Introduction SLEEPLESNESS

If you struggle to fall asleep or wake up in the middle of the night and can’t get back to
sleep, and this persists for a few days, a few weeks or longer, you suffer from
sleeplessness, a serious disorder that robs your body of the rest it requires to re-energize
you physically, mentally and emotionally. A typical form of sleeplessness also referred to as
insomnia, occurs when you wake up during the night, realize you are wide-awake when you
should be sleeping and then become anxious. The anxiety causes adrenaline to flood the
system and adrenaline prompts the body into action – the opposite of what you need for
effective sleep. If this sounds like you, you’re not alone. Sleeplessness affects all age
groups. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services reports that about 60 million
Americans suffer from insomnia each year. The National Sleep Foundation reports that
disordered sleep – difficulty falling asleep, light sleep or nonrestorative sleep for several
nights or more weekly – affects nearly two-thirds of American adults at some point. It’s
believed that sleeplessness increases as we grow older. More than half of older Americans
have trouble sleeping and think it’s a part of aging. It’s not.

The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and
most invertebrate animals. The brain is located in the head, usually close to the sensory organs
for senses such as vision. The brain is the most complex organ in a vertebrate's body. In a human,
the cerebral cortex contains approximately 10–20 billion neurons,[1] and the estimated number of
neurons in the cerebellum is 55–70 billion.[1] Each neuron is connected by synapses to several
thousand other neurons. These neurons communicate with one another by means of
long protoplasmic fibers called axons, which carry trains of signal pulses called action potentials to
distant parts of the brain or body targeting specific recipient cells.

Statement of the problem

A sleep disorder is a condition that frequently impacts your ability

to get enough quality sleep. While it’s normal
to occasionally experience difficulties sleeping, it’s not normal
to regularly have problems getting to sleep at night, to wake up feeling
exhausted, or to feel sleepy during the day.
Frequently having trouble sleeping can be a frustrating and debilitating
experience. You sleep badly at night which leaves you feeling dead-
tired in the morning and whatever energy you have quickly drains away
throughout the day. But then, no matter how exhausted you feel at
night, you still have trouble sleeping. And so the cycle begins again,
taking a serious toll on your mood, energy, efficiency, and ability to
handle stress. Ignoring sleep problems and disorders can damage your
physical health and lead to weight gain, accidents, impaired job
performance, memory problems, and put a strain on your relationships.
If you want to feel your best, stay healthy, and perform up to your
potential, quality sleep is a necessity, not a luxury.

Sleep apnea

Sleep apnea is a common (and treatable) sleep disorder in which your

breathing temporarily stops during sleep, awakening you frequently. If
you have sleep apnea you may not remember these awakenings, but
you’ll likely feel exhausted during the day, irritable and depressed, or
see a decrease in your productivity. Sleep apnea is a serious and
potentially life-threatening sleep disorder, so see a doctor right away
and learn what you can do to help yourself.

Restless legs syndrome (RLS)

Restless legs syndrome (RLS) is a sleep disorder that causes an

almost irresistible urge to move your legs (or arms) at night. The urge
to move occurs when you’re resting or lying down and is usually due to
uncomfortable, tingly, aching, or creeping sensations. There are plenty
of ways to help manage and relieve symptoms, though, including self-
help remedies you can use at home.

Narcolepsy

Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder that involves excessive, uncontrollable

daytime sleepiness. It is caused by a dysfunction of the brain
mechanism that controls sleeping and waking. If you have narcolepsy,
you may have “sleep attacks” in the middle of talking, working, or even
driving.
Although no cure yet exists, a combination of treatments can help
control symptoms and enable you to enjoy many normal activities.

Circadian rhythm sleep disorders

We all have an internal biological clock that regulates our 24-hour
sleep-wake cycle, also known as our circadian rhythms. Light is the
primary cue that influences circadian rhythms. At night, when there is
less light, your brain triggers the release of melatonin, a hormone that
makes you sleepy. When the sun comes up in the morning, the brain
tells the body that it’s time to wake up.
When your circadian rhythms are disrupted or thrown off, you may feel
groggy, disoriented, and sleepy at inconvenient times. Circadian
rhythms have been linked to a variety or sleeping problems and sleep
disorders, as well as depression, bipolar disorder, and seasonal
affective disorder (the winter blues).

Shift work sleep disorder

Shift work sleep disorder occurs when your work schedule and your
biological clock are out of sync. In our 24-hour society, many people
have to work night shifts, early morning shifts, or rotating shifts. These
schedules force you to work when your body is telling you to go to
sleep, and sleep when your body is signaling you to wake.
While some people adjust better than others to the demands of shift
work, most shift workers get less quality sleep than their daytime
counterparts. As a result of sleep deprivation, you may struggle with
sleepiness and mental lethargy on the job. This cuts into your
productivity and puts you at risk of injury.
To reduce the impact of shift work on your sleep:

 Take regular breaks and minimize the frequency of shift changes

 When changing shifts, request a shift that's later, rather than

earlier as it's easier to adjust forward in time, rather than
backward.

 Naturally regulate your sleep-wake cycle by increasing light

exposure at work (use bright lights) and limiting light exposure
when it's time to sleep. Avoid TV and computer screens, and use
blackout shades or heavy curtains to block out daylight in your
bedroom.

 Consider taking melatonin when it's time for you to sleep.

Delayed sleep phase disorder

Delayed sleep phase disorder is a condition where your biological

clock is significantly delayed. As a result, you go to sleep and wake up
much later than other people. This is more than just a preference for
staying up late or being a night owl, but rather a disorder that makes it
difficult for you to keep normal hours—to make it to morning classes,
get the kids to school on time, or keep a 9-to-5 job.

 People with delayed sleep phase disorder are unable to get to

sleep earlier than 2 to 6 a.m. no matter how hard they try.

 When allowed to keep their own hours (such as during a school

break or vacation), they fall into a regular sleep schedule.

 Delayed sleep phase disorder is most common in teenagers, and

many teens will eventually grow out of it.

 For those who continue to struggle with a biological clock that is

out of sync, treatments such as light therapy and chronotherapy
can help. To learn more, schedule an appointment with your doctor
or a local sleep clinic.

Jet lag

Jet lag is a temporary disruption in circadian rhythms that occurs

when you travel across time zones. Symptoms include daytime
sleepiness, fatigue, headache, stomach problems, and insomnia.
Symptoms are more pronounced the longer the flight and flying east
tends to cause worse jet lag than flying west.
In general, it usually takes one day per time zone crossed to adjust to
the local time. So, if you flew from Los Angeles to New York, crossing
three time zones, your jet lag should be gone within three days.

Tracking your symptoms

The first step to overcoming a sleep disorder or problem is identifying
and carefully tracking your symptoms and sleep patterns.

Keep a sleep diary

A sleep diary can pinpoint day and nighttime habits that may be
contributing to your problems at night. Keeping a record of your sleep
patterns and problems will also prove helpful if you eventually need to
see a sleep doctor.

Your sleep diary should include:

1. what time you went to bed and woke up

 2. total sleep hours and perceived quality of your sleep

3. a record of time you spent awake and what you did ("got up, had
a glass of milk, and meditated" for example)

4. types and amount of food, liquids, caffeine, or alcohol you

consumed before bed, and times of consumption

5. your feelings and moods before bed (happiness, sadness, stress,

anxiety)

6. any drugs or medications taken, including dose and time of

consumption

The details can be important, revealing how certain behaviors can be

ruining your chance for a good night’s sleep. After keeping the diary for
a week, for example, you might notice that when you have more than
one glass of wine in the evening, you wake up during the night.
Download or print HelpGuide's sleep diary (PDF).

Self-help for sleep disorders

While some sleep disorders may require a visit to the doctor, you can
improve many sleeping problems on your own.
Improve your daytime habits Regardless of your sleep problems,
sticking to a consistent sleep schedule, getting regular exercise,
limiting your intake of caffeine, alcohol, and nicotine, and managing
stress will translate into better sleep over the long term.
Develop a relaxing bedtime routine to prepare your mind and body for
sleep. Make sure your bedroom is quiet, dark, and cool, avoid heavy
meals and too many fluids late at night, take a warm bath, read, or
listen to soothing music to unwind, and turn off screens at least one
hour before bedtime.
How to Sleep Better: Simple Steps

Get back to sleep when you wake up at night Whether you have a sleep
disorder or not, it’s normal to wake briefly during the night. If you’re
having trouble getting back to sleep, try focusing on your breathing,
meditating, or practicing another relaxation technique. Make a note of
anything that’s worrying you and resolve to postpone worrying about it
until the next day when it will be easier to resolve.

When to call a doctor

If you’ve tried a variety of self-help remedies without success,
schedule an appointment with a sleep specialist or ask your family
doctor for a referral to a sleep clinic, especially if:

 Your main sleep problem is daytime sleepiness and self-help

hasn't improved your symptoms.

 You or your bed partner gasps, chokes, or stops breathing during

sleep.

 You sometimes fall asleep at inappropriate times, such as while

talking, walking, or eating.
Provide your doctor with as much supporting information as possible,
including information from your sleep diary.

What to expect at a sleep clinic or center

A specialist will observe your sleep patterns, brain waves, heart rate,
rapid eye movements and more using monitoring devices attached to
your body. While sleeping with a bunch of wires attached to you might
seem difficult, most patients find they get used to it quickly.
The sleep specialist will then design a treatment program if necessary.
A sleep center can also provide you with equipment to monitor your
activities (awake and asleep) at home.

When you sleep, neurons and cells in your brain also rest. But among insomniacs—
loosely defined as someone who sleeps four hours or less for five nights or more—
those cells and neurons never get an adequate snooze. As a result, some die off, while
others become clogged with proteins that sleep would normally have cleared away,
shows a study from the University of Pennsylvania. This can lead to long-term,
irreversible brain damage and problems related to attention or information processing,
the Penn study authors say.

The brains of insomniacs also show increased activity in the motor cortex and several
other brain regions, indicates a study from Johns Hopkins University. That may seem
like a good thing, but it’s actually a sign that you’re brain isn’t working efficiently, the
researchers say. Like a dog that barks at every noise it hears, your mind is overreacting
to its workload, and will wear itself out. As that happens, you become worse and worse
at handling simple tasks and making smart decisions, the study suggests.

There’s also evidence too-little sleep can actually spur genetic changes in your brain—
and not the kind you want. A team from the University of Washington studied more than
1,700 twins, and found those who regularly slept less than five hours a night were at
twice the risk for depression. The study authors say a lack of sleep activates certain
genes related to the blues.

By Ellen Braaten, Ph.D.

Share & Save
Facebook Twitter Pinterest Google+ SendPrint this
Save

Processing speed is a hot topic among brain researchers. Brain chemistry and brain
structure can affect how quickly kids process information. Find out what scientists think
may cause some kids’ brains to take longer to process information
July 3, 2017 by Dr. Randy Kulman

Are kids with slow processing speed unmotivated to get things done? Could they really
move quicker if they only wanted to? What causes slow processing speed? Is there a
cure?

The science of slow processing speed is complicated. Motivation and interest can
certainly have some impact on processing speed, but at the root of the disorder is
biology.
While the cause of slow processing speed can vary, recent discoveries in neuroscience
suggest that many brain-based factors contribute to slow processing of information.

The parts of the brain that are implicated in slow processing speed include the frontal
lobe, the place in the brain where many executive functioning skills are focused. There
is some evidence that decreased volume in the frontal lobe is related to speed of
processing.

The composition of the neurons in the brain has also been associated with slow
processing speed. There is evidence that a fatty substance called myelin, which
insulates and improve the efficiency of the signals sent between neurons, may have an
impact on processing speed. This theory suggests that lower amounts of myelin
surrounding one’s neurons may slow down processing speed.

Neurotransmitters in the brain have also been associated with processing speed.
Neurotransmitters are chemicals in the brain that aid communication between one
neuron and the next. There is evidence that the neurotransmitter acetylcholine plays a
role in increasing responsiveness to sensory information and may be a factor in slow
reaction times and delays in information processing.

The size of the space between neurons, called the synaptic spaces, is also suspected to
be a cause of slow processing speed. Think about the time it takes to cross a wide
street as opposed to a narrow one; a larger space between neurons means that it takes
more time for neurotransmitters to go from one place to another, resulting in slower
processing speed.

Modern neuroimaging research suggests that processing speed is related to

the structural integrity of the white matter associative tracks — the “highways” of the
brain involved in transmission of information along neural pathways.

For those of us who aren’t neuroscientists, it’s probably most important to recognize
the biological factors at the root of slow processing speed. Rather than blaming a child
for moving slowly, we should understand that they are struggling to process
information efficiently. This doesn’t mean that we can’t help them to get a little bit
faster and to be more focused. The neuroscience of slow processing speed suggests
that we look for alternative ways for them to reach their potential and to reduce the
frustration they experience due to slow processing speed.

Leonie Kirszenblat

Many of us have experienced the effects of sleep deprivation: feeling tired and cranky, or
finding it hard to concentrate. Sleep is more important for our brains than you may
realise.

Although it may appear you’re “switching off” when you fall asleep, the brain is far from
inactive. What we know from studying patterns of brain electrical activity is that while
you sleep, your brain cycles through two main types of patterns: rapid eye movement
(REM) sleep and slow-wave sleep.
Slow-wave sleep, which occurs more at the beginning of the night, is characterised by
slow rhythms of electrical activity across large numbers of brain cells (occurring one to
four times per second). As the night progresses, we have more and more REM sleep.
During REM sleep we often have vivid dreams, and our brains show similar patterns of
activity to when we are awake.

By Kendra Cherry
Updated June 30, 2018

Sleep has been the subject of speculation and thought since the time of the early Greek
philosophers, but only recently have researchers discovered ways to study sleep in a systematic
and objective way. The introduction of new technology such as the electroencephalograph (EEG)
has allowed scientists to look at and measure electrical patterns and activity produced by the
sleeping brain.

While we can now investigate sleep and related phenomena, not all researchers agree on
exactly why we sleep. Sleeping patterns tend to follow a fairly predictable schedule and experts
agree that sleep plays an essential role in health and wellness. A number of different theories
have been proposed to explain the necessity of sleep as well as the functions and purposes of
sleep.

The following are three of the major theories that have emerged.

Repair and Restoration Theory of Sleep

According to the repair and restoration theory of sleep, sleeping is essential for revitalizing and
restoring the physiological processes that keep the body and mind healthy and properly
functioning. This theory suggests that NREM sleep is important for restoring physiological
functions, while REM sleep is essential in restoring mental functions.

Support for this theory is provided by research that shows periods of REM sleep increase
following periods of sleep deprivation and strenuous physical activity. During sleep, the body
also increases its rate of cell division and protein synthesis, further suggesting that repair and
restoration occurs during sleeping periods.

Recently, researchers have uncovered new evidence supporting the repair and restoration theory,
discovering that sleep allows the brain to perform "housekeeping" duties.

In an October 2013 issue of the journal Science, researchers published the results of a study
indicating that the brain utilizes sleep to flush out waste toxins. This waste removal system, they
suggest, is one of the major reasons why we sleep.

"The restorative function of sleep may be a consequence of the enhanced removal of potentially
neurotoxic waste products that accumulate in the awake central nervous system," the study's
authors explained.
Earlier research had uncovered the glymphatic system, which carries waste materials out of the
brain. According to one of the study's authors, Dr. Maiken Nedergaard, the brain's limited
resources force it to choose between two different functional states: awake and alert or asleep
and cleaning up. They also suggest that problems with cleaning out this brain waste might play a
role in a number of brain disorders such as Alzheimer's disease.

Evolutionary Theory of Sleep

Evolutionary theory, also known as the adaptive theory of sleep, suggests that periods of activity
and inactivity evolved as a means of conserving energy. According to this theory, all species have
adapted to sleep during periods of time when wakefulness would be the most hazardous.

Support for this theory comes from comparative research of different animal species. Animals
that have few natural predators, such as bears and lions, often sleep between 12 to 15 hours each
day. On the other hand, animals that have many natural predators have only short periods of
sleep, usually getting no more than 4 or 5 hours of sleep each day.

Information Consolidation Theory of Sleep

The information consolidation theory of sleep is based on cognitive research and suggests that
people sleep in order to process information that has been acquired during the day. In addition to
processing information from the day prior, this theory also argues that sleep allows the brain to
prepare for the day to come.

Some research also suggests that sleep helps cement the things we have learned during the day
into long-term memory. Support for this idea stems from a number of sleep deprivation studies
demonstrating that a lack of sleep has a serious impact on the ability to recall and remember
information.

The Clean-Up Theory of Sleep

Another major theory suggests that sleep allows the brain to clean itself up. Research has
found that the brain cleans itself of toxins and waste produced during the day while asleep. Brain
cells produce waste products during their normal activities. As we sleep, fluid flow through the
brain increases. This acts as something of a waste disposal system, cleansing out the brain of
these waste products.

A Word From Verywell

While there is research and evidence to support each of these theories of sleep, there is still no
clear-cut support for any one theory. It is also possible that each of these theories can be used to
explain why we sleep. Sleeping impacts many physiological processes, so it is very possible that
sleep occurs for many reasons and purposes. In all likelihood, sleep serves a number of different
physiological and psychological purposes including cleaning up brain toxins and consolidating
information into memory.
At a Glance
 Our bodies regulate sleep in much the same way that they regulate eating, drinking, and breathing.
This suggests that sleep serves a similar critical role in our health and well-being.

 Although it is difficult to answer the question, "Why do we sleep?" scientists have developed several
theories that together may help explain why we spend a third of our lives sleeping.

 Understanding these theories can help deepen our appreciation of the function of sleep in our lives.

Hunger and Eating; Sleepiness and Sleep

As with eating well, good sleep is a staple of optimal health.

While we may not often think about why we sleep, most of us acknowledge at some level that sleep
makes us feel better. We feel more alert, more energetic, happier, and better able to function
following a good night of sleep. However, the fact that sleep makes us feel better and that going
without sleep makes us feel worse only begins to explain why sleep might be necessary.

One way to think about the function of sleep is to compare it to another of our life-sustaining
activities: eating. Hunger is a protective mechanism that has evolved to ensure that we consume the
nutrients our bodies require to grow, repair tissues, and function properly. And although it is relatively
easy to grasp the role that eating serves— given that it involves physically consuming the substances
our bodies need—eating and sleeping are not as different as they might seem.
Both eating and sleeping are regulated by powerful internal drives. Going without food produces the
uncomfortable sensation of hunger, while going without sleep makes us feel overwhelmingly sleepy.
And just as eating relieves hunger and ensures that we obtain the nutrients we need, sleeping relieves
sleepiness and ensures that we obtain the sleep we need. Still, the question remains: Why do we need
sleep at all? Is there a single primary function of sleep, or does sleep serve many functions?

An Unanswerable Question?
Scientists have explored the question of why we sleep from many different angles. They have
examined, for example, what happens when humans or other animals are deprived of sleep. In other
studies, they have looked at sleep patterns in a variety of organisms to see if similarities or
differences among species might reveal something about sleep's functions. Yet, despite decades of
research and many discoveries about other aspects of sleep, the question of why we sleep has been
difficult to answer.

The lack of a clear answer to this challenging question does not mean that this research has been a
waste of time. In fact, we now know much more about the function of sleep, and scientists have
developed several promising theories to explain why we sleep. In light of the evidence they have
gathered, it seems likely that no single theory will ever be proven correct. Instead, we may find that
sleep is explained by two or more of these explanations. The hope is that by better understanding why
we sleep, we will learn to respect sleep's functions more and enjoy the health benefits it affords.

This essay outlines several current theories of why we sleep. To learn more about them, be sure to
check out the "Bookshelf" feature at the end of this essay. There you'll find links to articles by
researchers who are studying this fascinating question.
Theories of Why We Sleep

Inactivity Theory
Arctic Fox at rest.

One of the earliest theories of sleep, sometimes called the adaptive or evolutionary theory, suggests
that inactivity at night is an adaptation that served a survival function by keeping organisms out of
harm’s way at times when they would be particularly vulnerable. The theory suggests that animals
that were able to stay still and quiet during these periods of vulnerability had an advantage over other
animals that remained active. These animals did not have accidents during activities in the dark, for
example, and were not killed by predators. Through natural selection, this behavioral strategy
presumably evolved to become what we now recognize as sleep.

A simple counter-argument to this theory is that it is always safer to remain conscious in order to be
able to react to an emergency (even if lying still in the dark at night). Thus, there does not seem to be
any advantage of being unconscious and asleep if safety is paramount.

Energy Conservation Theory

Although it may be less apparent to people living in societies in which food sources are plentiful, one
of the strongest factors in natural selection is competition for and effective utilization of energy
resources. The energy conservation theory suggests that the primary function of sleep is to reduce an
individual’s energy demand and expenditure during part of the day or night, especially at times when
it is least efficient to search for food.

Lions conserving energy after a meal.

Research has shown that energy metabolism is significantly reduced during sleep (by as much as 10
percent in humans and even more in other species). For example, both body temperature and caloric
demand decrease during sleep, as compared to wakefulness. Such evidence supports the proposition
that one of the primary functions of sleep is to help organisms conserve their energy resources. Many
scientists consider this theory to be related to, and part of, the inactivity theory.

Restorative Theories
Another explanation for why we sleep is based on the long-held belief that sleep in some way serves
to "restore" what is lost in the body while we are awake. Sleep provides an opportunity for the body to
repair and rejuvenate itself. In recent years, these ideas have gained support from empirical evidence
collected in human and animal studies. The most striking of these is that animals deprived entirely of
sleep lose all immune function and die in just a matter of weeks. This is further supported by findings
that many of the major restorative functions in the body like muscle growth, tissue repair, protein
synthesis, and growth hormone release occur mostly, or in some cases only, during sleep.

Other rejuvenating aspects of sleep are specific to the brain and cognitive function. For example, while
we are awake, neurons in the brain produce adenosine, a by-product of the cells' activities. The build-
up of adenosine in the brain is thought to be one factor that leads to our perception of being tired.
(Incidentally, this feeling is counteracted by the use of caffeine, which blocks the actions of adenosine
in the brain and keeps us alert.) Scientists think that this build-up of adenosine during wakefulness
may promote the "drive to sleep." As long as we are awake, adenosine accumulates and remains high.
During sleep, the body has a chance to clear adenosine from the system, and, as a result, we feel
more alert when we wake.

Brain Plasticity Theory

PET scan showing brain activity in a 20-year-old.

One of the most recent and compelling explanations for why we sleep is based on findings that sleep is
correlated to changes in the structure and organization of the brain. This phenomenon, known as brain
plasticity, is not entirely understood, but its connection to sleep has several critical implications. It is
becoming clear, for example, that sleep plays a critical role in brain development in infants and young
children. Infants spend about 13 to 14 hours per day sleeping, and about half of that time is spent in
REM sleep, the stage in which most dreams occur. A link between sleep and brain plasticity is
becoming clear in adults as well. This is seen in the effect that sleep and sleep deprivation have on
people's ability to learn and perform a variety of tasks.

Bookshelf

 Siegel JM. 2005. Clues to the functions of mammalian sleep. Nature. 437:1264-1271.

 Porkka-Heiskanen T. 1999. Adenosine in sleep and wakefulness. Annals of Medicine. 31:125-129.

 Frank MG. 2006. The mystery of sleep function: current perspectives and future directions. Reviews
in the Neurosciences. 17:375-392.

This theory and the role of sleep in learning are covered in greater detail in Sleep, Learning, and
Memory.
Although these theories remain unproven, science has made tremendous strides in discovering what
happens during sleep and what mechanisms in the body control the cycles of sleep and wakefulness
that help define our lives. While this research does not directly answer the question, "Why do we
sleep?" it does set the stage for putting that question in a new context and generating new knowledge
about this essential part of life.

For more about why we sleep, watch the video Why Sleep Mattersand explore Consequences of
Insufficient Sleep.
back to top
This content was last reviewed on December 18, 2007

Harvard University
A resource from the Division of Sleep Medicine at
Harvard Medical School
Produced in partnership with WGBH Educational Foundation
Theories of developmental dyslexia: insights from a multiple case study
of dyslexic adults
Franck Ramus Stuart Rosen Steven C. Dakin Brian L. Day Juan M.
CastelloteSarah White Uta Frith

Brain, Volume 126, Issue 4, 1 April 2003, Pages 841–

865,https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awg076

A multiple case study was conducted in order to assess three leading theories of developmental
dyslexia: (i) the phonological theory, (ii) the magnocellular (auditory and visual) theory and (iii) the
cerebellar theory. Sixteen dyslexic and 16 control university students were administered a full
battery of psychometric, phonological, auditory, visual and cerebellar tests. Individual data reveal
that all 16 dyslexics suffer from a phonological deficit, 10 from an auditory deficit, four from a motor
deficit and two from a visual magnocellular deficit. Results suggest that a phonological deficit can
appear in the absence of any other sensory or motor disorder, and is sufficient to cause a literacy
impairment, as demonstrated by five of the dyslexics. Auditory disorders, when present, aggravate
the phonological deficit, hence the literacy impairment. However, auditory deficits cannot be
characterized simply as rapid auditory processing problems, as would be predicted by the
magnocellular theory. Nor are they restricted to speech. Contrary to the cerebellar theory, we find
little support for the notion that motor impairments, when found, have a cerebellar origin or reflect
an automaticity deficit. Overall, the present data support the phonological theory of dyslexia, while
acknowledging the presence of additional sensory and motor disorders in certain individuals.

Inputs to the brain from the eyes, ears, and skin are continually changing as we move.
Yet our brain perceives objects in the world as stable. How the brain learns the structure
of the world from rapidly changing inputs is a mystery.
In a new paper titled "A Theory of How Columns in the Neocortex Enable Learning the Structure
of the World," published in the journal Frontiers in Neural Circuits, researchers at Numenta
propose a new theory for how the brain learns models of objects through movement. "The basic
idea is simple," says Numenta Co-Founder Jeff Hawkins. "Existing ideas about how sensory
input is processed in the brain are still valid. We are proposing that an important ingredient was
missed, and with this missing ingredient, a large number of mysteries about the brain can be
resolved." The paper proposes that sensory input to the brain is paired with a location signal.
The location is relative to the object being sensed. For example, an edge becomes an edge at a
particular location on a cup. As we move our eyes and move our fingers, the brain learns the
structure of objects as a set of features at locations on the object.
"Scientists have suspected something like this had to be happening in the brain somewhere,"
explained VP of Research Subutai Ahmad. "We deduced it is happening throughout the
neocortex, in each cortical column. The theory predicts that even the very first levels of
processing in the brain are learning and recognizing complete objects. This is surprising; no one
imagined it. But once you know what to look for, there is evidence supporting this prediction."
Another surprising outcome of the theory is the brain doesn't learn just one model of an object,
but many parallel models, as each column in the cortex learns complete models. The theory
shows that movement of the eyes and skin are necessary for learning, but after learning, objects
can be recognized with one glance or one grasp of the hands. Although each column can only
sense one part of an object, together they can reach a consensus.
The paper includes detailed simulations, anatomical and physiological evidence related to the
theory, and testable

https://www.independent.co.uk/author/jenna-gallegos

Saturday 2 September 2017 17:1

It’s back-to-school season. Parents mark their youngsters’ height on the wall and
marvel at how much they’ve grown – but what’s going on just below the pencil
line in that child’s brain?

We know brain development continues from infancy to adulthood, but many

parents underestimate how much a child’s brain changes from year to year, and
how those changes can influence behaviour.

Decades of scientific studies have shown even an immature brain is capable of

extraordinary feats. Yet a fully developed brain is necessary for actions that
adults take for granted, such as risk assessment and self-control.

Dr. Ellen Braaten Slow processing speed affects many

differently-wired children, and can often be found co-existing
with neurological differences like ADHD, giftedness, anxiety,
sensory issues and more. What makes it so difficult for kids to
manage and parents and teachers to understand is that there is
often a marked disconnect between a child’s intellectual
capability and the pace at which they execute certain tasks

August 23, 2017 by Dr. Randy Kulman

If your child or student has been identified with slow processing speed you’re probably
trying to become an expert on the subject as quickly as you can. Developing strategies
to improve slow processing speed is vital, and you’ll want to explore issues such as the
relationship between processing speed and working memory and how the disorder
affects learning ability. There are many interventions that can improve your child’s
performance on tasks at school and at home. You can learn more about a variety of
these topics in our extensive series on processing speed, a directory of which you’ll find
below.

In addition, we have combed the Web for articles and sites that provide more in-depth
information about current research and innovative strategies to help improve
processing speed in children. Here’s a list of the best websites for parents to learn
about processing speed difficulties, curated by our team at LearningWorks for Kids.

Understood.org. This is simply the best website available for families of children who
struggle with learning and attentional issues. Understood has great resources for kids
with Learning Disabilities, ADHD, Autism Spectrum Disorders, and Executive
Functioning issues.

Understood.org. This is simply the best website available for families of children who
struggle with learning and attentional issues. Understood has great resources for kids
with Learning Disabilities, ADHD, Autism Spectrum Disorders, and Executive
Functioning issues.

How does processing speed affect learning? – An in-depth look at different learning
styles, how processing speeds can affect them, and why it is important to recognize
processing speed issues in children.

Processing Speed, Working Memory, and Fluid Intelligence: Evidence for a

Developmental Cascade – An extensive study of processing speed. A more complex but
interesting read for those who want to really dive into the subject.

Children’s Arithmetical Difficulties: Contributions from Processing Speed, Item

Identification, and Short-Term Memory – A great place to read about how processing
speed can cause and exacerbate a child’s difficulty with math.

Coping With Slow Processing Speed at Home and at School – This page explains to
parents the difficulties their child with slow processing speed may be having in school
and how to help them. The Clay Center in general is fantastic resource full of articles
and information about all aspects of learning and education.

Intro To Processing Speed – This website gives parents a detailed introduction to

processing speed, and what they should know about parenting a child with slow
processing speed.

National Center for Learning Disabilities – A fantastic resource for parents of children
with learning disabilities, including slow processing speed.

Smart Kids with Learning Disabilities – A website devoted to helping parents of children
who have trouble showing what they know in traditional ways. Smart Kids does a good
job of identifying connections between their processing speed disability and other
learning disorders.

Slow processing speed is not a formal learning disability, but it can play a part in learning and
attention issues like dyslexia, ADHD, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, and auditory processing disorder.

Slow processing speed means that a child cannot keep up with the pace of classroom
learning, is last to finish tests, or has problems in following directions. At home, slow
processing speed means homework that takes forever to do, frustration with written assignments,
and difficulty getting ready for school in the morning.

Many kids with slow processing speed are very smart and capable, but aren’t reaching
their academic potential. If this is the case with your son, get a comprehensive evaluation done
by a child clinical psychologist or neuropsychologist.

November 15, 2007

Scientists at The University of Arizona have added another piece of the puzzle of how
the brain processes memory.
Bruce McNaughton, a professor of psychology and physiology, and his colleague David
Euston have shown that, during sleep, the reactivated memories of real-time
experiences are processed within the brain at a higher rate of speed. That rate can be
as much as six or seven times faster, and what McNaughton calls “thought speed.”
Memory stores patterns of activity in modular form in the brain’s cortex. Different
modules in the cortex process different kinds of information - sounds, sights, tastes,
smells, etc. The cortex sends these networks of activity to a region called the
hippocampus. The hippocampus then creates and assigns a tag, a kind of temporary
bar code, that is unique to every memory and sends that signal back to the cortex.
Each module in the cortex uses the tag to retrieve its own part of the activity. A memory
of having lunch, for example, would involve a number of modules, each of which might
record where the diner sat, what was served, the noise level in the restaurant or the
financial transaction to pay for the meal.
But while an actual dining experience might have taken up an hour of actual time,
replaying the memory of it would only take 8 to 10 minutes. The reason, McNaughton
said, is that the speed of the consolidation process isn’t constrained by the real world
physical laws that regulate activity in time and space.
The brain uses this biological trick because there is no way for all of its neurons to
connect with and interact with every other neuron. It is still an expensive task for the
hippocampus to make all of those connections. The retrieval tags the hippocampus
generates are only temporary until the cortex can carry a given memory on its own.
“It’s a slow process,” said McNaughton.
“The initial creation of the tag is made through existing connections. In order to do the
rewiring necessary to have the intermodular connections carry the burden takes time.
What you have to do is reinstate those memories multiple times. Every time you
reinstate the memory, the modules make a little shift in the connection . . . something
grows this way, grows that way, a connection gets made here, gets broken there. And
eventually, after you do this multiple times, then an optimal set of connections gets
constructed,” Mc Naughton said.
The brain is generally thought to do all of this during sleep, specifically slow-wave sleep,
when the brain is not busy with processing real-time inputs. McNaughton has developed
the technology to record from multiple probes, each of which can track the activity of a
dozen or more brain cells.
“We need groups of cells because in order to identify a pattern, you have to look at the
collected activity of many neurons,” McNaughton said. His previous research has show
that cells that fired during activity prior to sleep, also fired in the same sequential
patterns during sleep. During sleep, the hippocampus sends little, 100-millisecond
bursts of activity to the cortex as much as three times per second.
What remains is finding an experiment that will enable researchers to demonstrate that
changes in the memory reactivation process would affect memory consolidation but not
damage the brain in the process.
“The more practical point, I think, is that this methodology, the ability to measure how
fast the brain is processing at the level of changing the state of the brain from one 10-
millisecond epoch to the next, how fast the internal state is sweeping through its
memories or its allowable patterns is, I think, a model for thought speed,” McNaughton
said.
Knowing the determinants for the speed of thought, he said, might allow studies of the
effects of drugs, developmental anomalies and the behavioral therapies that might
improve them.
Understanding and coping with slow processing speed
Jul 23, 2018 | Articles of interest
This article was written by Santie Smit (Director of NILD SA) with information from Steven M. Burnik,
Ph,D.
In recent times the effect of slow processing speed on learning has become more evident. Even
though SPS is not a formal learning difficulty, it has frustrated students, teachers and parents for a
very long time. Parents must cope with the fact that their child doesn’t finish class work in school,
and it takes hours for them to complete homework. SPS has an impact on all areas of living, not
only at school, and therefore it is important to understand its role in a child’s daily functioning.
Signs of SPS at home can also be seen outside of homework. It takes children struggling with SPS
longer to get ready for school and they are still looking for their books when everybody else is in the
car already. They run out of time when taking down homework, often leaving out the most important
information, and unfinished school work is frequently assigned as homework. This can lead to
problems at home and at school.
There are many reasons for SPS. A physical illness or injury, i.e. low thyroid, epilepsy or traumatic
brain injury. Other physical problems such as lack of adequate sleep or reactions to medications can
also lead to slow processing. SPS can be part of ADHD or learning difficulties, and can cause
emotional distress to all involved.
SPS with ADHD can lead to sluggish thinking, daydreaming and staring into space. They may feel
mentally foggy, underactive, slow moving and lethargic. Their work is slow and error prone and
there is under arousal in the brain in focus, planning and poor executive functions.
Their struggle in the area of SPS is aggravated by other issues, like a poor sense of time. Time
seems to go more slowly when doing boring work and seems to fly when they are having fun. When
planning tasks, they underestimate how long it will take; and when they play, they are unaware of
how much time has passed. Poor executive functions combined with poor time sense can cause
them to take hours to complete their homework and can cause major stress.

take you to complete routine tasks and plan your day around that. Reward them if they complete a
task in the allotted time.
In conclusion the following is important to remember. Unrecognised and unaddressed SPS will
make your child feel discouraged ad demoralised. When you understand SPS you reduce its impact
on your child and it helps him/her to shine. Ensure to educate everyone involved in your child’s life
about his/her SPS. Provide unwavering support and encouragement to your child. The best gift you
can give your child is to keep his/her self-esteem intact and loving them unconditionally.
COURSES OFFERED