History of Special

Education
HISTORY OF SPECIAL EDUCATION

NOTABLE FIGURES:
16TH CENTURY TO PRESENT DAY
 PEDRO PONCE DE LEON
(1520-1584)

A Benedictine monk from Spain, de Leon is credited as being the

first “teacher of the deaf ”.
He first had success tutoring a man named Gaspard Burgos, who
was rejected as a monk due to the fact that he was deaf and had
difficulty communicating. Ponce de Leon taught him to speak so
that he could make his confession.

He went on to teach other individuals to write and speak, although

his methods were either never recorded or have been lost.
 JACOB RODRIGUES PEREIRA
(1715-1780)

Spanish-born Rodrigues Pereira’s work with deaf-mute individuals

in France won him a grant from King Louis XV.

He developed an early form of sign language, and demonstrated

that individuals who were deaf could be taught how to
communicate.

His work inspired others, most notably Edouard Seguin.

 PHILIPPE PINEL
(1745-1826)

Celebrated as the first doctor who “freed the mad from their
chains”, this humanitarian-minded French physician pioneered the
field of occupational therapy.

He also served as Itard’s mentor.

 JEAN-MARC GASPARD ITARD
(1774-1838)

The Father of Special Education.

This French doctor is most famously known for his efforts to
educate and reform the “Wild Boy of Averyon”, proving even the
most “unteachable” individuals could learn.
He also included sensory stimulation in his work.
 THOMAS HOPKINS GALLAUDET
(1787-1851)

This American minister co-founded the first institution for deaf

individuals in the United States, which still exists today as the
American School for the Deaf.
He also has a post-secondary learning institution, Gallaudet
University, named in his honor.
 SAMUEL GRIDLEY HOWE
(1801-1876)

Founded the first institution for the blind in the United States,
known today as Perkins School for the Blind.

He was also a fierce advocate for the education of individuals who

are blind.
 DOROTHEA LYNDE DIX
(1802-1887)

Dix’s activism championing more humane treatment for mentally ill

individuals led to the establishment of the first generation of
“mental asylums”.
 LOUIS BRAILLE
(1809-1852)

Developed a written language used in aiding individuals who are

blind in learning to read and write. This tactile system is used today,
often seen in public spaces, such as schools.
Louis Braille was himself blind.
 EDOUARD SEGUIN
(1812-1880)

Expanding upon Itard’s work, Edouard Seguin developed teaching

methods for the cognitively impaired that centered around
sensorimotor activities.

After moving to the U.S., he helped found an organization that

later became the American Association on Intellectual and
Developmental Disabilities.

Other notable works include his book, “Idiocy: and its Treatment by the
Physiological Method”.
 FRANCIS GALTON
(1822-1911)

Believed that geniuses were born, not made.

Was also the first to apply statistical analysis to human differences.

Coined the term “eugenics”.

 ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL
(1847-1922)

Bell’s work as a teacher for children with hearing impairments and

experimentation with hearing devices led to the invention of the
telephone.

Bell believed that children with hearing impairments could learn to

speak if only what hearing they had was amplified.
 ALFRED BINET
(1857-1911)

Co-Developer of the Binet-Simon scale, the first standardized scale

designed to measure intelligence.
Along with Theodore Simon, was one of the first to use mental
age as a quantifiable concept.
 MARIA MONTESSORI
(1870-1952)

Montessori was an expert in early childhood education who

postulated that children can begin learning at an early age, as long
as their environment was appropriately stimulating and
manipulatives were made available to them.
Curriculums centered around her work are still used today in many
schools and by many families who homeschool.
 LOUIS TERMAN
(1877-1956)

The Grandfather of Gifted Education.

Coined the term “intelligence quotient (IQ)”.
Expanded upon Binet’s work and published the Stanford-Binet
Scale of Intelligence in 1916.
 MARIANNE FROSTIG
(1906-1985)

Stressed the importance of a multidisciplinary and

multidimensional diagnostic evaluation.

She, along with a team, developed a series of tests that assessed

youngsters in the areas of motor skills and visual perception. This
approach remained popular for a few years until it was ultimately
discredited.
Founded The Frostig School, now part of The Frostig Center,
which centers itself around children with learning disabilities.
 JOHN F KENNEDY
(1917-1963)

Kennedy’s younger sister, Rosemary, was born with intellectual

disabilities.

Created a transition task force before his inauguration, whose

findings led to the creation of the National Institute of Child
Health and Human Development, which still exists today.
Created a 27-member panel on “mental retardation” who
researched and compiled 100 recommendations for a “bold”
federal approach to intellectual disabilities.
 JOHN F KENNEDY (CONTINUED)
(1917-1963)

In 1963, he outlined recommendations for a variety of health-

related services, which included initiatives to “move away” from
institutions and towards community centers capable of providing
diagnostic and treatment services.
October 24, 1963- signed the “Maternal and Child Health and
Mental Retardation Planning Amendment to the Social Security
Act” in which it allowed grants to states so they may overhaul their
intellectual disability programs.
 JOHN F KENNEDY (CONTINUED)
(1917-1963)

October 31, 1963- signed a second piece of legislation that

allocated funds for the construction of diagnostic, research, and
treatment centers. This included specialized research facilities. This
legislation also increased funding for training teachers “of mentally
retarded and other handicapped children.”
HISTORY OF SPECIAL EDUCATION

MEANINGFUL LEGISLATION
AND SELECTED COURT CASES
IN THE
UNITED STATES
 BROWN V. BOARD OF
EDUCATION
1954

Supreme Court ruled segregation of students based on race

unconstitutional, citing that it deprived segregated students of an
equal opportunity to education.
This set a precedent that would later be used to argue for an
integrated learning environment for student with disabilities.
 DIANA V. STATE BOARD OF
EDUCATION
1970

Students can not be placed in special education solely based on IQ

tests designed for native English speakers.
Stipulated that IQ tests must be culturally sensitive, meaning that
students must be tested in their native language as well as English.
Results from a group-administered IQ test can not be used to place
a child in special education services.
 PARC V. COMMONWEALTH OF
PENNSYLVANIA
1972

Pennsylvania Court ruled that the state had to guarantee a free public
education, in the most integrated environment, to all children with an
intellectual disability between the ages of 6 and 21.
Parents had to be notified of any proposed changes to their child’s
educational status, and had a right to due process.
State to engage in “child-find” efforts to locate and accommodate all
students with an intellectual disability.
Preschool services were also to be provided for preschoolers with
intellectual disabilities if the local schools already provided classes for
preschoolers without disabilities.
 MILLS V. BOARD OF EDUCATION
1972

Expanded upon the PARC case to include all children with disabilities.
Further stipulated that the state was beholden to provide a free public
education to all students, regardless of their functional level. This
established a constitutional right for children with exceptionalities.
Fiscal concerns were ruled not valid enough to turn away students.
Due process was expanded upon, and parents were now required to be
notified of pending evaluations, reassignments, or planned cessation
of services.
 LARRY P V. RILES
1972, 1979
Ruled that minority students (specifically African American students)
could not be placed in special education classes solely based off of
assessments that were culturally and racially biased.
The court mandated that school officials overhaul their assessment
process, to include diagnostic tools that were culturally sensitive.
Due to lack of compliance with the initial order, the court revisited
this case in 1979 and ruled that using IQ tests to place African
American students in classes for children with intellectual disabilities
was expressly prohibited.
This decision only applies to the state of California.
 SECTION 504 OF THE
REHABILITATION ACT
1973

First law implemented specifically to protect children and adults

with disabilities from discrimination.
Stated that no individual can be excluded from participating in or
benefitting from any program receiving federal funds solely on the
basis of their disability. This included schools.
Schools are to make “reasonable accommodations” for students
with disabilities, which may include related services.
 SECTION 504 OF THE
REHABILITATION ACT
(CONTINUED)
1973

Further outlined a functional model for determining disability.

Individuals hoping to obtain services through Section 504 must
meet the following criteria:
1. Have a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits
one or more major life activities (this includes walking, seeing,
hearing, working, and learning);
2. Have a record of such impairment; or
3. Are regarded as having such an impairment by others.
 LAU V. NICHOLS
1974

Supreme Court ruled that, by providing all learning materials in one

language (English), students who are not native speakers are being
deprived of their equal opportunity to access “a meaningful
education”.
Schools were required to offer special language classes to English
Language Learners.
 INDIVIDUALS WITH
DISABILITIES EDUCATION ACT-
IDEA
1975

Signed by President Gerald Ford in 1975.

Originally titled “Education for All Handicapped Children Act”
Regarded as the “Bill of Rights” for children with disabilities and
their families.
This legislation changed the landscape of education in the United
States, outlining six principles that are still followed today.
 INDIVIDUALS WITH
DISABILITIES EDUCATION ACT–
IDEA (CONTINUED)
1975

A Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) is guaranteed to

all children, regardless of the severity of their disability, at no cost
to the child’s family. Related services are included in this
stipulation.

Children with disabilities are to be educated in the Least

Restrictive Environment (LRE), to the maximum extent
appropriate. This means that children who receive special
education services are to take part in an integrated learning
environment with children in a general education setting.
 INDIVIDUALS WITH
DISABILITIES EDUCATION ACT–
IDEA (CONTINUED)
1975

An Individualized Education Plan (IEP) is to be developed in

conjunction with the child’s parent(s)/guardian(s) and is required to
specify:
• The present level of academic functioning;
• Annual goals and accompanying instructional objectives;
• Educational services to be provided;
• The degree to which the student will be able to participate in
general education programs;
• Plans for initiating services and length of service delivery; and
• An annual evaluation procedure specifying objective criteria to
determine if instructional objectives are being met.
 INDIVIDUALS WITH
DISABILITIES EDUCATION ACT-
IDEA (CONTINUED)
1975

Procedural due process is guaranteed to students and their

families.
• Rights also established for parent(s)/guardian(s) are the right to
confidentiality of records; to examine all records; to obtain an
independent evaluation; to receive prior written notice (in their
native language) of all proposed changes to their child’s education
plan or placement; to an impartial hearing in the event of a
disagreement; and the right to legal counsel.
 INDIVIDUALS WITH
DISABILITIES EDUCATION ACT–
IDEA (CONTINUED)
1975

Nondiscriminatory Assessment. A child must be evaluated by a

multidisciplinary team in all areas of suspected disability using assessment
tools that are not racially, culturally, or linguistically biased. Multiple
assessment tools must be used; placement can not be decided based on
solely one evaluation.
The final principle is Meaningful Parental Participation. Parents are
required to engage fully in the decision-making process.
IDEA was reauthorized in 1986, 1990, and 1997
 ARMSTRONG V. KLINE
1980

Schools are required to provided an appropriate year-round

education to students with severe disabilities whom, without a year-
round schedule, would find themselves regressing.
Not providing a year-round education for these students is ruled as
denying their right to an appropriate education.
 BOARD OF EDUCATION OF THE
HENDRICK HUDSON CENTRAL
SCHOOL DISTRICT V. ROWLEY
1982

First Supreme Court interpretation of IDEA.

Supreme Court ruled that an “appropriate” education is one in
which a student is given reasonable opportunity to learn, not one
where they obtain maximum achievement.
Parents were denied request for a sign-language interpreter.
 AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES
ACT- ADA
1990

Signed in 1990 by President George H.W. Bush

This Civil Rights enactment prohibits discrimination against
individuals with disabilities in both the public and private sectors.
ADA expands upon the definition of “disabled" to include
individuals with AIDS, individuals who have successfully
completed a substance abuse program, and persons with cosmetic
disfigurements. Essentially, anyone who has an impairment that
severely limits a major life activity is protected by this law.
 AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES
ACT- ADA (CONTINUED)
1990

Some provisions mandated by this law:

• Employers of 15 or more employees must make reasonable
accommodations for current and prospective employees with
disabilities.
• This is so that otherwise qualified applicants with disabilities do
not feel discriminated against.
• Mass transit systems must be accessible by individuals with
disabilities.
 AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES
ACT- ADA (CONTINUED)
1990

• Restaurants, theaters, hotels, schools, retail stores, medical

facilities, etc. may not discriminate against persons with
disabilities. Furthermore, facilities must be accessible (including
an alternative means of providing services).
• Telephone companies must offer relay services for individuals
with hearing or speech impairments.
This act was later amended in 2008 to broaden the definition of
“disability” and further outline what “major life activities” are to
include activities such as reading, concentrating, and thinking.
 OBERTI V. BOARD OF
EDUCATION OF THE BOROUGH
OF CLEMENTON SCHOOL
DISTRICT
1992

Stipulated that before a child is considered for placement in a

segregated classroom, the child must be offered placement in a
general education classroom with the provision of aides and
supplementary services.
Students can not be excluded from a general education classroom
due to curriculum modifications or the student’s need for services.
A decision to exclude a child from a general education classroom
requires careful documentation that justifies the exclusion.
A judicial precedent is set favoring inclusion.
 CEDAR RAPIDS COMMUNITY
SCHOOL DISTRICT V. GARRET F
1999

Supreme Court expanded upon and defined “related services”.

Refused to rule on the basis of cost. Instead affirmed that

continuous health care services fall under the definition of related
services and must be funded by the schools.
 NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND- NCLB
2001

Signed by President George W. Bush in 2001.

This law aimed to elevate all students, including children in special
education, to 100% proficiency in the areas of mathematics,
reading, and science by 2014.
Children in Grades 3 through 8 are required to undergo annual
testing, with one last assessment between the Grades 10 and 12.
Test scores must be categorized according to the student’s
disability, social economic status, race, ethnicity, and English
language proficiency.
 NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND- NCLB
(CONTINUED)
2001

Schools that are designated as “failing” will be provided with technical

and financial assistance.
• Parents of children in failing schools are able to transfer their
children into another school of their choice, this includes private
and religious schooling.
Furthermore, this law requires that parents be notified of the
qualifications of their children’s teachers.
• All elementary and secondary school teachers were to be “highly
qualified” by 2005.
The enactment of this law has ushered in an era of “high-stakes
testing”
 IDEA 2004
2004
Passed by Congress and signed by President George W. Bush in 2004.
Some highlights of this law:
Relaxes participation requirements for participation in IEP meetings.
Initiation of transition services at age 16.
IEPs to incorporate research-based interventions. Schools can now elect to use
a process that determines whether the student responds to these interventions,
commonly referred to as Response To Interventions (RTI).
Special educators required to be “highly qualified” according to individual state
standards.
Statute of limitations now imposed on parents for filing due process
complaints, and a resolution session is required prior to a due process hearing.
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