COURSE: PHYS2300

TOPIC: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY

Content
• Introduction to magnetism in matter
• Magnetization (M)
• Magnetic Intensity (H)
• Susceptibility
• Permeability

Magnetism in Matter

• Matter is composed of atoms consisting of positively charged nuclei and negative electrons.
• The magnetic properties in matter are due to atomic magnetic dipoles in materials.
• These magnetic dipoles result from two things:
1. An electron in orbit around the nucleus makes up a small circulating current , which
generates a magnetic field.
2. An electron has an intrinsic magnetic moment because of electron “spin”.

• In the absence of field, the magnetic moments (m) are randomly oriented within matter.
• When an external field is applied, the magnetic moments tend to align along the direction of the
field.
• We may characterize the degree of alignment as the total magnetic moment per unit volume of
the material, where the total magnetic moment is the vector sum of the individual moments.
• This is the magnetization M of the material.

• A small current loop has a magnetic dipole moment m of magnitude iA (current X area).
• If this is placed in a field B it experiences a torque, given by

• The torque tends to align m and B.

Amperean Surface Current

• Placing a sample in an external field causes the atomic dipoles to tend to

align with the field.
• This alignment is equivalent to a surface current around the outside of
the sample.
Note that the surface current “explains” the increased field within the sample
(paramagnetic).

Magnetisation (M)
• In the wound toroid, the presence of matter changes the magnetic field from Bo to B .
• This is equivalent to an additional current Im
 • Define M as the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume in the material.

• Since

• it is useful to define a new field vector, H :

= a more useful form of Ampere’s Law.

• Note that

and, in a vacuum, B = oH

• The magnetic field is

i.e. with the same current, the material increases the field by oM

• Note that M would be negative for diamagnetic materials

Magnetic Susceptibility

• For most materials, M is proportional to B

• We define  such that M =  (1/ o) B
• The dimensionless factor  can be considered a measure of how susceptible a material is to
being magnetized
Note: Some Texts use a different definition

• The dimensionless factor  can be considered a measure of how susceptible a material is to

being magnetized.
• For paramagnetic substances,  is positive and M is in the same direction as B
• For diamagnetic substances,  is negative and M opposes B

Classifying Materials by Permeability

• Materials can be classified by how their permeability compares with the permeability of free
space (mo)
• Paramagnetic:
• Diamagnetic:
• Ferromagnetic:
 • Because  is very small for paramagnetic and diamagnetic substances, μm ~ μo for those
substances

Paramagnetism
• m is positive and very small (~10-4)
and  ≈ o with a difference of less than 0.1%

• Basis : Permanent magnetic dipole moment of atoms/molecules tend to align with an applied
field.
Origin : orbit and spin of unpaired electrons

Diamagnetism
• m is negative and very small (~10-5)
and  ≈ o with a difference of less than 0.1%

• Basis : Magnetic dipole moment of atoms/molecules are induced by and oppose the applied
field. Diamagnetism is always present but is smaller than Paramagnetism.
• Origin : Induction effect on orbital electrons. Lenz’s law.

• Consider the (paired) electrons in a magnetic field:

 Switching on a magnetic field creates a small dipole moment (m) which opposes the field.

Ferromagnetism
•  >> o (  is not used for ferromagnetism.)
• The value of mm is not only a characteristic of the substance, but depends on the previous state
of the substance and the process it underwent as it moved from its previous state to its present
state
• Origin: Interaction of neighbouring atoms causes alignment of electron spin. This occurs within
“domains”.
o Domains are visible using a simple microscope. (~ 0.1 mm)
• With an increasing applied field the favoured domains get larger and eventually rotate to align
with the field.
 On removing the external field some magnetisation remains

Energy in a Magnetic Field

• The energy density for a magnetic field can be calculated by considering the work required to
create the field.
• When the field is being created in a wound toroid, Faraday’s law gives the “back emf” : Vb = A
(dB/dt)
•
This is created in each loop of wire. So the total work required to create a field B is given by

• If  is constant (not ferromagnetics), H = (1/ )B and the energy density of the field is

Example: Virtual Work

• The formula can be obtained by the method of “virtual work”

For a (imaginary) movement x into a field B the sample occupies a volume A x which was
previously air.

• The change in stored energy is therefore

A x(1/2 B12/1) - A x(1/2 Bo2/o) which equals the work done by the force acting on the
sample.