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Archaeotechnology

Archaeometallurgy and the Analysis of Early


Sociotechnical Systems
Robert M. Ehrenreich

cessfully repeated. Three presentations and Roman sites after the main periods
INTRODUCTION
covered the industrial organization of of occupation. Second, did the furnaces
Early metalwork has been analyzed early metal sociotechnical systems. They have to work convectively or could they
and discussed for more than 90 years. were delivered by Carl Blair of the Uni- have been assisted by bellows? The
The thrust of archaeometallurgy has versity of Minnesota, Daniel K. Higgin- shafts of the furnace bottoms found
shifted within the past 15 years, how- bottom of the University of Minnesota, would have to have been at least 2 m in
ever. Generally speaking, earlier studies and Nancy L. Wicker of Mankato State height in order to work convectively.
concentrated on the technological devel- University. This would have made the Kelheim fur-
opment of the materials, whereas cur- Blair analyzed the industrial orga- naces bigger by approximately an order
rent studies focus more on the societies nization of prehistoric iron smelting, of magnitude than any built in Iron Age
in which the materials were used. based on the archaeological evidence or Medieval Europe. Third, was the
There are two reasons for this tran- from the Iron Age site of Kelheim, Ger- quantity of iron produced required to
sition. The first is that furthering the many, and the results of smelting reen- support the needs of an Iron Age op-
understanding of ancient societies is the actments using small (internal diameter pida, when such quantities were never
ultimate goal of archaeology. The second of 0.35 m and height of 1 m; Celtic Iron produced to support larger Medieval
reason is that sufficient data about the Age), medium (0.5mx 1-1.5 m; Roman), towns? Fourth, was there a sufficient
history of metals have now been accu- and tall (0.8-1 m x 2-3 m; Burgenland) population on the oppida to run this in-
mulated to permit the formulation of shaft furnaces. Higginbottom, who par- dustry as well as tend the fields and
valid hypotheses about the interrelation- ticipated in the smelting operation or- maintain the other enterprises present?
ship of society and metal technology. ganized by Blair, presented the results Fifth, were the cost and benefit advan-
Archaeometallurgists now approach of the reenactments. The oppida, or tages for the Iron Age the same as for
early metalworking as a sociotechnical town, of Kelheim was occupied prima- today? Higginbottom stated in his re-
system in which the technology is not rily between 125 B.C. and 50 B.C. view of the experimental reenactments
only inextricably linked to certain tools The site yielded evidence of extensive that the medium, Roman-type shaft fur-
and techniques but also to social behav- iron smelting, including furnace remains nace was the most efficient when con-
iors and societal organizations. Whereas of approximately 1 m in diameter and struction, maintenance, raw-materials,
earlier work viewed technological devel- roughly 50,000 tonnes of iron slag. If the and labor demands were taken into ac-
opment as an independent process that assumption were made that all of the count. This conclusion seems sounder,
periodically affected society, current slag was produced during the 75 year although the slag remains may have to
studies approach technology as an inte- primary occupation of the site, the pro- be reassessed to determine whether they
gral part of society that is developed, duction numbers are staggering. Even could have been produced beyond the
reproduced, and adopted for reasons using the more efficient Burgenland fur- 75 year period of the main occupation
that are innate to the society itself. As naces, approximately 50 smelting opera- of the Kelheim oppida.
Bryan Pfaffenberger of the University of tions would have been required, each Wicker discussed the possibility of
Virginia said, "Technology ... is not ma- running approximately 130 cycles per identifying the individual smiths who
terial culture but rather a total social phe- year. This effort would have required produced gold pendants, known as
nomenon ... that marries the material, roughly 1,000 tonnes of ore, 3,440 tonnes bracteates, in Scandinavia during the 5th
the social, and the symbolic in a com- of charcoal, and a labor force of approxi- and early 6th centuries A.D. Bracteates
plex web of associations."l This new mately 330 full-time people per year. measured approximately 2-3 cm in di-
emphasis on metalworking as a socio- Support of this industry would also have ameter and were suspended around the
technical system was the focus of Euro- required the annual efforts of approxi- neck by gold chains. A central motif was
pean Metals: From Experiment to mately 160 colliers, 150 miners, and 125 stamped on the face and surrounded by
Theory, a symposium held at the Soci- wood cutters. Blair concludes that such at least one punched border. The chain
ety for American Archaeology confer- an effort would have required the use was strung through a loop that was at-
ence this past April in New Orleans, of the Burgenland furnaces and the ex- tached to the top edge of the piece. These
Louisiana. istence of a rudimentary guild industrial precious artifacts were symbols of
organization to ensure the successful wealth and prestige and, as such, were
INDUSTRIAL ASPECTS
production of the iron and the survival probably produced at a limited number
A key aspect of any sociotechnical sys- of the industry through generations. of elite workshops. Although most
tem is its industrial organization. Every There are a number of points that re- bracteates were found in Scandinavia,
technology requires a system by which quire further clarification, however. examples have been recovered from Brit-
raw materials are amassed, refined, and First, was all of the slag actually pro- ain, Hungary, and even Russia. The
distributed, and techniques are transmit- duced in the 75 year period? Smelting identification of individual goldsmiths
ted to following generations and suc- continued at many European Iron Age could provide insight into the organiza-

iii the .n~erof scflofars wIlo~~oeused til. ~oo·earty imlustJlaf orgarnzatioos, a field at study that
llaVee!l!1d:uote(l fieldWork geared to the sI ologfes in a oultural e!Inte~ and have dmWn on
·theirint$IJlI'9ti¥El !'l~!i!lm:~ . ydel,)aJtmeot aresolicltedandrevfewed bfRobeI'l
flesearc~ Oooooil.

62 JOM • July 1996


tion of sociotechnical systems and the between the 5th and 12th centuries A.D. Christian body-and-spirit belief and
training, itineracy, and social status of and in Sweden between the mid-6th and slag-and-iron symbolism with the pre-
smiths during this period. Preliminary 11th centuries A.D. The presence of slag Christian linking of iron and humanity
analysis of die and punch impressions was not restricted on the basis of gen- would have made slag a very forceful
on 850 artifacts identified three artifacts der, social status, wealth, or faith (Le., image in Finnish society.
with identical tool markings and, there- pagan or Christian). For decades, archae- Scott discussed the distribution of oval
fore, workshop affinities. ologists have debated whether the slag bronze brooches in women's graves in
Although these results confirm that it was intentionally placed in burials and the Orkney and Shetland islands of Scot-
is possible to identify early artifacts that what its significance was. Some ar- land during the late 8th and 9th centu-
were made with the same tool, many is- chaeologists believe that the slag was not ries A.D. and the suitability of these arti-
sues require resolution before real hy- intentionally added but was a contami- facts for the identification of Viking
potheses about individual goldsmiths, nant of the fill earth. Other archaeolo- women. She cautioned against the use
specialist workshops, and sociotechnical gists argue that the accidental inclusion of these brooches alone as ethnicity
systems can be formulated. Tools could of settlement debris in burials would be markers for a number of reasons. First,
have been shared among members of unusual since cemeteries and settlement the manner of periodic mass production
one workshop or between workshops if sites are rarely in close proximity to each prevents the tracing of the different
either the master smiths or the appren- other. A number of burials with slag types to particular Viking sites. Second,
tices were itinerant. Also, the life span were also discovered in areas in which it cannot be ascertained whether the
of tools could have lasted decades, dur- no other slag was found. Thus, some women who were buried with these ar-
ing which time a smith or workshop archaeologists believe that the slag was tifacts actually viewed them as indica-
could have dramatically changed styles. a deliberate addition to the burials as a tors of "Viking" identity. These brooches
Thus, although the preliminary results symbolic metaphor for the process of could have been viewed as indicators of
show potential, further research is re- death. The production of slag as a by- other attributes such as social rank, or
quired before any real conclusions can product of the liberation of iron from ore simply as the most reasonable method
be reached. by smelting can be equated with the for attaching the shoulder straps of the
Christian belief that the corpse is a by- women's dresses.
CULTURAL ASPECTS product of the release of a disembodied
Many times, the societal aspects of spirit with death.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
sociotechnical systems are most clearly Iron and humanity were also closely I thank Carl Blair and Deborah J. Sheperd
seen in the rituals associated with death. linked in the pre-Christian folklore of for inviting me to participate in the sympo-
Deborah J. Sheperd of the University of Finland. One of the three main heroes sium on European archaeometallurgy. I also
Minnesota and Barbara Scott both dis- of Finnish folklore was Ilmarinen, the ar- thank Vincent Pigott for his insightful com-
cussed the cultural implications of met- chetypal smith. Ilmarinen took iron, ments. Finally, I express my gratitude to
als technology based on artifacts recov- which was believed to be a living being John and Maureen McGill for their gracious
ered from burials. that was culpable for the harm it did, and hospitality in Ireland.
Shepard discussed the significance of tamed it. He made iron swear an oath
Reference
the presence of slag in Finnish burials. not to harm its "tribe." By doing so,
Iron slag has been found in both inhu- Ilmarinen links iron and humanity in a 1. Bryan Pfaffenberger, "Felished Objecls and Humanised
Nature: Towards an Anthropology of Technology," Man, 23
mation and cremation burials in Finland tight bond. This combination of the (1988), pp. 236-252.

1996 July • JOM 63

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