same advantages of flexible brace
locations and larger frame openings for doors, windows or other
architectural features. Eccentric bracing can also sometimes be used to
advantage in avoiding large and costly connections which may result
solely from the geometric requirement of forcing the centerlines of all
the members through a common working point.
Structures are typically designed to respond elastically to wind loads,
and therefore the usual elastic methods of analysis and design are
acceptable. Of course the use of plastic design methods is also suitable for
wind loads and should lead to economical designs.
EBFs in wind bracing applications are not required to dissipate energy
through inelastic link deformations, and link stiffeners can therefore
generally be eliminated. Also, since demands on the link are not as great,
the requirement of a welded web connection at columns can be relaxed,
and more conventional bolted web connections can be used. The
suggested brace connection details illustrated in Figs 21—24 are, of
course, suitable for wind bracing applications.
 E. P. Popov M. D. Engelhardt
CONCLUSIONS

This paper has provided an overview of seismic-resistant Eccentrically

Braced Frames (EBFs) , with particular emphasis on the behavior and
design of shear links. EBFs provide a unique combination of stiffness,
strength and ductility, making them a viable lateral load-resisting system
for steel structures subject to severe earthquake loads. The rather
extensive experimental research conducted on EBFs over the last ten
years has led to a good understanding of their behavior and has permitted
development of the design and detailing recommendations outlined in this
paper.
Research is continuing on several aspects of EBF behavior and design.
Inelastic dynamic analysis of EBFs subject to real earthquake records 19
is providing additional useful rules for improving upon the basic code-
based design procedures. In addition, experimental work is underway on
the behavior of moment links, determining their suitability and range of
applicability in EBFs.

ACKNOWLEDGNENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge the National Science Foundation

(current grant ECE-8418487) and the American Iron and Steel Institute
for support of much of the work described in this paper. The second
author also acknowledges the continued financial support of the
American Institute of Steel Construction Fellowship Program. The
opinions expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the sponsors.

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