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COACH
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 KEYNOTE SPEAKERS

LARS JUAN JOSÉ TRAVIS PEDRO GREGORY JULIO

ANDERSEN G. BADILLO TRIPLETT ALCARAZ HAFF CALLEJA
Physical exercise The role of the Resistance training Resistance Long-Term The art of
as treatment for velocity control in program design for circuit-based athlete the recovery
work-related pain resistance training collegiate athletes trainning development in sports

WORKSHOPS

DAVID VICENTE MELISSA FRANCESC NACHO

MARCHANTE CLEMENTE KANNIKE COS COQUE
Strategies to High intensity Interval Add fun, agility and Blood Flow Restriction: Strength training
optimize training training applied to diversity to your from rehabilitation to focuses on injury
of strength tactical athletes workouts performance prevention

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 ABOUT THIS PUBLICATION
The NSCA Coach publishes basic NSCA
COACH ISSUE 3
educational information for Associate
and Professional Members of the
VOLUME 5
NSCA specifically focusing on novice
strength and conditioning coaches. As
a quarterly publication, this journal’s
mission is to publish peer-reviewed
articles that provide basic, practical
information that is evidence-based
and applicable to a wide variety of
athlete and training needs.
Copyright 2018 by the National
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EDITORIAL REVIEW PANEL
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Ed McNeely, MS
Jonathan Mike, PHD, CSCS,*D,
NSCA-CPT,*D, USAW
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Evan Schick, PHD, CSCS
Collis Spann, MS, IKFF CKT L2, USAW-2
Aaron Suma, MA, CSCS,*D, USAW-2

ISSN 2376-0982 Tai Tran, PHD, CSCS,*D

4 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM

TABLE OF CONTENTS

06 COMPONENTS OF GROUP DYNAMICS WITHIN THE

STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING CONTEXT
ANDY GILLHAM, PHD, CSCS,*D, CMPC

12 DEVELOPING A YOUTH STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING PROGRAM: BEST PRACTICES

ENRIQUE ALANIS, SAMUEL CAVAZOS, JAVIER ALANIS, YAMILEX GALLARDO, APRIL LARA,
AYLEN ALANIZ, AND JUAN GONZALEZ, PHD, CSCS

18 ECCENTRIC AND BALANCE TRAINING TO ENHANCE PISTOL

SHOOTING PERFORMANCE IN THE YOUNG ATHLETE
CARMEN SALINAS, SAMANTHA GOMEZ, JENNY ZAMORA, ALEXIS FLORES, AMANDA HANKINS,
AND JUAN GONZALEZ, PHD, CSCS

30 THE GROWTH AND MATURATION OF THE FEMALE PEDIATRIC ATHLETE

AMANDA MARTINEZ, LIANA CHEE, ALYSSA LOPEZ, RAUL CASTILLO, DIANA NAVARRO,
AND ALMA OLIVAREZ

36 UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES OF TOO MUCH DISCIPLINE

CLAYTON KUKLICK, PHD, CSCS, AND BRIAN GEARITY, PHD, CSCS, FNSCA

40 BALANCING THE IMBALANCE—THE TRAINING OF A PARALYMPIC F44 DISCUS THROWER

LAWRENCE JUDGE, PHD, CSCS,*D, NSCA-CPT, RSCC*E, FNSCA, DONALD HOOVER, PHD, PT, CSCS,
AND DAVID BELLAR, PHD, CSCS,*D, RSCC*D, FNSCA

50 USING LTAD TO PROGRAM FOR A MIDDLE SCHOOL ATHLETE AND A

HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETE: PART 2—CREATING A DEVELOPMENTALLY-
APPROPRIATE STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING PROGRAM
RICK HOWARD, MED, CSCS,*D, USAW

56 YEAR-ROUND STRENGTH TRAINING FOR COLLEGIATE FEMALE

CROSS COUNTRY RUNNERS—SAMPLE PROGRAM
DAVID GRANATO, MS, CSCS

NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 5

COMPONENTS OF GROUP DYNAMICS WITHIN THE STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING CONTEXT
ANDY GILLHAM, PHD, CSCS,*D, CMPC
C
onsider the example of a collection of athletes that come
into the weight room to train. They may not be the entire
team. They may not even be of the same sex, from the
same team, or in the same part of their competitive season. Are
all of those different collections of individuals also groups? What
about the mixed up combinations of athletes that just happen to
be training at the same time, is that a group onto itself? While
researchers in the group dynamics field cannot yet reach a
consensus description of what a group actually is, all sport teams
possess the required characteristics: at least two individuals with
common identities as athletes, goals, and objectives; sharing
sport-based fates; repeatedly demonstrating structured patterns
of communication; perceiving that they are a group with a defined
structure; and their actions are interdependent and reciprocal
(8). The lack of consensus and abstract nature of many of the
accepted components is derived in part from whether the group is
viewed at an individual level, such as a single person’s rewards or
motivations for being part of the group, or whether the collection
of people is analyzed at the group level in a way that focuses on
the interactions among the individuals.
Nearly every hour of the day there will be a variety of individuals
training in a strength and conditioning facility. Whether the
strength and conditioning staff treats these various combinations
of people as a group does have consequences. Consider the case
of music selection. One group of athletes may prefer a type of
music that is offensive to another group of athletes. Is it a first-
come-first-serve approach within the training facility? Is it simply
coach’s choice? If the strength and conditioning staff views the
entire group of athletes training at one time as a single group for
music selection, that should help prevent any one group being
offended by the music selection. Continuing with the music
example also shows how volume of the music can be considered
a group-level variable. If one group of athletes training is more
experienced, they are likely to need less direct vocal instructions
from the strength and conditioning staff. However, if a second
group of more novice lifters are concurrently training, the music
volume needs to be reduced so the athletes can more easily
hear the coaching staff’s instructions. This structure of a single
overall group that contains a number of layered sub-groups
of different sizes and characteristics is the recommended lens
through which group dynamics in a training facility should be
viewed. The purpose of this article is to provide a synopsis of
some key principles within group dynamics and how strength and
conditioning coaches can use these principles to more effectively
manage diverse training groups.
GROUP EFFECTIVENESS FRAMEWORK
One of the first principles of group dynamics to examine is
Steiner’s conceptual framework for examining group effectiveness
(20). Steiner’s framework starts with considering the level of
actual productivity of the group and that is derived from potential
productivity minus process losses. That has led to the examination
6 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
of a variety of group processes (e.g., group structure, roles,
norms, leadership, followership, cohesion, communication) related
to how those components reduce process losses or increase
potential productivity so that ultimately actual productivity
increases. In sport, one of the most overrepresented constructs
in the research is collective efficacy (8). While there has been
quite a bit of research on the concept of collective efficacy in
sport, there is far less research on other important aspects of
group dynamics (8,25). In particular, this article will look at the
influence of group size, roles within a group, group norms, and
team building approaches related to group dynamics with specific
references to Steiner’s model of group effectiveness. Although
not an exhaustive list, these four constructs have been extensively
studied in business contexts and may have important implications
for strength and conditioning coaches.
GROUP SIZE
Sport teams in general are often limited by the numbers of
participants needed to practice. For example, a soccer team
would need a minimum of 22 players to be able to conduct a full
scrimmage during practice, and wrestling teams would ideally
have a minimum of two players for each of the weight classes.
The strength and conditioning coaches are unlikely to have
significant input on the size of these teams; however, they do
have some input of how many individuals train at a time and the
size of the groups during training, as well as how those groups
are organized within the training facility. Similar to how there are
multiple competing definitions of what constitutes a group, there
are multiple research-based frameworks to determine the most
appropriate size of a group. Critical group size (20), least group
size (21), and functional group size (2) are three long-standing
ideas for how to determine the most appropriate size of a group.
All three of those approaches essentially reduce down to the idea
that group size should be no bigger than it has to be based on
the given task. In a training facility, this can be seen with a group
of four athletes training together on two flat barbell bench press
pieces of equipment. Logically the group of four athletes would
be best divided into two groups of two so there could always be a
lifter and a spotter on each piece of equipment.
This is certainly not novel information; however, what is the
best plan of action when a fifth athlete joins the group? Does
that athlete go work on their own with a different lift or piece
of equipment to avoid decreasing group productivity? Does the
coach add an additional station of combination or supersets of
exercises? In considering that example within Steiner’s group
effectiveness framework, the fifth athlete adds only theoretical
productivity but is likely to reduce actual productivity because one
of the five athletes will always be purely resting while the other
four are either actively lifting or spotting while resting. To avoid
that delay, the strength and conditioning coach must consider
alternatives to just adding the fifth athlete to the established
group of four.

The single largest concern with group size is not the actual
number of individuals involved. Rather, the important part is
how productive the group is at accomplishing their task, which
is what Steiner had called “actual productivity” (20). Strength
and conditioning coaches know this phenomenon well and
it has been in the literature for more than 40 years (20). As
more athletes are added to the group, potential productivity
does increase but actual productivity often diverges from that
theoretical increase in productivity due to process losses. For
example, too many people waiting in line for a station creates
opportunities for athletes to become distracted (i.e., process loss),
which lowers total group productivity. When the strength and
conditioning coach notices the distracted athletes dancing to the
music, discussing chemistry class, or otherwise simply not being
engaged in training, a common response would be to provide
some sternly worded verbal encouragement or even to add some
punishment to the offending athletes. A better approach would
include the involvement of other coaching staff members to better
balance the group size to effectively minimize process losses,
therefore increasing total group productivity. The ideal group size
obviously varies greatly from one context to another, which makes
prediction or the setting of strict rules within this article unhelpful.
The challenge presented here is to take the time to critically
analyze how the training facility is laid out and how group size is
determined. Beyond the group dynamics specific comments on
group size, the National Strength and Conditioning Association
(NSCA) has published some important guidelines designed to
promote the safety of athletes while training (19).
ROLES WITHIN A GROUP
Finding a way to reduce process losses is a consistent objective for
coaches or group leaders (8). One component to consider when
implementing changes targeting process losses is to manipulate
individuals’ roles within the group. It is rare for an entire group of
athletes to be all equally motivated and devoted to their training
performance. Similarly, many athletes do not elicit high effort
or look for approaches to minimize work necessary for optimal
performance (4). There can be a delicate balance during training
between the individual with high energy that others follow raising
their own intensity versus the high energy individual that other
athletes follow only to become distracted from the task of training.
Many problems with roles on teams result from role ambiguity
(i.e., athletes are unclear as to what the coach is expecting of
them) or lack of acceptance of the coach’s identified role for
the athlete (8). When athletes do not know what is specifically
expected of them, they are likely to behave in a way that is most
comfortable to them. An example of this in a training facility is
an athlete who does not like to do power cleans and without a
specific training program and coach dictating that cleans must
be included, the athlete would simply never do that exercise. The
same concept applies to group dynamics and team roles. It may
take a strength and conditioning coach to explicitly teach the high
energy individual where the line between raising intensity of those
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around her is versus where the line is that causes a distraction to
other athletes. After the athlete is aware of what is expected of
them (e.g., have an intensity increasing effect on teammates), the
athlete may elect not to accept or follow through accomplishing
that role and that then becomes a problem with role acceptance.
Sometimes the hardest working athletes in training are not the
most vocal individuals, preferring instead to simply lead by getting
their work in each and every training session. There is also the
intentionally negative individual that consistently seeks to disrupt
team processes (11).
Athletes that behave inappropriately or disrespectfully are
certainly challenging to deal with across all levels. There have
been five key characteristics identified of these problematic
individuals: 1) manipulative, 2) negative, 3) narcissistic, 4) shifts
the blame to others, and 5) distracting to those around (11). The
recommended first step in managing these problematic athletes is
to directly address the athlete to make it clear to the athlete what
their behavior is and how it is affecting the other athletes around
them, which is an attempt to increase role clarity (11). Additional
suggestions from the literature are largely beyond the control
of the strength and conditioning staff because sport coaches
oversee player recruitment and playing time which removes two
key leverage points from strength and conditioning coaches’
options (11). This direct and open communication may prompt
significant changes in the problematic behaviors of the athlete,
as it is generally assumed that athletes rarely intentionally cause
problems for their own coaches and teammates. Thus, it may be
the case where the problematic athlete believes their actions are
funny and is confident enough to not worry when no one else
around laughs at their actions. The importance of role clarity
carries over to strength and conditioning coaches needing to
establish appropriate group norms for the athletes they work with.
GROUP NORMS
A group norm is simply described as the acceptable customary
behaviors for individuals within a specific setting (13). Norms are
developed over time and yet can either endure across different
groups of individuals or change relatively quickly. Each season
brings a new group of athletes into the strength and conditioning
coach’s world and that presents ample opportunities for problems.
Athletes changing competitive levels (e.g., high school to college)
or transferring in from a different school bring with them their own
experiences of what was normal and acceptable behavior during
training. Clarifying the norms for all new and returning athletes
becomes the responsibility of the strength and conditioning
coaching staff. It is not sufficient to assume all members of a team
or group will implicitly know what the expectations for training
intensity are or how much talking is permissible during a warm-up
activity. Some steps strength and conditioning coaches can take to
help establish effective norms are seen in Figure 1.
When all norms are followed there is typically little friction within
the group (8). However, once a norm is violated, confusion reigns
COMPONENTS OF GROUP DYNAMICS WITHIN THE STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING CONTEXT

FIGURE 1. SUGGESTIONS FOR COACHES TO HELP ESTABLISH PRODUCTIVE GROUP NORMS

as the group members do not know whether a norm was just
changed or what the consequences of the norm-violating behavior
will be (16). Coaches are often a little confused too as they must
sort through whether the violation merits a response or whether
the athlete was intentional or not in their violation of the norm.
Part of the confusion can be traced to the fact that when athletes
act in accordance with the group norms, there is rarely a reward
as that behavior is simply expected. While the normal behavior
for training is to arrive on time, the athletes who comply rarely
get attention; they are simply doing what they are supposed to
do. Instead, the athlete that arrives 15 min late (i.e., violating the
norm) receives the coach’s attention. This gives rise to athletes
intentionally violating norms to garner more attention from
teammates or the coaching staff. It is, then, the responsibility
of the coaching staff to discuss the situation with the offending
athlete and try to determine solutions to help that athlete adhere
to the group norm of arriving at training on time.
Inside the strength and conditioning facility, norms may exist for
training intensity, dress code, how structured and focused warm-
up and cool down activities are, and how the athletes interact
with coaches. There should also be norms for the coaching staff
with regards to how they interact with the athletes, what social
media activities are acceptable, and how safety concerns or
training program questions are brought to the head strength and
conditioning coach’s attention. One other factor to consider is the
difference between team and individual sport athletes, as even
team athletes may look at their training as more of an independent
activity and that belief of independence may come with a different
set of expected behaviors. Colman and Carron found independent
teams (e.g., swimming, track and field, wrestling) acknowledged
they were part of a team, but the athletes expressed significant
variety when discussing group or team level norms (10). The
authors implied that those athletes train and compete more
independently versus other athletes on other teams such as
soccer or baseball teams. This is critical information for strength
and conditioning coaches because different groups of athletes,
even from the same sport team, may have different perceptions
of group norms within a training environment, which highlights
the need for the strength and conditioning staff to be proactive
in describing team norms, as well as having already clearly
established those norms across staff members.
TEAM BUILDING APPROACHES
Team building is an often overused term that can involve anything
from a meal together to a full-scale regimented intervention.
The typical reasons for conducting a teambuilding activity or
event is to improve team performance (i.e., actual productivity

8 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM


in the framework discussed earlier) (1). The literature includes
instruments to help measure team cohesion and those can be
useful as a starting point (7,12). There is also a litany of anecdotal
reports of teambuilding activities improving team performance
(24). Much like other areas of group dynamics research in sport,
there is little agreement, except that coaches play a significant
role in any teambuilding activity (1). The four most common
approaches for teambuilding activites include: 1) group goal
setting discussions that attempt to clarify objectives for the group
and generate subsequent activities to help the group accomplish
those objectives, 2) improving interpersonal relationships among
group members, 3) reducing role conflict and increasing individual
acceptance for prescribed roles, and 4) targeting group leaders
and challenging them to improve their ability to positively
influence group members and enact meaningful changes (6).
While all four approaches have merit, the group goal setting and
group leadership approaches seem most relevant to the context of
strength and conditioning.
Goal setting is one of the more studied mental tools in sport (5).
There are a variety of excellent resources available to help coaches
better implement goal setting including: 1) a primer on goal
setting specifically for coaches (23), 2) examples of goal setting
in an applied context with a team (15), 3) an examination of group
goals and resultant group performance (3), and 4) an applied
article specific for strength and conditioning coaches (14). Utilizing
goal setting for athletes in the training context can have significant
results. However, for any goal-setting program to work, it needs to
be implemented systematically and the aforementioned resources
will help the strength and conditioning staff maximize the impacts
of a goal-setting program.
Leadership training is another prominent option for strength and
conditioning coaches due in part to the training environment being
different than the sport competition environment. It is important
to note that the leadership role within the training context does
not inherently have to be the same individual identified by the
sport coaches as captains or a leader in other contexts. The
sport-based leadership literature has moved beyond theoretical
discussions and now includes specific recommendations and
workshop-type activities that can be instituted into a variety
of environments (22). That being said, many strength and
conditioning coaches do not have extensive training in the psycho-
social realm, and thus designing and implementing both goal-
setting and leadership development approaches may require an
outside consultant (17). There are several studies demonstrating
the impact that indirect, consultant-led interventions can have
on team building (9,24). Coaches routinely report team building
interventions as effective and worth the investment and the most
recent meta-analysis found team-based goal-setting interventions
as the most effective type (1,18).
CONCLUSION
Student-athletes training under the guidance of a strength and
conditioning coach come in all shapes and sizes, which means
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their groups are often as diverse. Add in the complexities of
working with the student-athletes’ academic schedules and sport
coaches’ practice times, and a strength and conditioning facility
may look, sound, and feel quite differently from day to day or hour
to hour. This reality highlights the need for the coaching staff to be
mindful with how groups are formed for training, who the leaders
are, and what group norms are established across the different
combinations of athletes training. The challenge presented here
is for the strength and conditioning staff to play an active role in
each of these areas, not just to avoid problems, but also to actively
seek improvements in the same way that coaches actively seek
refinements to training protocols and equipment advances.
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perceptions of team building. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology
15: 129-141, 2003.
2. Bray, RM, Kerr, NL, and Atken, RS. Effects of group size,
problem difficulty, and sex on group performance and member
reactions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 36:
1224-1240, 1978.
3. Burke, SM, Shapcott, KM, Carron, AV, Bradshaw, MH, and
Estabrooks, PA. Group goal setting and group performance in
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4. Burton, D, Gillham, A, and Glenn, S. Motivational styles:
Examining the impact of personality on the self-talk patterns
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path to process and performance success. In: Horn, TS (ED.),
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6. Carron, AV, and Eys, MA. Group Dynamics in Sport.
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12. Eys, M, Loughead, T, Bray, SR, and Carron, AV. Development of ABOUT THE AUTHOR
a cohesion questionnaire for youth: The Youth Sport Environment Andy Gillham owns and operates Ludus Consulting, LLC, which
Questionnaire. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology focuses on performance enhancement for athletes, coaches, and
31: 390-408, 2009. business executives. Of specific note is his work with coaches and
13. Forsyth, DR. Group Dynamics. (5th ed.) Belmont, CA: athletic administrators on improving systematic coach evaluation
Wadsworth, Cengage Learning; 2010. and providing targeted coach development opportunities. Gillham
is a Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist® (CSCS®) through
14. Gillham, A. The application of systematic goal setting for
the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) and a
strength and conditioning coaches. NSCA Coach 3: 4-6, 2016.
Certified Mental Performance Consultant (CMPC). He serves as a
15. Gillham, A, and Weiler, D. Goal setting with a college soccer sport psychology consultant for collegiate teams and coaches as
team: What went right, and less-than right. Journal of Sport well as individual athletes competing at high school and college
Psychology in Action 4: 97-108, 2013. levels in the United States and Canada. Gillham is an Editorial
16. Hanegby, R, and Tenenbaum, G. Blame it on the racket: Norm- Board member for two peer-reviewed journals, the International
breaking behaviours among junior tennis players. Psychology of Journal of Sports Sciences and Coaching and the International
Sport and Exercise 2: 117-134, 2001. Sport Coaching Journal. Gillham earned both his Bachelor of
Science degree in Fitness and Master of Science degree in Human
17. Judge, LW, and Craig, B. The disconnect between research and Performance from the University of Wisconsin-LaCrosse. He
current coaching practices. Strength and Conditioning Journal received his PhD in Education with a Major of Sport and Exercise
36(1): 46- 54, 2014. Psychology from the University of Idaho.
18. Martin, Lj, Carron, AV, and Burke, SM. Team building
interventions in sport: A meta-analysis. Sport and Exercise CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
Psychology Review 5: 3-18, 2009. Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding: The authors report no
conflicts of interest and no source of funding.
19. NSCA. NSCA strength and conditioning professional
standards and guidelines. Strength and Conditioning Journal
39(6): 1-24, 2017.
20. Steiner, ID. Group Processes and Group Productivity. New York:
Academic; 1972.
21. Thelen, HA. Group dynamics in instruction: The principle of
least group size. School Review 50: 139-148, 1949.
22. Turnnidge, J, and Côté, J. Transformational coaching workshop:
Applying a person-centered approach to coach development
programs. International Sport Coaching Journal 4: 314-325, 2017.
23. Weinberg, R. Making goals effective: A primer for coaches.
Journal of Sport Psychology in Action 1: 57-65, 2010.
24. Yukelson, D. Principles of effective team building interventions
in sport: A direct services approach at Penn State University.
Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 9: 73-96, 1997.
25. Zaccaro, SJ, Blair, V, Peterson, C, and Zazanis, M. Collective
efficacy. In: Maddux, J (ED.), Self-Efficacy, Adaptation, and
Adjustment. New York: Plenum; 305-328, 1995.

10 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM

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BEYOND
YOU SUPPORT THEM 24/7. WE’RE THE SAME WAY.
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DEVELOPING A YOUTH STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING PROGRAM: BEST PRACTICES
ENRIQUE ALANIS, SAMUEL CAVAZOS, JAVIER ALANIS, YAMILEX GALLARDO, APRIL LARA,
AYLEN ALANIZ, AND JUAN GONZALEZ, PHD, CSCS
L
ong-term athletic development (LTAD) is a model of youth
athletic development because it provides young athletes
with great success in several different areas (1,2,3,5,7,9,13).
These areas include the development of fundamental motor skills
and muscle strength, and the ability to be structured to optimize
early sport specialization (1,2,3,5,7,9,13). Although many existing
development models are designed to optimize sporting talent
towards a senior level, the best practice for practitioners would
be a LTAD model for all performance levels of youth (beginner,
recreational, and elite) (2,3,5,9,13).
To develop a youth strength and conditioning program, a coach
requires a competent knowledge of exercise techniques and
philosophies. Additionally, the strength and conditioning coach
must be aware of the athlete’s chronological age, biological
age (rate of maturation), training age (prior experience), and
cognitive age (ability to complete mental tasks) (2,3,5). While the
primary focus when training youth usually is to develop a young
athlete in a specific sport, a program should allow youth to build
a foundation that will set the stage for physical activity across
his or her lifespan (5). According to Howard, “all coaches need
to recognize that missing out on opportunities to develop motor
skills and muscle strength will have negative consequences in later
athletic and/or fitness pursuits,” (5). Opportunities are not only
limited to specific exercise techniques but also opportunities for
the young athlete to participate in multiple sports and exercise
activities to maximize their physical, psychological, and social
development (1,2,10). When a young athlete is exposed to a variety
12 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
of sports or exercise activities, he or she will develop positive
results in the form of well-rounded motor skill sets. This approach
of training opposing muscle groups and flexibility patterns may
contribute to the development of overall athletic ability, which
may transfer into well-rounded athleticism in adulthood (1,13).
Another consideration when developing a youth strength and
conditioning program should be to include injury prevention
exercises. Research has shown that previous injury is a risk factor
for future injury (3,13). For instance, an athlete with a previous
history of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury has a 15 times
greater risk of having a second ACL injury than those who have
never experienced such an injury (13). Therefore, implementing
a neuromuscular training program while incorporating strength
training will reduce the potential for serious injury in the future
and will also maximize a young athlete’s future performance
(3,10,13). In addition, youth practitioners need to expand recovery
time between practice sessions because a ‘‘more is better’’
attitude is counterproductive and will likely result in overuse injury,
illness, or burnout (10). The best practices for recovery between
practice sessions include a cool-down, adequate hydration, proper
nutrition, proper relaxation strategies, and adequate hours of
sleep daily (1,13).
Regardless of the fitness level a young athlete may have, they
are not miniature adults (1,5). Therefore, youth require age-
appropriate and movement-specific strength and conditioning
programming with qualified instruction. Strength and conditioning

coaches working with young athletes need to provide child-
centered instruction to guide youth to their specific development
level while also becoming good listeners and exceptional
communicators who understand individual needs, abilities, and
idiosyncrasies (1,2,5,13). This article will explore such practices
and philosophies that will ultimately allow a young athlete to
minimize the likelihood of future injury, maximize performance,
and promote LTAD.
TIME MANAGEMENT (STRENGTH
AND CONDITIONING)
Young athletes who are also participating in sports are often faced
with difficulty in managing their time (9,11). Juggling schoolwork,
school practices, and extracurricular activities can make it difficult
to receive the appropriate type of athletic performance training
(1,11). As in any school system, funding can be restricted and
improper coaching can be implemented. It is common to find that
the sport coach may also serve as strength coach due to lack of
funding in schools to hire a qualified strength and conditioning
coach. Young athletes tend to be provided with inadequate
training and have no knowledge of the importance of strength
and conditioning training (10,11). With strength and conditioning
not being a top priority, young athletes often find other training
programs, but many do not find it necessary or have the time for
it in their schedule (11). This then starts to become a challenge
for these young athletes to train properly because they are not
offered qualified coaches and cannot further diversify their motor
skill development (10). This issue only highlights the importance
of a qualified strength and conditioning professional when helping
to develop pediatric athleticism, augment muscle strength, and
decrease the risk of injury (10,11). It is crucial to comprehend
the importance of strength and conditioning to training for
better athleticism.
Therefore, to further improve these issues in keeping a strength
and conditioning program consistent, the National Strength and
Conditioning Association (NSCA) recommends a three-step
process (11). The strength and conditioning professional must
first inform and educate parents and young athletes about the
importance of attending a periodized strength and conditioning
program (11). The second step demands for the professional to be
flexible with the scheduling, such as offering multiple time slots
for training (11). Hiring more staff for help and opening availability
for early mornings, late nights, and even weekends can further
positively impact a coach’s strength and conditioning program
(11). Finally, being able to adjust the program is crucial for the sake
of managing time (11). For instance, if a sudden weather change
occurs, such as heavy thunderstorms or snowfalls, the professional
must be prepared to either reschedule the training session on
a different day or week, or relocate depending on the severity
of the weather.
FOCUS ON FUNDAMENTAL LOCOMOTOR SKILLS
Early sport specialization is a huge controversy in the sports
world and many school athletic training programs focus on sport-
specific skills rather than building a strong physical foundation
NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 13
NSCA COACH 5.3
by introducing various sports and activities that will expose the
young athlete to a variety of fundamental movement locomotor
skills that will translate into LTAD (1,7,9,13). Fundamental
movement locomotor skills, such as running, hopping, catching,
throwing, and other basic movements, will challenge a young
athlete’s balance, agility, and coordination and will help develop
a solid foundation before focusing on a sport-specific skill (1,4).
The lack of developing these fundamental movement skills may
cause young athletes to not participate in physical activity and
find sports that they may enjoy (1,10). Additionally, studies have
shown that engaging in movement skills at a younger age will not
only prevent early sport specialization, but also avoid overuse,
burnout, and injury (10). Focusing on fundamental movement
skills is an important stage in athletic development, especially
for young athletes who are still growing and developing, as it can
determine their ability to pursue a specific sport, prevent injuries,
and develop elite athletic ability (1,4).
TRANSITIONING FROM MIDDLE SCHOOL
TO HIGH SCHOOL
As an athlete transitions from middle school to high school, there
are many physical and mental developmental changes that occur
(6,11,12). Given this, coaches need to consider different methods
(e.g., familiarity with strength and conditioning principles,
fundamental motor skill development, motivation) to prepare
athletes when they reach high school competition.
Skill acquisition, not winning, should be the focus of transitioning
middle school athletes. Coaches should work on giving everybody
equal playing time to involve them in the different play
environments. The skills introduced in this stage are important for
their motor skill development, so once they enter the high school
level it does not have to be reintroduced to them (4).
Once the athlete reaches high school, more attention will be
put into winning. By implementing all fundamental motor
skills introduced to the athlete in middle school, they will take
advantage of their developed skills. Skills will be polished and
developed to the sport they are playing. Coaches should also
establish the importance of off-season conditioning programs.
The more time their young athletes spend together, the greater
chemistry the team will have. Having the athletes come 3 – 4 times
to work out and train creates a routine for their bodies to allow
them to stay in shape and continue developing their skills (12).
INTRODUCING PERIODIZATION
TRAINING PHILOSOPHIES
The NSCA recommends that strength and conditioning programs
be introduced to the young athletes around the same time they
start playing youth organized sports, usually between the ages
of 8 – 10 (6). Young athletes who are familiar with a strength and
conditioning program before entering high school usually have
a greater advantage than those who are not (6). High school
strength and conditioning coaches should reach out to the middle
school coaches and establish a relationship with them. This helps
build the foundations for a periodization training system for their
DEVELOPING A YOUTH STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING PROGRAM: BEST PRACTICES
young athletes. They can visit their practices to see the potential in
them and teach them strength and conditioning workouts that can
get them prepared for what they are going to experience in high
school. By having high school strength and conditioning coaches
establish working relationships with middle schools, young
athletes can feel acknowledged and confident in their abilities
once they enter high school. The face to face interaction between
a player and a coach is very important, as it creates a comfortable
environment for the young athlete (6).
FUNDAMENTAL MOTOR SKILL ACQUISITIONS
Coaches need to establish fundamental motor skills in their young
athletes before entering high school, where they are going to
undergo more advanced strength and conditioning programs (7).
Running, jumping, throwing, and catching, are all examples of
motor skills that should already be introduced at a high-intensity
level once entering high school. These sets of skills require
agility, balance, and speed, which form the foundation for more
sport-specific movements that will be presented in their sports
once entering high school (1,7). In Faigenbaum and Meadors’ 12
fundamental principles, the fourth principle, “Enhancing Physical
Literacy” shows how crucial the value of physical literacy is in
enhancing athleticism (1). Focusing on motor skills competence
will allow the young athlete to enhance fundamental locomotor
skills and object control skills, which are the foundation for more
advanced sport-specific movements (1).
Seventy percent of young athletes drop out of sports by age
13 because it is no longer fun for them (4). A coach needs to
develop a positive youth development program that can help
avoid this. Following Howard’s four C.O.R.E. (context, opportunity,
recognition, environment) principles can be used as a building
step towards the development program (4). The context involves
the movement patterns that are related to the development the
young athlete is undergoing. Coaches should develop their young
athletes with movement patterns that are functional in nature
instead of developing movement patters for just one sport (4).
All young athletes should be given the opportunity to reach
their potential. There needs to be a proper balance between
unstructured and structured physical pattern movements. Coaches
need to develop an appropriate program that can benefit the
young athlete’s physical attributes. If all the young athletes can
participate in the proper strength and conditioning program,
performance results will be visible, and the risk of injury will
be reduced (4).
CONSIDERING INDIVIDUAL RATES OF MATURITY
AND DEVELOPMENT
Although developing a young athlete can be advantageous, it
is important for coaches to recognize a young athlete who is
developing at a slower rate than the others. These slow maturing
athletes can eventually become elite athletes (4). The young
athlete’s environment also plays a big role in the development of
athleticism (4). The coaches should be responsible for creating a
positive practice environment. With a positive environment, such
14 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
as clapping when one does well or pats on the back, the young
athletes feel encouraged to participate and therefore, contribute
to their own improvement by putting in effort.
It is important that a coach considers the variety of movement
patterns in young athletes, as well as different environments
to allow room for adaptations and to make the program more
innovative and fun (4). With a properly designed strength and
conditioning program that enhances fundamental motor skill
acquisition, young athletes can develop their athleticism safely
while witnessing their progress improve in their chosen sport(s).
KEEPING ATHLETES MOTIVATED
The NSCA states that a well-designed and supervised strength
and conditioning program can help improve the psychosocial
well-being of the young athlete (12). Motivation can be described
as the direction and intensity of one’s efforts (8,12). There are
several ways to increase the athlete’s interest and motivation
in their sport. It is much more than just winning trophies and
championships that should inspire athletes to work harder. There
needs to be an understanding between the coach and athlete
that the reason they are training and working out is to better
themselves and become a better version of themselves than they
were yesterday. If they keep that mindset, and continue working
towards their goal, the trophies and championships will have a
higher chance of coming.
SUPPORT AND THE EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENT
It is also important to keep up with young athletes’ academic
progress (1). Getting in touch with school administration
is recommended to identify any at-risk student-athletes.
Communicating with the parents of the at-risk athlete and setting
up meetings periodically can help as well. This can show the young
athlete, administration, and parents that the student’s academic
progress is important to the coaches. Young athletes are expected
to balance academics, social life, and sports, so it is crucial to
show them a support system that will always be there for them
when they are struggling.
Team meals, before and after games, is an aspect of team sports
that gets overlooked. What these meals provide the young
athletes is much more than just food to satisfy their hunger. These
meals can express feelings of empathy and compassion towards
the young athletes from the coaches (4). Eating a full meal as a
team can make young athletes feel like they belong and create a
stronger bond with their teammates and coaches. It is important
for a coach and athlete to create a sense of comfort and care, and
by sharing a meal can facilitate these qualities (1,3).
CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS
All young athletes vary in physical, emotional, and mental abilities
(1,2,3,5). Not every young athlete will be at the same training
level; therefore, it is crucial to take their physical and motor
skill maturation into consideration when developing a strength
and conditioning program that is age-appropriate, movement-
 NSCA COACH 5.3

specific, and sport-specific as well (2,3,5,9,13). Coaches should REFERENCES

focus on a broad aspect of skills for them to build a foundation
that will greatly impact a young athlete’s fitness level and health
throughout their lifespan, rather than just one or two skills that
will only momentarily benefit them (7,13). Aside from considering
their growth and maturation aspects mentioned earlier, there are
many approaches a coach can utilize. One important factor for a
strength and conditioning coach is to always keep documentation
of the young athlete’s progress. This documentation will
aid in helping one to refine the periodization program for
the young athlete.
In addition, because young athletes are in a state where they
are barely starting to engage in different physical activities and
learning new exercise techniques, they are still vulnerable to
losing confidence early on in their training. For this reason, young
athletes can be discouraged by their performance, which can
interfere with their psychosocial ability to keep building their
foundation for developing their physical and mental skills in
their chosen sport. Thus, professionals should be supportive in
increasing a young athlete’s self-esteem and offer praise when
accomplishing a specific task or goal (12). Methods in boosting a
young athlete’s self-confidence can range from a simple pat on the
back after achieving a task, to recompensing them with an award
of recognition.
There are also quite a few applications that a coach should
implement when developing a youth strength and conditioning
program. To promote consistency in training, a strength and
conditioning coach should explain the value of training to parent
and athletes, be flexible with scheduling, and be willing to adapt
programming when appropriate (11). A strength and conditioning
professional must be aware that using too much caution regarding
overtraining can lead to decreased strength levels which could
negatively impact athletic performance (11). Coaches should
always be aware of what type of training they are going to do
with the athlete, and the extent of this training. This should aid in
minimizing overuse injuries.
1. Faigenbaum, AD. A coaches dozen: 12 FUNdamental principles
for building young and healthy athletes. Strength and Conditioning
Journal 32(2): 99-101, 2010.
2. Faigenbaum, AD, Lloyd, RS, Sheehan, D, and Myer, GD. The
role of the pediatric exercise specialist in treating exercise
deficit disorder in youth. Strength and Conditioning Journal
35(3): 34-41, 2013.
3. Faigenbaum, AD, and Meadors, L. A coach’s dozen: An update
on building healthy, strong, and resilient young athletes. Strength
and Conditioning Journal 39(2): 27-33, 2017.
4. Howard, R. Developing athleticism is the C.O.R.E. of positive
youth development. NSCA Coach 1(2): 4-5, 2014.
5. Howard, R. Long-term athletic development (LTAD) as a
cradle-to-grave model. NSCA Coach 4(3): 6-8, 2017.
6. Howard, R. Start early - The key to preparing athletes for the
rigors of high school strength and conditioning. NSCA Coach
2(4): 34-35, 2015.
7. Howard, R. Why fundamental motor skills are so important.
NSCA Coach 2(1) :38-41, 2016.
8. Jeffreys, I. Enhancing motivation in high school programs.
Strength and Conditioning Journal 29(6): 21-22, 2007.
9. Lloyd, RS, Oliver, JL, Faigenbaum, AD, Howard, R, De Ste Croix,
MB, Williams, CA, et al. Long-term athletic development - Part
1: A pathway for all youth. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research 29(5): 1439–1450, 2015.
10. Lloyd, RS, Oliver, JL, Faigenbaum, AD, Howard, R, De Ste Croix,
MB, Williams, CA, et al. Long-term athletic development - Part 2:
Barriers to success and potential solutions. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 29(5): 1451–1464, 2015.
11. McClure, R. Overcoming challenges associated with training
young athletes. NSCA Coach 3(2): 48-51, 2016.
12. McClure, R. Teaching and motivating a young athlete - A
personal perspective. NSCA Coach 2(3): 40-42, 2015.

With these strategies, a strength and conditioning professional 13. Sugimoto, DS. Implications for training in youth: Is
can help a young athlete perform at a high level when it matters specialization benefiting kids? Strength and Conditioning Journal
the most (11). Coaches should always think of the athlete and 39(2): 77-81, 2017.
their safety first before performing any rigorous training. Young
athletes should get the encouragement from a coach to increase
their self-esteem. A supportive strength and conditioning coach
can help increase the self-confidence of young athletes by
showing up at sporting events and understanding their athlete’s
goals (12). Motivating and encouraging the young athlete is one
of the main keys for the young athlete to reach their goals in the
long run. Developing a youth strength and conditioning program
requires evidenced-based research to enhance fundamental
motor skills and athletes’ psychosocial skills at a critical time in
their young lives.

NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 15

DEVELOPING A YOUTH STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING PROGRAM: BEST PRACTICES

ABOUT THE AUTHORS April Lara is a junior at the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley
and is majoring in Exercise Science with a minor in Biology. She
Enrique Alanis is currently a senior at the University of Texas Rio
also earned an Associate’s degree in Interdisciplinary Studies from
Grande Valley, majoring in Exercise Science. He currently holds a
South Texas College, earning distinctions such as being on the
ranking officer position for the Pre-Physical Therapy Society and
president’s honor roll for a prodigious grade point average (GPA).
has been placed on the dean’s list for the past three years. His
overall goal is to become a physical therapist that specializes in
Aylen Alaniz is currently a senior at the University of Texas
sports injuries.
Rio Grande Valley, majoring in Exercise Science and wants to
focus on occupational therapy. She holds her Personal Trainer
Samuel Cavazos is a senior at the University of Texas Rio Grande
certificate from International Fitness Association (IFA), and her
Valley, majoring in Exercise Science and minoring in Special
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) certification.
Education. He also holds an Associate degree in Psychology from
South Texas College. His plan is to pursue occupational therapy. He
Juan Gonzalez is an Applied Exercise Physiologist, former
currently holds a Hardstyle Kettlebell Certification (HKC) and is a
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) women’s cross
former certified personal trainer. He is currently a Peer Educator
country coach, International Sports Performance Trainer and
for the research-based program, “Know Your Status,” through the
Associate Professor within the Department of Health and Human
University of Texas Rio Grande Valley Medical School.
Performance at the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley (UTRGV)
in Edinburg, TX. He has authored the book “The Athlete Whisperer:
Javier Alanis is an undergraduate student at the University of Texas
What it Takes to Make her Great” and specializes in training female
Rio Grande Valley. He is in his third year at the school with over
athletes. Gonzalez is also involved with mentoring the pre physical
120 credits and a 3.6 grade point average (GPA). He is pursuing a
and occupational therapy student at UTRGV.
Bachelor’s degree in Exercise Science. Alanis has worked with the
Boys and Girls Club of America for four years now, helping children CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
stay in shape and become future star athletes. His goal is to work Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding: The authors report no
in the sports physical therapy field and help athletes recover and conflicts of interest and no source of funding.
come back stronger to the sport that they love.

Yamilex Gallardo is currently a senior at the University of Texas Rio

Grande Valley at Edinburg, TX, majoring in Exercise Science with a
concentration in Physical Therapy. She holds an Associate’s degree
in Interdisciplinary Arts from South Texas College at McAllen and
is First Aid, Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR), and Automate
External Defibrillator (AED) certified from American Red Cross.

16 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM

 NSCA COACH 5.3

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NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 17

ECCENTRIC AND BALANCE TRAINING TO ENHANCE PISTOL SHOOTING PERFORMANCE
IN THE YOUNG ATHLETE
CARMEN SALINAS, SAMANTHA GOMEZ, JENNY ZAMORA, ALEXIS FLORES, AMANDA HANKINS,
AND JUAN GONZALEZ, PHD, CSCS
INTRODUCTION
T
he Scholastic Action Shooting Program (SASP) is a speed-
shooting competition designed for school-aged youth.
It is comprised of various team-based action shooting
sports. The 2017 – 2018 SASP official handbook states that the
age range for this competition is ages 10 – 18 years old (25).
Additionally, SASP consists of two disciplines: pistol and rifle.
The SASP discipline that this article focuses on is pistol shooting,
specifically the aiming of a 0.22 handgun at steel circle targets.
Just like with any other sport, competitive shooting is an Olympic
sport that also requires multiple levels of training and elite level
athleticism (26). Precise marksmanship in pistol shooting relies on
numerous factors other than simply the aim and arm strength of
the competitor. A competitor’s success also involves factors such
as experience, the skill of the shooter, stance control, upper and
lower extremity strength, and core strength (2,3,4,9,10,15,16,27). A
review of the current literature revealed research studies looking
into the resistance training required in order for adults to improve
pistol shooting performance and the techniques necessary
to strengthen the hands and arms (2,10). Similarly, additional
literature observed the isometric training of the hands and arms of
an adult involved in pistol shooting (9,11). So far, no studies have
examined balance and eccentric training of both upper and lower
body aimed specifically at the elite young pistol shooters. Even
though balance and eccentric training has been overlooked, it is
important to the improvement of the previously mentioned factors
necessary to a competitor’s success. Eccentric training increases
muscle mass and would therefore likely improve the upper and
18 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
lower extremity strength required for competing. Similarly, balance
training improves core strength and should likely improve the
stance of a shooter. The purpose of this article is to expand the
focus of balance and eccentric training required to enhance pistol
shooting performance in the elite young competitive shooter.
STANCE OF A MARKSMAN
The shooting demands of this sport involve personalized shooting
stances categorized in two general stances, isosceles and weaver.
The isosceles stance is typically more appropriate for those
individuals involved in combat. This stance is for those under
stress, characterized by the upper body being squared and the
weapon being held by the dominate hand. The shooting hand is
usually the same hand an individual would use to write with and
is supported by the non-dominant hand, while both arms are
fully extended in front of the individual (24,27). The customary
isosceles stance is displayed with the elbows locked, so that the
arm and shoulder bones can handle the pistol’s recoil.
The weaver stance was developed specifically for competition
use and is characterized by a “push-pull” upper body positioning
(24,27). While in this stance, the upper body is turned at an angle,
with the non-dominant shoulder twisted forward, and the weapon
held primarily by the dominate hand “pushing” the weapon away
from the chest by keeping the dominant arm partially extended,
with the elbow slightly bent, while the non-dominant arm is bent
downward at the elbow, supporting or “pulling” the weapon
toward the chest. Although these two stances involve notably

different techniques and are meant for different circumstances, it
is still important that each athlete use the position that their body
naturally prefers.
For instance, studies have shown that law enforcement training
requires trainees to learn both stances and find the desired stance
(8,17). If a shooter is in an unnatural stance when a shot is taken,
the shot will drift in the direction of the body instead of the target
(15). Slight changes in stance may lead to meaningful alterations
in the execution and performance of this sport. During training
sessions, coaches should look out for proper neuromuscular
control, core body stabilization, hip musculature control, lower
extremity joint alignments, and appropriate bilateral landing
techniques demonstrated by young athletes (6). Stability is the
result of the collaboration between numerous physiological and
functional systems (16). Stability also goes hand in hand with
balance activities which will be discussed below.
BALANCE TRAINING
The need to implement balance training with Olympic level
shooting competitors is critical for the success of the competitor
(4). In an article in Airrifleshooting, three different studies are
explained and discussed pertaining to balance and its correlation
to rifle shooting (4). The first study used 24 subjects who were
divided into three groups of eight and were tested using a
NOPTEL sensor to record their balance and accuracy. The second
test focused only on elite shooters, two women and four men all
competing as part of a national Olympic team, in their study a
Scatt sensor was used to track their body and rifle movements.
In the last study, 58 newly enlisted United States Air Force male
shooters, were tested with standard assault rifles. In the second
study, which tested elite shooters, the results concluded that there
was no significant difference in core balance between the best and
worst shots. Meaning that, “the better a shooter is, the better they
are at aborting bad shots before pulling the trigger,” (4). On the
other hand, the other two studies concluded that the participants
who performed better had greater core control and balance than
those who performed poorly, thus emphasizing the importance of
balance training in competitive shooting (4).
NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 19
NSCA COACH 5.3
Since the core is the center of gravity in a person, this area
must be trained to enhance the overall balance of the athlete.
Exercise regimens that focus on core strength, endurance, and
stability are common in both athletic training and rehabilitation
programs (5,7,20,24). “The main purpose of basic core strength
is to increase stability and to gain coordination and timing of
the deep abdominal wall musculature, as well as to reduce and
prevent injury,” (14). Strength and stability of the core must
become aligned; “strength of the core” refers to the control of
the spine and its stability, and “stability of the core” refers to the
body’s control of the range of motion of a joint (14). The core
is composed of 29 pairs of muscles that support the lumbo-
pelvic-hip complex, which all work together to stabilize the
spine, pelvis, and kinetic chain (the human movement of the
body muscular, skeletal, and nervous system) (14). When these
muscles are strengthened they help to stabilize the spine, which
in turn stabilizes the body. It is important to understand that the
development of the core does not solely refer to the musculature
of the core area, but rather the stability which the muscles give to
the spine, particularly the lumbar spine, which allows a person to
obtain balance. By training this area, not only will the competitor
be able to stabilize their body to shoot accurately, but also tighten
their core to prevent excess motion while in transition from
position to position. The use of balance is directly associated with
the transitioning performance of omnidirectional (in all directions)
movements. These movements adversely affect four areas of
competitive shooting performance: hold, hold area, execution of
movements, and relaxation (4). Proper techniques of these four
aspects will allow the athlete to “hold” their movements in a stable
and balanced manner by bringing their gun up and down and then
side to side, all the while maintaining postural balance by either
moving the feet closer or further apart. “Hold area” refers to the
grip and placement of the hands on the gun, and “execution of
movements” refers to the sway of the body, which “starts in the
ankles and is controlled by tensing and relaxing the calf muscles,”
(4). Lastly, “relaxation” refers to the mental state of mind, which
an athlete will have to develop cognitively over a course of time
and practice. Given these considerations, the following exercises
are recommended to enhance balance in the young marksman.
ECCENTRIC AND BALANCE TRAINING TO ENHANCE PISTOL SHOOTING PERFORMANCE
IN THE YOUNG ATHLETE
FIGURE 1. SINGLE-LEG BALANCE ON BOSU
During this training program (Figures 1 and 2), a progression of
BOSU balancing exercises is demonstrated. A BOSU is an inflated
rubber hemisphere attached to a rigid platform which is intended
for balance exercises. It was given its name for having “both sides
utilized” while training (1). The athlete begins by balancing on
the BOSU using one leg while the opposite leg is extended. A
progression is to perform this exercise with a medicine ball held
in both arms extended parallel to the floor. Table 1 outlines the
number of sets and repetitions recommended to enhance balance
training. These exercises will strengthen the gastrocnemius, soleus,
fibularis longus, fibularis brevis, deltoids, pectoralis major, and
the trunk muscles. Use of the BOSU will introduce a new standing
platform which leads to a destabilizing of the area while engaging
the core muscles more effectively, thus increasing the balance of
the overall body (19). By performing this progression, the athlete
will work the major leg and core muscles allowing them to be able
to perform at a higher level while in competition. Balance training
will activate the vestibulospinal tract which are small fibers in the
central nervous system (composed of the brain and spinal cord),
20 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
FIGURE 2. SINGLE-LEG BALANCE WITH WEIGHTED
BALL ON BOSU
which transmit information from the nuclei to the motor neurons
(component of a nerve cell which transmits impulses from the
central nervous system to the bodies muscles or glands), there
neurons will then engage the reflexes, thus improving the overall
postural control in the athlete (19,22,23).
The back bridge on a yoga ball (Figure 3) will strengthen the
core and isolate the leg muscles while the athlete is in a back-
bridge position. Figure 4 illustrates a single-leg back bridge
on an exercise ball. This will enhance the recruitment of more
core muscles while maintaining stability on the ball. The final
progression during the back bridge position of holding a
medicine ball extended behind the head as shown in Figure 5.
Table 1 outlines the recommended sets and repetitions necessary
for improving balance. These exercises activate the iliopsoas,
sartorius, rectus abdominus, erector spinae, gluteus maximus,
and quadriceps, and later progress to engage the abdominals,
pectoralis major and minor, and deltoids.
 NSCA COACH 5.3

FIGURE 3. BACK BRIDGE ON YOGA BALL FIGURE 4. SINGLE-LEG BACK BRIDGE ON YOGA BALL

FIGURE 5. BACK BRIDGE ON YOGA BALL WITH WEIGHTED BALL

TABLE 1. BALANCE TRAINING FOR THE YOUNG FEMALE SHOOTER

EXERCISES FIGURE(S)
Single-Leg Balance on BOSU
Single-Leg Balance with
Weighted Ball on BOSU
Back Bridge on Yoga Ball
Single-Leg Back
4 3 of 10 s
Bridge on Yoga Ball
Back Bridge on Yoga Ball
with Weighted Ball
MUSCLES USED SETS/REPS
Primary: Gastrocnemius, Soleus, Fibularis longus, Fibularis Brevis.
1 Secondary: Rectus Femoris, Sartorius, Vastus Lateralis, Gluteus 3 of 10 s
Maximus, Rectus Abdominis, External Hip Flexors.
Primary: Gastrocnemius, Soleus, Fibularis longus, Fibularis Brevis,
Deltoid, and Pectoralis Major.
2 3 of 10 s
Secondary: Rectus Femoris, Sartorius, Vastus Lateralis, Gluteus
Maximus, Rectus Abdominis, External Hip Flexors.
Primary: Rectus Abdominus, Gluteus Maximus, Quads and Obliques
3 Secondary: Tranverse Abdominus, Gluteus Medius/Minus, Erector 3 of 10 s
spinae, Hamstrings, adductors, Hip Flexors.
Primary: Iliopsoas, Satorius, Rectus Abdominus, erector spinae,
Gluteus Maximus, and quadriceps.
Secondary: Pectineus, adductor longus, Hamstrings, and
adductor brevis
Primary: Rectus Abdominus, Hip Flexors, Quads and Obliques,
Posterior Chain, Deltoid, Pectoralis Major.
5 3 of 10 s
Secondary: Erector Spinae, Hamstrings, Adductors

NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 21

ECCENTRIC AND BALANCE TRAINING TO ENHANCE PISTOL SHOOTING PERFORMANCE
IN THE YOUNG ATHLETE
FIGURE 6. ECCENTRIC BACK SQUAT ON BOSU – START
Figures 6 and 7 depict an athlete performing an eccentric
weighted squat on a BOSU. Because this program is focused
on youth, it is important to be cautious when adding load. The
strength and conditioning coach should never allow the athlete
to exceed their maximum weight capacity and should, most
importantly, assess the technique and movement of the young
athlete. If at any time the coach sees fatigue or overcompensation
from other muscle groups, they should stop the athlete from
continuing their sets and repetitions. When it comes to pediatric
athletes and strength training, the technique is more important
than the amount of weight lifted (21). This exercise should instead
focus on using small loads with an adequate amount of eccentric
repetitions. In this particular exercise, the athlete is performing an
eccentric squat using a Smith machine with a 40-lb load while on
a BOSU. With this exercise, the athlete activates the quadriceps,
gluteals, hamstrings, spinal erectors, latissimus dorsi, trapezius,
rhomboids, scapular muscles, and the posterior shoulder muscles
while on an unstable surface. The activation of the core and leg
muscles is an important part of obtaining overall balance and
stability; thus, it will enhance the competitive shooters ability to
control their body for a quicker draw with less movement time (4).
ECCENTRIC TRAINING
The term “eccentrics” is defined as “muscle loading that involves
an external force application with tension increase during physical
lengthening of the musculotendinous unit,” (3). Eccentric training
often plays a role in various training populations ranging from
the geriatric joint dysfunctions to elite level training programs.
Eccentric training will prepare the athlete for any deceleration
22 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
FIGURE 7. ECCENTRIC BACK SQUAT ON BOSU –
DOWNWARD MOTION
demands of an activity. It is beneficial to competitive shooters
by building muscle mass, increasing muscle-tendon strength,
developing a more stable base to control forces, and limit the
probabilities of an injury during deceleration (3).
The use of eccentric training depends on age, gender, type, and
if the individual has had any previous experiences with physical
training. For example, integrative training is defined as a program
or plan that incorporates general and specific strength and
conditioning activities that enhance both health- and skill-related
components of physical fitness (18). Muscular strength, power,
dynamic balance, and sport-specific performance are a few of
the benefits expected of training programs that include these
resistance exercises (12). Acceptable loads of these trainings can
be categorized into four general phases: phase I, II, III, and IV (3).
Phase I emphasizes resistance in the form of bodyweight and
interactive gravitational forces during the eccentric loading (3).
A recommended exercise is the incline depth push-up shown in
Figures 8, 9, and 10. When performing an incline depth push-up,
the athlete begins with both hands on the floor, then moves one
hand to the top of the block, and lastly moves the second hand
up. Both hands are moved down one by one. The purpose of this
exercise is to challenge the shoulder complex while targeting
prime movers such as the pectoralis major, deltoid, and triceps. By
performing these eccentric exercises, the athlete will become more
efficient in absorbing the recoil of the gun being fired.
 NSCA COACH 5.3

FIGURE 8. INCLINED DEPTH PUSH-UPS – START FIGURE 9. INCLINED DEPTH PUSH-UPS – TRANSITION

FIGURE 10. INCLINED DEPTH PUSH-UPS – END

NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 23

ECCENTRIC AND BALANCE TRAINING TO ENHANCE PISTOL SHOOTING PERFORMANCE
IN THE YOUNG ATHLETE

Phase II advances to submaximally loaded eccentrics with
elastic bands, machines, or free weights. In this phase, the
young athlete develops strength with the small amount of
resistance that is added to the workout. While performing these
resistance workouts, the athlete should conduct them in a more
consistent manner while maintaining proper form. Elastic bands
are practical and effective when performing two limb eccentric
phases (3). Figures 11 and 12 depict monster walks that can be
performed using resistance bands while holding a shooting
position with the arms and hands. Images of the clamshell and
reverse clamshell exercises are shown in Figures 13 – 14 and
15 – 16, respectively. The muscles activated with these exercises
along with the recommended number of sets and repetitions are
provided in Table 2.

FIGURE 11. MONSTER WALK SHOOTING STANCE – START FIGURE 12. MONSTER WALK SHOOTING STANCE – END

FIGURE 13. CLAM SHELL – START FIGURE 14. CLAM SHELL – END

FIGURE 15. REVERSE CLAM SHELL – START FIGURE 16. REVERSE CLAM SHELL – END

24 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM


The intensity of the load is increased in Phase III. Emphasizing
isolated limb eccentrics is one of the major changes of training
during this phase. The objective of this exercise is to isolate one
leg or arm at a time while doing an eccentric contraction. Because
lower extremity eccentric progressions are more common,
they have greater sophistication than the corresponding upper
extremity trainings (3). Figures 17 – 20 show the athlete using
FIGURE 17. STANDING CABLE CROSSOVER SHOOTING
POSITION – PART 1
FIGURE 19. STANDING CABLE CROSSOVER SHOOTING
POSITION – PART 3
NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 25
NSCA COACH 5.3
the cable crossover machine while standing on a Terra Core in
shooting position. The Terra Core is a half dome elongated BOSU
type of training device that has multiple uses for functional
training. During this exercise, the athlete assumes the same
starting position as required during the Scholastic Action
Shooting competition. The athlete mimics the movement from
the pistol pointing down, then towards the target. This exercise
FIGURE 18. STANDING CABLE CROSSOVER SHOOTING
POSITION – PART 2
FIGURE 20. STANDING CABLE CROSSOVER SHOOTING
POSITION – PART 4
ECCENTRIC AND BALANCE TRAINING TO ENHANCE PISTOL SHOOTING PERFORMANCE
IN THE YOUNG ATHLETE

FIGURE 21. RESISTIVE SHOOTING STANCE WITH
BUNGEE CORD – START
is completed eccentrically from the targeted position back to the
starting position. In similar fashion Figures 21 and 22 can also be
achieved with bungee cords. These figures show the development
of movement skill competency in a step-wise process, and youth
must demonstrate mastery of a basic skill under the guidance of a
qualified strength and conditioning coach.
Lastly, Phase IV is a more advanced elite-level settings, such as
an Olympic shooting competition. With a youth population, it is
important that athletes be supervised and guided through the
workout to make sure they do not exceed their maximum weight
FIGURE 22. RESISTIVE SHOOTING STANCE WITH
BUNGEE CORD – END
limit while executing proper techniques. Failure to do so can lead
to injury, which may result in a long-term negative effect on the
young athlete (12). Recommended movements for this phase
are the reverse leg press using single- and double-leg isolations
as illustrated in Figures 23 – 26. During this exercise, the athlete
lowers the load as low as possible to a set point then pushes the
load back to the starting position. This exercise activates the
quadriceps, tensor fascia latae, and gluteus maximus. For a young
athlete, guidelines specify that 1 – 3 sets of 6 – 15 repetitions
should be performed to improve strength (13).

FIGURE 23. REVERSE LEG PRESS – STANDARD PART 1 FIGURE 24. REVERSE LEG PRESS – STANDARD PART 2

FIGURE 25. REVERSE LEG PRESS – ISOLATION PART 3 FIGURE 26. REVERSE LEG PRESS – ISOLATION PART 4

26 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM

 NSCA COACH 5.3

TABLE 2. LOWER AND UPPER BODY ECCENTRIC TRAINING FOR THE YOUNG FEMALE SHOOTER
SETS/
EXERCISES FIGURE(S) MUSCLES USED
REPS

Vastus Lateralis, Rectus Femoris, Vastus Intermedius, Vastus Medialis,

Eccentric Back Squat on BOSU 6, 7 3 of 10
Gluteus Medius, Gluteus Maximus

Primary: Pectoralis Major, Anterior Deltoid, Triceps

Inclined Depth Push-Ups 8 – 10 3 of 10
Secondary: Abdominals, Biceps, Quadriceps, Serratus Anterior

3 of 10
Monster Walk Shooting Stance 11, 12 Hip Flexors, Hip Extensors, Hip Abductors, Gluteus Medius
yards

Hip Abductors, External Rotators, Gluteus Medius, Gluteus Maximus

Clam Shell 13, 14 3 of 10

Tensor Fascia, Rectus femoris, Vastus lateralis, vastus medialis,

Reverse Clam Shell 15, 16 3 of 10
gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus

Primary Muscles: Biceps, Triceps, Deltoid,

Standing Cable Crossover Pectoralis Major, Abdominals
17 – 20 3 of 10
Shooting Position Parts 1 – 4 Secondary Muscles: Supraspinatus, Trapezius, Infraspinatus,
Tres major, Tres minor

Primary Muscles: Biceps, Triceps, Deltoid, Pectoralis

Resistive Stance Position Major, Abdominals
21, 22 3 of 10
with Bungee Cord Secondary Muscles: Supraspinatus, Trapezius, Infraspinatus,
Tres major, Tres minor

Reverse Leg Press (Standard Vastus intermedius, Vastus medialis, Vastus lateralis, Tensor Fascia,
23 – 26 3 of 10
and Isolations) Gluteus maximus, Rectus Femoris

NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 27

ECCENTRIC AND BALANCE TRAINING TO ENHANCE PISTOL SHOOTING PERFORMANCE
IN THE YOUNG ATHLETE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A careful review of literature demonstrates the lack of research
on eccentric and balance training programs specific to young
athletes competing in the SASP under the handgun discipline. The
current training programs found for competitive shooters consist
of training for adults that focus on aim and strength of the arms
and hands. There is little to no literature on the training of an
young competitive shooter. Additionally, the literature available
that is intended for adult competitive shooters demonstrates
very little time spent on developing the balance and eccentric
components necessary for enhanced shooting. When designing
this type of strength and conditioning program, a careful analysis
of the demands of the sport movement should be completed.
The analysis of the young athletes’ shooting stance and the
individual muscles recruited throughout the movements required
in the shooting competition should also be included. The key to
training a successful SASP competitor is to not overlook the often
forgotten balance and eccentric training exercises that target key
muscle groups involved in the competition.
REFERENCES
1. “About Us.” BOSU. Accessed March 29,2018. https://www.
bosu.com/about us.
2. Arnot, C. Postural Considerations for Rifle and Pistol Shooters.
USA Shooting News. 2010
3. Albert, M. Eccentric Muscle Training in Sports and Orthopedics.
Edinburgh, London: Churchill Livingstone; 141-153, 1995.
4. “Balance In Rifle Shooting – What Does the Research Say?”
Airrifleshooting. November 23, 2013. Accessed March 05, 2018.
https://airrifleshooting.wordpress.com/2012/11/11/balance-in-rifle-
shooting-what-does-the-research-say/.
5. Bliven, KC, and Anderson, BE. Core Stability Training for Injury
Prevention. Sports Health: A Multidisciplinary Approach 5(6):
514-522, 2013.
6. Boyle, J, Naaktgeboren, K, and Dorgo, S. Growth plate injuries
in children in sports: A review of Sever’s disease. Strength and
Conditioning Journal 39(2): 59-68, 2017.
7. Calatayud, J, Casaña, J, Martín, F, Jakobsen, MD, Colado, JC,
and Andersen, LL. Progression of Core Stability Exercises Based
on the Extent of Muscle Activity. American Journal of Physical
Medicine & Rehabilitation 96(10): 694-699, 2017.
8. Charles, M.T. and Copay, A.G. Acquisition of Marksmanship and
Gun Handling Skills Through Basic Law Enforcement Training in
an American Police Department. International Journal of Police
Science and Management 5(1): 2003.
9. Chichkov, V. Isometric Training and Pistol Shooting. USA
Shooting News. 2011
10. Chittenden, K. Resistance training to improve pistol shooting
performance. TSAC Report 37: 34-40, 2015.
11. Conway, P. The often forgotten exercise - Isometrics. TSAC
Report 46: 36-41, 2017.
28 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
12. Faigenbaum, AD, and Meadors, L. A Coaches Dozen: 12
FUNdamental Principles for Building Young and Healthy Athletes.
Strength and Conditioning Journal 32(2): 99-101, 2010
13. Faigenbaum, AD. Kraemer, WJ. Blimkie, CJR. Jeffreys, I.
Micheli, LJ. Nitka, M. and Rowland, TW. Youth resistance training:
Updated position statement paper from the National Strength and
Conditioning Association. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research 23(5): S60–S79, 2009
14. Faries, M, and Greenwood, M. Core training: Stabilizing the
confusion. Strength and Conditioning Journal 29(2): 10-25, 2007.
15. Faught, S. Common Mistakes of Junior Shooters. USA
Shooting News. 2011
16. Fong-Chin Su, Wen-Lan Wu, Wen-Don Lee. Stance Stability
in Shooters. Journal of Medical and Biological Engineering,
20(4): 187-192, 2000.
17. Funk, Shany, T. Jacob, D. Ben-Dov, E. Yanovich, O. Tirosh,
and N. Steinberg. “A Balance and Proprioception Intervention
Programme to Enhance Combat Performance in Military
Personnel.” Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps 164, no.
1 (2017): 52-57.
18. Gregory D. Myer, Avery D. Faigenbaum, Donald A. Chu, Jeff
Falkel, Kevin R. Ford, Thomas M. Best and Timothy E. Hewett.
Integrative Training for Children and Adolescents: Techniques and
Practices for Reducing Sports-Related Injuries and Enhancing
Athletic Performance, The Physician and Sports Medicine
39(1): 74-84 , 2011.
19. H. Aalto, I. Pyykko, R. Ilmarinen, E. Kahkonen, “Postural stability
in shooters,” Journal for Otorhinolaryaology 52: 232-238, 1990.
20. McDonald, DA, Delgadillo, JQ, Fredericson, M, McConnell, J,
Hodgins, M, and Besier, TF. Reliability and accuracy of a video
analysis protocol to assess core ability. PM&R: The Journal of
Injury, Function, and Rehabilitation 3(3): 204-11, 2011.
21. Armstrong, Neil. Paediatric Exercise Physiology. Edinburgh:
Churchill Livingstone, 213-217, 2007.
22. P. Era, N. Konttinen, P. Mehto, P. Saarela, H. Lyytinen, “Postural
stability and skilled performance-A study on top-level and naive
rifle shooters,” Journal of Biomechanics 29(3): 301-6, 1996.
23. Rea P. Essential Clinical Anatomy of the Nervous System.
London: Spinal Tract Descending/Motor Pathways; 167-176, 2015.
24. Sims, E and Barksdale, L. The Importance of Careful
Interpretation of Shell Casing Ejection Patterns. Journal of Forensic
Identification 55(6): 2005.
25. Scholastic Action Shooting Program Handbook. Scholastic
Shooting Sports Foundation. 2016.
26. Su, F, Wu, W, and Lee, W. Stance of a Shooter. Journal of
Medical and Biological Engineering 20(4): 187-192, 2000.
27. Westmoreland, H. Isoceles vs. Weaver: Shooting Stances. Law &
Order 37(10): 1989.
 NSCA COACH 5.3

ABOUT THE AUTHORS Amanda Hankins is a senior at the University of Texas Rio Grande
Valley, majoring in Exercise Science within the Department of
Carmen Salinas is a junior at the University of Texas Rio Grande
Health and Human Performance (HHP) with a focus on Physical
Valley, majoring in Exercise Science within the Department of
Therapy. Her plans are to become a Doctor of Physical Therapy
Health and Human Performance (HHP) with a focus on Physical
(DPT). She is a prospective December 2018 graduate.
Therapy. Her plans are to become a Doctor of Physical Therapy
(DPT). She is a prospective December 2018 graduate.
Juan Gonzalez is an Applied Exercise Physiologist, former
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) women’s cross
Samantha Gomez is a senior at the University of Texas Rio Grande
country coach, International Sports Performance Trainer and
Valley, majoring in Exercise Science within the Department of
Associate Professor within the Department of Health and Human
Health and Human Performance (HHP) with a focus on Physical
Performance at the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley (UTRGV)
Therapy. Her plans are to become a Doctor of Physical Therapy
in Edinburg, TX. He has authored the book “The Athlete Whisperer:
(DPT). She is a prospective December 2018 graduate.
What it Takes to Make her Great” and specializes in training female
athletes. Gonzalez is also involved with mentoring the pre physical
Jenny Zamora is currently a senior at the University of Texas Rio
and occupational therapy student at UTRGV.
Grande Valley. She holds an Associate’s degree in Biology from
South Texas College and is currently majoring in Exercise Science CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
within the Department of Health and Human Performance (HHP) Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding: The authors report no
with a focus on Physical Therapy. Her plans are to become a conflicts of interest and no source of funding.
Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT). She is a prospective December
2018 graduate.

Alexis Flores is a currently a senior at the University of Texas Rio

Grande Valley. He holds an Associate’s degree in Kinesiology
from South Texas College and is currently majoring in Exercise
Science within the Department of Health and Human Performance
(HHP) with a focus on Physical Therapy. His plans are to become
a Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT). He is a prospective December
2018 graduate.

NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 29

THE GROWTH AND MATURATION OF THE FEMALE PEDIATRIC ATHLETE
AMANDA MARTINEZ, LIANA CHEE, ALYSSA LOPEZ, RAUL CASTILLO, DIANA NAVARRO, AND ALMA OLIVAREZ
INTRODUCTION
T
here are two important processes that occur throughout
an individual’s childhood and adolescent years: growth
and maturation. The difference between the two is that
growth is the change in body and body part size, while maturation
is the timing and tempo of advancement towards becoming
physiologically mature (1,3,4,18,22). Due to the fact that every
individual has a unique body, everyone goes through these
changes at different rates and times.
These two processes are important throughout any individual’s
general development, but are probably much more significant to a
pediatric athlete’s development. While all youth tend to grow and
mature in similar patterns, a pediatric athlete’s body proportions
and maturity status may be an advantage or disadvantage when it
comes to competing in their sport of choice (1,2,4). For example,
a 12-year-old female basketball player who is 5 feet, 9 inches tall
may be chosen for a team over another female basketball player of
the same age who is only 5 feet, 2 inches tall.
The purpose of this article is to review the dimensions,
proportions, stature, body mass, and maturational events of all
female pediatric athletes in general. It also serves to identify how
early sport specialization and different modes of training of the
female pediatric athlete affects her growth and maturation.
30 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
THE PEDIATRIC ATHLETE
A pediatric athlete is defined as a young athlete, ranging from
5 - 17 years of age, who competes in a sport at the local, national,
or international level (1,14). There is a funneling effect that can
be seen in young athletes, which leads to identification of the
“best-of-the-best.” At the larger end of the funnel is where the
most inexperienced athletes are seen, while the most talented
athletes can be seen at the smaller end of the funnel. This concept
illustrates how, as the demands and skill level of a sport increases,
the number of athletes who drop out of a sport also increases (1).
In turn, a very small number of young athletes reach elite levels.
FEMALE GROWTH
Physical growth is the size change experienced by an individual’s
body as a whole. This is further broken down into growth of
sections of the body, such as trunk or leg growth. The early
years of the growth process are crucial for a pediatric individual,
especially a female athlete. When a female athlete is growing, this
means that she is not only getting taller, but getting heavier as
well. She will experience an increase in lean body mass, fat tissue,
and organ size (1,3). These growth changes do not happen at the
same rate or time since everyone’s body grows differently (1,3,16).
The rate at which the female athlete grows depends heavily upon
genetic factors (3). Genetic predispositions, such as the height of
the athlete’s parents, can influence how she grows. If her mother
and father are tall, she most likely will inherit that trait from
both parents. Environmental factors can also influence a female

athlete’s growth. These factors include the intensity of training, the
type of sport, and the young female’s physical activity level (3).
For instance, regarding her physical activity level, a young female
who is more physically active will tend to have lower levels of fat
compared to a young female who is physically inactive (3).
FEMALE STATURE
A person’s stature is one of the most common signs of an
individual’s physical growth. Stature, also known as standing
height, is made up of two subcategories: sitting height and leg
length (1). Standing height is the length measured from the
surface in which the subject is standing on to the highest point
of their skull. The sitting height length also uses the highest
point of the skull as a reference, but instead begins measurement
from the subject’s seat. Leg length can be measured from either
the subject’s hip joint to the standing surface, or by utilizing
the following calculation: sitting height - standing height =
leg length (1).
Most pediatric female athletes are still growing and have yet
to reach mature adult height. Studies have shown that female
athletes who play sports such as basketball, volleyball, tennis,
and swimming are of average or above average stature (2,3,17).
Female athletes who are gymnasts, however, are of shorter
stature (2,3,9,17). Many may think that an athlete’s height is due
to the type of training that she does, but this is not true. Studies
have discovered that the young athlete’s genes are the greatest
determinant of height; thus, training has little to no effect on how
tall an athlete is (1,4).
FEMALE BODY MASS
Like stature, body mass is a very common sign of physical growth.
Body mass is composed of fat mass and fat-free mass, such as
muscle mass and bone mass. (1,3). A normal young female will
usually gain body mass, especially fat mass, as she matures,
but the body mass of a young female athlete may differ due to
intensive training (1,3). In sports like cross country and ballet,
young female athletes’ body masses tend to be low for their
height (3). On the other hand, there are also some young female
athletes who have a higher body mass than their non-athletic
peers, but their percent body fat is usually low, meaning that their
percentage of fat-free mass is high (2,3).
The intensive training of an elite pediatric athlete can greatly
affect the composition of body mass. Usually, these athletes have
higher fat-free mass and lower fat mass due to their training (3).
So, for example, a young female cross country runner may have a
very small percentage of fat mass and a very high percentage of
bone mass. Her lower fat mass is most likely due to the endurance
part of her training, while her higher bone mass is most likely due
to the fact that running is a weight-bearing type of sport. In turn,
the amount of fat mass and fat-free mass in young female athletes
may cause them to have different physiques and body dimensions
compared to their non-athletic peers.
NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 31
NSCA COACH 5.3
FEMALE DIMENSIONS AND PROPORTIONS
During childhood, female and male leg and sitting heights are
quite similar. On the other hand, during early adolescence (10 – 11
years of age), females tend to have a slightly longer leg length
(1). Males’ leg length catches up and exceeds that of females by
the age of 12 (1). In addition, due to an increase in the release
of estrogen during puberty, females will usually experience a
broadening of the hips relative to the shoulders (1).
As mentioned previously, researchers have concluded that
genetics are a significant influence on an adolescent’s body
dimensions (3,19). Though not always accurate, examining the
parents of an adolescent is a common way to predict what their
body dimensions and proportions may turn out to be (3). Many
successful female pediatric athletes enter into a certain sport
based on their physical attributes and body dimension (1,3,4,19).
In other words, the athlete may view certain body dimensions to
be more advantageous in certain sports. For example, a young
female athlete may view her slim-framed body structure as an
opportunity to excel in long-distance running events. This may
then lead her into becoming a successful young distance runner.
Although not obvious with all athletes, the changes in dimensions
and proportions of a female pediatric athlete occur at the
start of puberty.
FEMALE MATURATION
Maturation is defined as the progression to reaching a fully mature
biological state (1,2,4). Every individual’s rate of maturation is
different, meaning that some athletes may mature later or earlier
than others. In general, the early maturing female pediatric athlete
has a genetic advantage when it comes to competing in sports
over those who mature later because early maturers tend to be
taller, have a higher lean mass, and have a higher fat mass (4). In
other words, two female athletes of the same chronological age
can have very different rates of maturation, which may affect their
success in varying sports.
The two most common methods of characterizing the level
of maturation in young female athletes are: skeletal age and
appearance of secondary sex characteristics (9,18). Skeletal age—
characterized into either advanced, average, or delayed—refers to
the rate at which bones mature compared to chronological age
(4). So, for example, a young female who is one skeletal age older
than their chronological age is characterized as being an early
maturer (4). Furthermore, it has been observed that the training
of female pediatric athletes has no significant correlation to her
skeletal age (4). This implies that skeletal age is largely dependent
on factors other than training, such as biological factors.
Secondary sex characteristics in females include the development
of pubic hair, axillary hair, and breasts, as well as the start of
menarche (4). Age at onset of menarche (i.e., period) is probably
the most common secondary sex characteristic that is used to
characterize level of maturity due to the ease of administering
a simple questionnaire regarding when the female had her first
THE GROWTH AND MATURATION OF THE FEMALE PEDIATRIC ATHLETE
period cycle (4). It is widely thought that the intense training of
female pediatric athletes causes them to experience menarche at
a later age and thus, are late maturers. While studies have shown
that some female pediatric athletes, such as those in gymnastics
and ballet, do experience menarche at a later age, other studies
have shown that late menarche is usually seen in those athletes
who participated in intense training before going through puberty
(4). This implies that sport specialization at a young age may have
a close relationship with the age at which menarche is reached
due to intense training before puberty.
SPORT SPECIALIZATION AND YOUTH ATHLETES
Engaging in only one sport at a young age, known as sport
specialization, is becoming a common practice in today’s group
of young athletes (14). Many believe that getting an early start
in training for a certain sport is essential to reach the elite level,
but evidence suggests that early sport specialization can actually
cause serious health issues for young female athletes (8). Risks
associated with early specialization include social isolation,
burnout, injury, and the female athlete triad (7,8,12,13,16).
SOCIAL ISOLATION
Social isolation can be defined as the state of complete lack of
contact between an individual and society due to the athlete’s
focus on one sport (25). Often, coaches and parents place
unrealistic goals and too much pressure on their young athlete to
compete at a level that the athlete may not necessarily feel they
can achieve, which leads to depression and burnout (5). Because
females are naturally more susceptible to depression as compared
to males, the added stress and pressure of a high-level of
competition may increase the risk of depression in a young female
athlete (5). This depression can then lead to social isolation.
They may isolate themselves from family, peers, and non-athletic
colleagues (16).
BURNOUT
Burnout refers to the athlete not being able to handle the
pressures, both physical and physiological, of their sport (25). It
is closely associated with overtraining, which is when the athlete
is not performing to the best of their ability due to physical
and emotional stress from training (5). Burnout is not a sudden
occurrence; it happens when the athlete has been participating
in a sport for years. Athletes may experience symptoms such
as “agitation, sleep disturbance, loss of interest in practice,
depression, lack of energy, skin rashes, nausea, frequent illness,”
and fatigue (16). This often leads young athletes to quit their sport
at an early age.
INJURIES
Overuse injuries are common among youth athletes. This type
of injury can be due to a number of factors, with early sport
specialization being one of them (5). The neuromuscular and
musculoskeletal systems of a female do not grow at the same rate
their whole lives; there is a point, usually during puberty, when
these two systems slow in their rate of development. Because of
32 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
this, females tend to have inadequate coordination, strength, and
biomechanics (5). Therefore, young female athletes going through
puberty who are involved in early sport specialization have a much
greater chance of developing overuse injuries.
In addition, early sport specialization causes young athletes to
constantly repeat the same skills over and over again, which also
provokes overuse injuries (5). For example, many young female
athletes are prone to knee injuries, so repetition of knee extension
and flexion that can be seen in cross country or track runners can
cause the athlete to develop overuse injuries such as Osgood-
Schlatter disease. Moreover, early sport specialization also keeps
an athlete from developing a variety of skills (5). For instance, a
young female athlete who only specialized in sprinting events in
track and field at a young age will probably not have the skill-set
to dribble a soccer ball while running across a field because track
and field does not require this type of skill. Thus, getting involved
in a variety of sports during the early childhood years is essential
for the development of a diverse skill set. In turn, a diverse skill
set can aid the young athlete in transitioning from a recreational
athlete to an elite athlete.
THE FEMALE ATHLETE TRIAD
The female athlete triad is a syndrome in which disordered eating,
menstrual cycle dysfunction, and low bone mineral density (BMD)
are present (20). It should be noted that the female athlete triad
is well documented in highly trained individuals, because of
the higher level of competition; however, if sport specialization
occurs early in life, the risk for the female athlete triad is greatly
increased. Many young female athletes feel the need to watch
what they eat in order to improve their ability in the field of play,
especially those who are in sports that require a slim build or
smaller body mass. This can lead the athlete to completely cut out
foods that they think are bad for their bodies, but those foods may
be essential (11,20). This can result in eating disorders, with the
two most common being anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.
A chronic net calorie deficit combined with high-intensity training
can cause female athletes to have irregular menstrual cycles, or
the menstrual cycle may stop altogether (amenorrhea) (11,20).
Young female athletes who experience amenorrhea are also at risk
of experiencing low bone mineral density (BMD). In conjunction
with the other two elements of the female athlete triad, a low BMD
puts the young female athlete at a greater risk of bone fractures,
as well as an increased risk in developing osteoporosis (20). Due
to the intense training that comes along with sport specialization,
young female athletes who focus on one sport are more likely to
experience the female athlete triad.
HOW TRAINING AFFECTS THE GROWTH AND
MATURATION OF THE ATHLETE
Mentioned earlier in the article, studies have indicated that
intensive training of female athletes does not directly affect her
stature, but it can affect other components of growth, as well
as maturation (1,3,4). The body may respond in different ways
to different types of training. For example, strength training

may induce a gain in muscle mass, endurance training may
induce a fall in fat mass and may cause the athlete to mature
later, and speed and agility training can improve the rate and
sharpness of movements during puberty (3,10,23,24). Strength
training, endurance training, and speed and agility training all
have their own ways in which they affect the athlete’s growth
and maturation.
STRENGTH TRAINING
Resistance training is essential to many young female athletes,
especially those who are in sports that require strength and power
like volleyball and gymnastics. Besides the obvious benefits of
increasing muscle mass and gaining strength, resistance training is
also useful in the prevention of sports-related injuries (10). It has
been shown that a conditioning program that includes strength
training, along with other types of training such as plyometrics,
can decrease the risk of injury by about 50% (10,13,15). For
instance, many young female athletes are prone to knee injuries.
Knee injuries in the female athlete may be prevented by the
athlete engaging in a properly formulated pre-season conditioning
program that includes strength training. While this may be true, it
is still important for coaches and trainers to treat every athlete as
an individual and to be aware in differences of each athlete’s level
of stress and fatigue.
Furthermore, strength training has been shown to improve motor
skills. Improvement of motor skills can then lead to improvement
in sport skills (8,10). For example, a young female volleyball player
might have a better skill set compared to her teammates due to
a strength training program that includes movements specific to
volleyball, such as exercises that improve vertical jump height.
A misconception associated with resistance training is that it
stunts an individual’s growth; this has been proven to be a myth.
Studies have shown that resistance training has little to no effect
on a young athlete’s growth in height (4,8,10,21). As mentioned
earlier, differences in heights among athlete’s is greatly dependent
on genetic factors.
ENDURANCE TRAINING
Endurance training is a key aspect to a variety of sports like soccer.
While important, this type of training can cause female endurance
athlete to encounter maturity at a later age. It has been shown
that young female endurance athletes, such as long-distance
runners, tend to have a lower skeletal age for their chronological
age (2). This means that their bones are not growing at the rate
that they should be compared to the athlete’s chronological
age. These athletes also tend to experience menarche at a later
age (1,2,3). While this may be true, it is not logical to think
that endurance training is the only factor causing this delay
in maturation. The most common factor of late maturation is
family history (1,18). In other words, if a female athlete’s mother
experienced menarche at a later age, then it is likely that her
daughter will also experience this due to genetics.
NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 33
NSCA COACH 5.3
SPEED AND AGILITY TRAINING
Speed and agility training are important to athletes who
participate in sports such as soccer and sprint events in track
and field. Speed is how fast a certain distance is covered and
agility is the ability to quickly change direction in response to
a stimulus (27).
As mentioned previously, soccer players require this type of
training in order to be a well-rounded competitor. Studies
have shown that young athletes going through puberty tend
to experience a decline in their speed and agility because of
the growth of their limbs and changes in circulating hormones
(23,24). In other words, a pediatric female soccer player who is
going through puberty may experience a plateau or decline in
her speed and agility on the field. This is most likely due to the
athlete having to relearn how to use her rapidly changing body
(i.e., growth spurt and/or increased body mass due to a release of
estrogen) to perform tasks such as kicking or dribbling the soccer
ball (23,24). To try and prevent this issue from occurring, the long-
term athletic development model supports the idea that a life-long
training program can enhance and improve a youth athlete’s speed
and agility, as well as other components of fitness, by employing
training methods that harmonize with the young athlete’s
physiological adaptations that arise from their normal maturation
and growth (15). With that being said, a life-long training program
that can be adapted to the athlete’s changing level of maturity
should greatly focus on speed and agility training during puberty
for any pediatric athlete competing in sports that require fast
movements, quick changes in direction, and swift reflexes.
CONCLUSION
Body dimension, body mass, stature, and maturational events
are all important aspects in the growth and maturation of a
female pediatric athlete. The period in which she transitions from
childhood to adolescence is especially important due to how
fast her body undergoes changes. Although females generally
experience similar patterns of growth and maturation, a big part
of how their bodies physically and physiologically change is due to
genetics (1,18).
Early sport specialization and training have great impacts on the
different aspects of growth, as well as maturation. Early sport
specialization can negatively affect the female pediatric athlete
due to injuries, especially in the knees and hips; burnout; and the
female athlete triad (1,6,7). On the other hand, a well-designed,
multi-modal training program can positively affect a young female
athlete’s growth and maturation, and can also help to prevent
injuries (1,2,6,7).
THE GROWTH AND MATURATION OF THE FEMALE PEDIATRIC ATHLETE
REFERENCES
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Eston, RG, Fawkner, SG, et al. Paediatric Exercise Physiology.
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10. Faigenbaum, AD, Kraemer, WJ, Blimkie, CJR, Jeffreys, I,
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Conditioning Research 23(5): 60-79, 2009.
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sports: Competitive anxiety, overtraining and burnout. Coaches
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Strength and Conditioning Journal 25(1): 49-64, 2003.
14. Jayanthi, N, Pinkham, C, Dugas, L, Patrick, B, and LaBella,
C. Sport specialization in young athletes: Evidence-based
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15. Lloyd, RS, Cronin, JB, Faigenbaum, AD, Haff, GG, Howard,
R, Kraemer, WJ, Micheli, LJ, Myer, GD, and Oliver, JL. National
Strength and Conditioning Association position statement
on long-term athletic development. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 30(6):1491-1509, 2016.
16. Malina, RM. Early sport specialization: Roots, effectiveness,
risks. Current Sport Medicine Reports 9(6): 364-371, 2010.
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17. Malina, RM. Injuries in sport for children and adolescents.
Lawyers and Judges Publishing Company 5(2): 199-248, 2001.
18. Malina, RM. Physical growth and biological maturation of young
athletes. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews 22(1): 280-284, 1994.
19. Mughal, AM, Hassan, N, and Ahmed, A. Bone age assessment
methods: A critical review. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences
30(1): 211-215, 2014.
20. Nazem, TG, and Ackerman, KE. The female athlete triad. Sports
Health 4(4): 302-311, 2012.
21. Powers, SK, and Howley, ET. Exercise physiology: Theory and
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22. Sands, WA. A 9-year-old is not half of an 18-year-old. National
Strength and Conditioning Research 32(1): 2017.
23. Scavuzzo, D. Impact of puberty on youth soccer players.
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in young athletes. Fortiussportblog.com Fortius Sport & Health.
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com/considerations-for-developing-speed-and-agility-in-
young-athletes/.
25. Stewart, C, and Shroyer, J. Sport specialization: A coach’s role
in being honest with parents. Strategies 28(5): 10-17, 2015.
26. Tomas, M, Frantisek, Z, Lucia, M, and Jaroslav, T. Profile,
correlation, and structure of speed in youth elite soccer players.
Journal of Human Kinetics 40: 149-159, 2014.
27. Yap, CW, and Brown, LE. Development of speed, agility, and
quickness for the female soccer athlete. Strength and Conditioning
Journal 22(1): 9-12, 2000.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Amanda Martinez is a senior at the University of Texas Rio Grande
Valley. She holds an Associate’s degree in Interdisciplinary
Studies from South Texas College and is currently majoring in
Exercise Science within the Department of Health and Human
Performance (HHP) with a focus on Physical Therapy. Her plans are
to become a Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT). She is a prospective
May 2019 graduate.
Liana Chee is currently a senior at the University of Texas Rio
Grande Valley. She holds an Associate’s degree in Interdisciplinary
Studies from South Texas College and is currently majoring in
Exercise Science within the Department of Health Performance
(HHP) with a focus on Occupational Therapy. Her plans are to
graduate with a Bachelor’s degree and attend a Master’s degree
program in order to become an occupational therapist. She is a
prospective May 2019 graduate.
 NSCA COACH 5.3

Alyssa Lopez is currently a senior at the University of Texas Rio
Grande Valley. She is majoring in Exercise Science within the
Department of Health and Human performance (HHP) with a focus
on Physical Therapy. Her plans are to become a Doctor of Physical
Therapy (DPT). She is a prospective May 2019 graduate.
Raul Castillo is currently a senior at the University of Texas Rio
Grande Valley, majoring in Exercise Science within the Department
of Health and Human Performance (HHP) with a focus on Physical
Therapy. He was also a student-athlete at Texas A&M University
– Kingsville from fall 2014 to fall 2016. His plans are to become a
Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT). He is a prospective December
2018 graduate.
Alma Olivarez is a senior at the University of Texas Rio Grande
Valley. She holds an Associate’s degree in Interdisciplinary Studies
from South Texas College and is currently majoring in Exercise
Science within the Department of Health Performance (HHP) with
a focus on Occupational Therapy. Her plans are to graduate with a
Bachelor’s degree in Exercise Science and attend graduate school
to become an occupational therapist. She is a prospective May
2019 graduate.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding: The authors report no
conflicts of interest and no source of funding.

Diana Navarro is a junior at the University of Texas Rio Grande

Valley. She is majoring in Exercise Science within the Department
of Health and Human performance (HHP) with a focus on
Occupational Therapy. Her plans are to graduate with a Bachelor’s
degree in Exercise Science and attend graduate school to become
an occupational therapist. She is a prospective May 2019 graduate.

SPEED.
POWER.

STRENGTH.

BUILT FOR THE BEST BYNSCA

THE BEST
COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 35
UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES OF TOO MUCH DISCIPLINE
CLAYTON KUKLICK, PHD, CSCS, AND BRIAN GEARITY, PHD, CSCS, FNSCA
HYPOTHETICAL STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING CASE
A
thletes pour into the weight room and meet at the
whiteboard precisely at 6:00 am. Some athletes were
waiting out in the hallway 5 - 10 minutes beforehand while
others arrived promptly at 5:59 am. Coach Templeton starts the
training session, as she always does, by explaining the warm-up,
core exercises, auxiliary exercises, and the sets and repetitions for
the day. Meticulously structured and organized, Coach Templeton
has allotted 10 min for athletes to complete the warm-up and 45
min for the strength portion. On this day, the athletes are about
four weeks into their peak strength mesocycle which prescribes
5 sets of 4 repetitions on core lifts and 3 sets of 8 repetitions on
auxiliary lifts. At the end of the explanation of the workout, Coach
Templeton reminds the athletes to once again, “Get after it today.
We are testing out again in three weeks.”
The athletes disperse into their designated groups. The older
athletes are instructed to start with the core lifts, while the
younger athletes start with the auxiliary lifts. Coach Templeton
positions herself in the middle of the weight room so that she
can view all the athletes; she even stands on a bench at times to
obtain a commanding view.
Coach Templeton’s voice projects across the facility:
“Let’s go, John! Keep it moving. Two more minutes until you need
to switch exercises.”
“Kristin, keep those elbows in.”
“Tom, you aren’t going to reach the field with that effort.”
Coach Templeton looks at her watch. “Time to move onto the next.
John and Terry over to the curls. Mary and Kristin over to squats.
Let’s go. Let’s go. Move it.”
Mary whispers to Kristin as she shakes her head, “Why is she
always riding us to rush through this workout? I wanted to get in an
extra set of shoulder raises.”
Three weeks go by and Coach Templeton looks at the results
from the testing battery and she notices quite a bit of disparity
in the results. About 15% of the athletes had large gains, 20% had
moderate gains, 50% had very small gains, and 15% had relatively
no gains. As she reflects on the results, she cannot help but dwell
on her meticulous training plan that adhered to strict exercise
science research protocols. She wonders why the results were not
as productive as suggested by the research. She thinks maybe
these are pretty good results, but then again, she knows if novice
athletes do any strength training at all, they should get stronger.
But, some of her athletes did not get much stronger. In her search
for explanations for the unimpressive results, she remembers some
athletes complaining about some minor pain and two athletes
were unable to participate due to minor injuries for two weeks
during the mesocycle. “Hmm, maybe that’s it,” she ponders.
36 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
Additionally, she wonders if the athletes have “bought in” to the
training program as some athletes didn’t seem to have much
energy or motivation for the strength training. Some athletes
seemed lackluster and just lumbered around from one exercise to
the next. Coach Templeton even questions whether her athletes
pay attention to her.
In response to her thoughts, at the next training session, she
asks a few athletes if they can explain three key components
of performing a squat correctly. Each of the athletes respond
in a machine-like fashion with the same commands that Coach
Templeton uses daily, “knees over toes, bullet proofed back,
and get deep.” “Anything else,” she asks. The athletes respond
with an “ummmm.”
In the narrative hypothetical case above, we demonstrated
relatively standard strength and conditioning coaching practices,
along with some of the traditional problems faced by strength
and conditioning coaches. The standard coaching practices
included the coach’s strict adherence to the training mesocycles,
the coach’s attempt to keep athletes on task and on time, the
coach’s efficient use of space to structure the training facility,
the coach’s monitoring of effective and efficient movements in
athletes throughout the space, the coach’s surveillance of the
athletes throughout the space, the implementation of testing
evaluations, and the use of a precise command system to maintain
order and structure to the training protocol and facility (8,9,11). In
many ways, these coaching practices are seen as a norm and are
performed by coaches with consistency. Although these coaching
practices are seemingly vital requisites to success, unintended
problems can arise, as shown in the narrative.
Some typical problems that coaches face include athlete
underperformance, a lack of athlete creativity, athlete docility,
athletes with lethargic attitudes, unmotivated athletes, athletes
with shortages of knowledge in what they are doing and why,
conflicts in coach-athlete relationships, and injury (7,11,13). These
problems can surely prevent the positive, fully-intended training
program effect from occurring. This article will address how
commonly used, dominant coaching practices (i.e., normative,
regularly used, or consistently used) may be producing the
problems that are faced by coaches. In a previous NSCA Coach
article, Michel Foucault’s History of the Present Framework was
used to show how coach talk discourses construct the knowledge
coaches possess (12). In this way, we demonstrate a) how and why
coach talk discourses produce dominant coaching practices and
b) how and why coach talk discourses can limit coaches’ ability
to create alternative ways of thinking and doing. In this article,
we build off this approach to better understand how dominant
coaching knowledge and practices are used to ensure athletes
adhere to and obtain the knowledge possessed by the strength
and conditioning coach. Again, we draw upon social theory and
Michel Foucault’s Technologies of Discipline framework to explain

how dominant coaching knowledge and practices can create some
negative and unintended coaching problems (10).
As we highlighted in the previous NSCA Coach article and now
reference again, knowledge possessed by an individual influences
their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (5,6,12,16). Strength and
conditioning coaches usually possess great knowledge in exercise
science (9). So, understandably, strength and conditioning
coaches utilize this knowledge and use it in their daily coaching
in an attempt to produce predictable outcomes in athletes. For
Foucault, he called this use of knowledge in professional practice
to produce thoughts, feelings, and actions in others as power-
knowledge (10). In other words, power-knowledge is how power
(i.e., a way of influencing others’ actions) is exercised through
the knowledge an individual possesses. For example, strength
and conditioning coaches make use of their exercise science
knowledge to create training regimens with the intent to produce
stronger, more powerful, and better-conditioned athletes. While
it could be thought that these goals are desirable intentions,
Foucault found that despite the different knowledge areas
possessed by various groups such as correctional facility officers,
nurses and doctors, coaches, educators, and even modern day
politicians, they all used similar methods of using their knowledge
to get subordinates to adhere to and engage the knowledge
they possess (i.e., power-knowledge; 10,16). Modern institutions,
correctional facilities, strength and conditioning settings, schools,
and hospitals, all use similar practices to exercise and make use
of power-knowledge. What makes critiquing these dominant
practices so challenging is that they are considered normal or the
traditional way (i.e., dominant practices) things are accomplished.
Coaches can unknowingly accept the use of these normal and
traditional ways of doing things because of dominant discourses,
which in sport settings are typically exercise science and expert
opinion from well-known, successful coaches (9,16). Despite these
normal or traditional ways of doing things, problems endure.
Further, coaching researchers from a sociological perspective
argue that problems emerge from too much control produced
from dominant coaching practices (5,6,7,11). Therefore, in many
ways, normal and traditional ways of doing things are considered
dominant practices that often unknowingly create problems and
negative consequences (2,7,10,11,13,16,17).
Although Foucault’s work focused on the prison system, it
was just one case of his larger point about how contemporary
power works to control people (10). Therefore, in the following
sections, we describe how correctional facility officers and
strength and conditioning coaches exercise power-knowledge to
control inmates or athletes. Sport coaching scholars have used
Foucault’s work to show how strength and conditioning and
sport coaches use their power-knowledge to control athletes
through the meticulous use of time, space, flow, and efficiency
(2,3,5,6,7,11,13,17). Foucault labeled these four practices as
Technologies of Discipline (10). By presenting how coaches may
unknowingly be disciplining athletes by controlling time, space,
NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 37
NSCA.com
flow, and efficiency through the knowledge coaches possess, we
hope to show how this can produce the problems coaches are
trying to solve. Over many years and by many different sport
coaching scholars, they have shown that too much discipline,
through the control of time, space, flow, and efficiency, results
in numerous and varying negative effects (1,2,5,6,7,11,15,17).
For example, research has demonstrated that the control of
training sessions often leads to short- and long-term injury and
psychological impairment (2,15). Further, other research has
demonstrated that too much discipline conforms athletes to a
norm, does not allow athletes to explore or understand their
movements, and/or causes athletes to execute movements in fear,
which often leaves athletes to be unmotivated and docile (3,6,7,15).
As another example, coaching practices that exercise disciplinary
control often sets a certain perception of how the coach is viewed
by athletes and minimizes the level of care athletes possess
in the coach-athlete relationship (7,11,15), which has been well
documented as being a contributor to reaching peak athletic
performance (4,14). Similarly, research has also demonstrated that
too much discipline may limit athletes from reaching full athletic
potential by not having fun (1,15), being strictly confined to certain
exercises and activities without considerations for other ways
of training (7), being disengaged from the athletic experience
and training sessions (3,7,15), and/or not being provided
opportunities to engage in activities that extend their abilities
beyond the training regime (1,7,15). Next, we unpack how some of
the aforementioned unintended consequences are created from
coaches unknowingly exercising disciplinary-dominant practices
by controlling time, space, flow, and efficiency.
TIME
Time was thought by Foucault to be how coaches use strict
measures of time to control and monitor athletes (10). While
studying the penal system, Foucault explored how correctional
officers and wardens controlled inmates’ time. For example,
consider an inmate’s controlled morning as they are ordered to
come out of their cell at 8 am, stand in a precise line for roll call
until 8:10 then they are instructed to move on to the mess hall to
eat at 8:15, and then back in the cell by 9 am. Similarly, strength
and conditioning coaches also use time to control athletes so that
they adhere to the program set by the strength and conditioning
coach. For example, athletes are instructed to enter the weight
room at a precise time; a specific amount of time is allotted for
explaining the workout; time is allotted for warm-ups, core lifts,
auxiliary exercises, microcycles and mesocycles (i.e., days or
weeks), and conditioning repetitions; and time is allocated for
sets to be performed, rest periods, or agility stations. In many
instances, it often irritates strength and conditioning coaches
when the allotted time for certain things are not met, followed, or
obeyed. The idea here is that time is a strategy to control athletes
so that they adhere strictly to the training program, but with the
consequence of creating unmotivated, docile, lethargic athletes;
ironically, the exact opposite of what coaches often purport
as their goal.
UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES OF TOO MUCH DISCIPLINE
SPACE
Space is another concept explored by Foucault, which is how
coaches control space to ensure that athletes adhere to the
knowledge they possess (10). In the penal system, inmates are
ordered to stay in precise lines, standing tall and walking one step
at a time (i.e., controlling space of body parts), they sit at certain
tables at the mess hall, are confined to cells, and have certain
spaces they can visit during recreation time. Similarly, strength
and conditioning coaches control space, too. Weight rooms
are constructed to maintain order with core lifting equipment
and auxiliary equipment stationed in specific areas. Athletes
are expected to perform exercises at the appropriate stations.
Strength and conditioning coaches also use lines and have athletes
run in straight lines so they can be observed accordingly, for
example. Additionally, space is controlled when coaches correct
an athlete on improper form when a body part is not in its perfect
position or when less than full range of motion is produced (i.e.,
controlling space of body parts). It might even be the case that
strength and conditioning coaches reprimand athletes, as if being
perceived as being off task, if they are not in their designated
space or in a space where they cannot be monitored. Here, we
can see how controlling space is used as strategy to ensure that
athletes adhere strictly to the training regimen dictated by the
strength and conditioning coach. But, again, the controlling of
space produces unintended negative consequences, such as
athletes that lack creativity, athlete underperformance, and/
or even injury.
FLOW
Flow was thought by Foucault to be how to ensure strict
adherence to progressions and structure (10). In other words,
athletes’ progressions throughout their activities are controlled by
the strength and conditioning coach. Foucault saw how coaches
used their knowledge to control individual’s progressions deemed
appropriate by the coaches. In the penal system, novice inmates
are reprimanded and put in the back of lines until they know the
rules and can be integrated with the rest of the group. The more
experienced inmates are put in the front so they can act as models
of acceptable behavior deemed by the correctional officer or
warden. If inmates have good behavior, they are rewarded with
more recreation time in a progression. Further, the inmates’ flow of
tasks are controlled during the day. That is, they flow from roll call
to the mess hall, back to the cell, then to lunch, then to recreation
time, as a daily routine to ensure order and structure. Similarly,
athletes are progressed from simple lifts to more complex lifts,
their names are listed on the board when they have reached
acceptable strength percentages, and they are progressed through
scheduled and structured microcycles and mesocycles. As another
example, the younger athletes typically work with each other until
they are deemed ready by the strength and conditioning coach
to be partnered with more mature athletes. Similarly, testing
procedures are implemented by strength and conditioning coaches
to make sure athletes are on the “right” path in their progressions.
At the micro-level, athletes flow from one group of exercises to
the next, where a warm-up is performed first, then agility, then
38 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
core lifts, then auxiliary lifts, and then a cooldown. In some cases,
strength and conditioning coaches may spend days, weeks,
years and even their entire career meticulously constructing and
planning their periodization so it maintains flow and order. Here,
flow is controlled and used as a strategy to ensure athletes adhere
to and obtain the knowledge possessed by the coach. However,
the control of flow too induces some negative problems such as
athletes that are disengaged from the training program or athletes
with shortages of knowledge in what they are doing and why.
EFFICIENCY
Efficiency is what Foucault thought to be the system in which
time, space, and flow are collectively used to control individuals
in a precise machine-like fashion (10). In this way, strength and
conditioning coaches use a precise command system to make
sure that all athletes maintain efficiency and reach an intended
goal. That is, it is thought that if one athlete is not in order, not
in the right space, not on time, has a body part out of place, or
is not progressed accordingly, that it is a breakdown or a weak
link in the system. In the penal system, commands are used to
ensure efficiency in a machine-like fashion if one subordinate
is out of order. For example, commands such as “right foot in
front of the other,” “stand up straight,” “get back in line,” or
“get moving faster” are used to maintain efficiency. Similarly,
strength and conditioning coaches use a command system to
maintain efficiency in athletes. That is, “let’s go, get it moving,”
“keep your elbows in,” “over to squats,” or “time to move onto
the next station.” It is thought that without the precise use of
commands that instruct subordinates when, where, and what to
move, that an efficient system cannot be maintained. It might even
be the case that strength and conditioning coaches might feel
uncomfortable or feel like they are not “coaching” if there is some
silence or commands are not being used constantly throughout
training sessions. Nonetheless, commands are used to ensure
that the strength and conditioning coach’s knowledge used to
create the training program is specifically upheld. Again, the
controlling of efficiency produces some negative consequences
such as disconnects in the coach-athlete relationship, athlete
underperformance, or unmotivated athletes.
SUMMARY
Our hope for this article was to demonstrate how, perhaps
unknowingly, strength and conditioning coaches use their
knowledge they possess through various methods or strategies.
In this way, the various methods and strategies (i.e., controlling
time, space, flow, and efficiency) when used consistently on a
daily basis, act as disciplinary-dominant coaching practices. As
demonstrated in the research, dominant coaching practices result
in controlling time, space, flow, and efficiency so that athletes
adhere to strength and conditioning coaches’ knowledge, which
induce some problems and unintended negative consequences
(2,3,7,10,11,15,16). Those problems and unintended consequences
being athlete underperformance, athlete docility, lethargy,
disconnects in the coach-athlete relationship, or injury. Thus,
dominant coaching practices that control time, space, flow, and

efficiency may be causing the very problems by which strength
and conditioning coaches are troubled. Of critical importance,
is that the purpose of this article was not to discredit exercise
science based rationales for training programs, but rather critique
how that knowledge is used in practical strength and conditioning
sessions. One might ask what the alternatives may be. Those
alternatives involve a disruption of time, space, flow, and efficiency
that are outside of traditionally used, consistent, and routine-like
dominant coaching practices. In this way, Foucault’s Technologies
of Discipline framework can be used to engage strength and
conditioning coaches in critical thinking, provide problem solving
tools, and help analyze normal or traditional approaches to
strength and conditioning coaching (10). After all, disciplinary-
dominant coaching practices, which are underpinned by sport
science knowledge, may be creating the problems coaches face
daily. In a subsequent NSCA Coach article, we will provide some
tools for strength and conditioning coaches to consider for
disrupting routine-like disciplinary-dominant coaching practices
that control time, space, flow, and efficiency in the hopes to help
overcome some common coaching problems.
REFERENCES
1. Avner, Z, Denison, J, and Markula, P. Good athletes have fun:
A Foucauldian reading of university coaches’ uses of fun. Sports
Coaching Review: 1-19; 2017.
2. Barker-Ruchti, N, and Tinning, R. Foucault in leotards:
Corporeal discipline in women’s artistic gymnastics. Sociology of
Sport Journal 27: 229-250, 2010.
3. Chase, LF. (Un)disciplined bodies: A Foucauldian analysis of
women’s rugby. Sociology of Sport Journal 23: 229-247, 2006.
4. Davis, L, Appleby, R, Davis, P, Wetherell, M, and Gustafsson,
H. The role of coach-athlete relationship quality in team sport
athletes’ psychophysiological exhaustion: Implications for physical
and cognitive performance. Journal of Sports Sciences 36(17):
1985-1992; 2018.
5. Denison, J. Michel Foucault: Power and discourse: The ‘loaded’
language of coaching. In: Jones, RL, Potrac, P, Cushion, C, and
Ronglan, LT. (Eds.), The Sociology of Sports Coaching. New York:
Routledge; 27-39, 2011.
6. Denison, J. Planning, practice and performance: The discursive
formation of coaches’ knowledge. Sport, Education and Society
15: 461–478, 2010.
7. Denison, J. Social theory for coaches: A Foucauldian reading
of one athlete’s poor performance. International Journal of Sports
Science and Coaching 2: 369-383, 2007.
8. Dorgo, S. Unfolding the practical knowledge of an expert
strength and conditioning coaches. International Journal of Sports
Science and Coaching 4(1): 17-30, 2009.
9. Duehring, MD, Feldman, CR, and Ebben, WP. Strength and
conditioning practices of the United States high school strength
and conditioning coaches. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research 23(8): 2188-2203; 2009.
NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 39
NSCA.com
10. Foucault, M. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New
York, NY: Random House; 1977.
11. Gearity, BT, and Mills, JP. Discipline and punish in the weight
room. Sports Coaching Review 1(2): 124-134, 2012.
12. Kuklick, C, and Gearity, BT. Is athlete “buy-in” all what it is
cracked up to be? An analysis of strength and conditioning coach
talk discourse. NSCA Coach 5(1): 32-36, 2018.  
13. Johns, DP, and Johns, JS. Surveillence, subjectivism and
technologies of power: An analysis of the discursive practice of
high-performance sport. International Review for the Sociology of
Sport 35(2): 219-234, 2000.
14. Jowett, S, and Cockerill, IM. Olympic medalists’ perspective
of the athlete–coach relationship. Psychology of Sport and
Exercise 4(4): 313-331, 2003.
15. Lang, M. Surveillance and conformity in competitive youth
swimming. Sport, Education and Society 15(1): 19-37, 2010.
16. Markula, P, and Pringle, R. Knowledge and truth: Discursive
construction of the fit and healthy body. In: Markula, P, and Pringle,
T. (Eds.), Foucault, Sport, and Exercise: Power, Knowledge and
Transforming the Self. New York, NY: Routledge; 2006.
17. Shogan, D. The Making of High-Performance Athletes:
Discipline, Diversity, and Ethics. Toronto, CA: University of
Toronto Press; 1999.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Clayton Kuklick is a Clinical Assistant Professor in the Master of Arts
in Sport Coaching Program at the University of Denver, where he
teaches a variety of courses spanning motor learning, pedagogy,
biomechanics, exercise physiology, and kinesiology. His research
interests center on enhancing athlete performance and coach
learning. Kuklick acquired his PhD in Human Performance and
Recreation: Administration and Teaching, maintains a Certified
Strength and Conditioning Specialist® (CSCS®), and has served as a
high school and collegiate coach.
Brian Gearity is the Director of the Master of Arts in Sport Coaching
at the University of Denver. His research interests include coaches’
knowledge development and coach quality. Gearity serves as the
Editor for the NSCA Coach journal. He has been a football/strength
and conditioning coach with a 4-A high school in Mississippi, and a
strength and conditioning coach with the University of Tennessee,
Cleveland Indians Major League Baseball (MLB) Club, and John
Carroll University.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding: The authors report no
conflicts of interest and no source of funding.
BALANCING THE IMBALANCE—THE TRAINING OF A PARALYMPIC F44 DISCUS THROWER
LAWRENCE JUDGE, PHD, CSCS,*D, NSCA-CPT, RSCC*E, FNSCA, DONALD HOOVER, PHD, PT, CSCS,
AND DAVID BELLAR, PHD, CSCS,*D, RSCC*D, FNSCA
INTRODUCTION
S
trength and conditioning professionals have used
periodization models to improve sports performance in
athletes competing at the interscholastic, intercollegiate,
and international levels (6,10). Athletes benefit from these training
regimens because these conceptual models help them balance the
demands of year-round training, as well as to refine their training
so that they reach peak performance levels at critical points in
their respective competitive season. In recent years, strength
and conditioning professionals have expanded their influence
beyond apparently healthy, able-bodied athletes, and strength and
conditioning professionals are increasingly involved in the training
(or re-training) of disabled veterans, injured tactical personnel,
such as police officers, firefighters, and other first responders
(19,24,29). The role of – and collaborative opportunities for –
strength and conditioning professionals are clearly different than
when this profession first emerged in the late 1970s.
The rise of adaptive and Paralympic sports provides one such
opportunity for strength and conditioning professionals to share
their expertise with a wider range of athletes. Paralympic track
and field competition is open to male and female athletes with
physical disabilities such as dwarfism, amputation, limb loss,
blindness, visual impairment, spinal cord injury, wheelchair-users,
cerebral palsy, brain injury, and stroke. Each of these and other
forms of physical impairment are classified within the Paralympian
model of sport, which helps to level the playing field by fostering
competition against individuals who possess similar physical
40 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
impairments (5,31). While a complete description of the disability
sport classification system that serves as the foundation of
Paralympian sport is beyond the scope of this article, it is helpful
for readers to have a broad, conceptual understanding that the
International Paralympic Committee (IPC) has established ten
disability categories, and subsequently athletes are classified
within each category according to their level of anatomical
impairment, and this classification system differs from sport
to sport (31). The Paralympian model of sport serves to foster
competitive venues on an international basis beyond those which
have been afforded to able-bodied world-class athletes for
decades, such as the quadrennial Olympic Games, the World Cup,
and so on (31). The growth of the Paralympian movement from
the small gathering in 1948 of British war veterans interestingly
has presented an opportunity for strength and conditioning
professionals to train many of the thousands of individuals
currently competing despite their physical impairments.
Such forays into Paralympian sport warrant that strength and
conditioning professionals document their training of these
athletes as has been done with able-bodied athletes (11).
COLLABORATIVE APPROACH TO TRAINING
An offshoot of the creation and expansion of Paralympian sport
has also allowed strength and conditioning professionals to work
collaboratively with healthcare professionals, given the physical
impairments possessed by Paralympians. In this context, strength
and conditioning professionals are collaborating with healthcare
professionals in ways that were largely unthinkable just a few

decades ago. To more fully illustrate, Paralympian competitors
usually have primary and secondary health conditions which
are typically not a consideration when training individuals who
emerge from apparently healthy populations (18,23), yet these
health or mobility issues must be accounted for by both the
sport-specific coach and strength and conditioning professional
when creating and implementing a training calendar within this
population (31). In this context, the anatomical impairments
present a bit more complexity to training Paralympian athletes
when compared to apparently healthy individuals. Thus wise
sport-specific coaches and strength and conditioning professionals
typically consult with – or fully bring into the fold – healthcare
professionals to help address the added complexity to training and
biomechanical stresses of competition presented by the physical
impairments. This dynamic is quite similar to one seen within the
healthcare system in recent decades, as it has been increasingly
more common for multiple specialists to collaborate on the care of
any given patient who presents with clinical complexity (12). It is
increasingly quite common in this context for a variety of medical
specialists – such as a hospitalist, a physiatrist, a neurologist, and
an internist – to treat or “co-treat” any given patient admitted
to a rehabilitation hospital, and this co-treatment also involves
a number of nurses, counselors, and therapists who have a
professional role in the care of this patient. This team treatment
approach improves the odds of achieving the target clinical
outcome such as discharge to the patient’s home environment,
and so forth (28). Thus, when the enterprising strength and
conditioning professional enlists the help of trained healthcare
professionals to similarly “co-treat,” or more appropriately “co-
train,” motivated Paralympians, the strength and conditioning
professional is employing the same method widely used in the
highly scrutinized healthcare system which are aimed at realizing
clinical outcomes (12,28).
Such interprofessional collaborations obviously present challenges,
as professionals from the world of strength and conditioning and
healthcare may approach working with these athletes differently
(8). Despite these potential roadblocks, co-training motivated
athletes clearly provides the best opportunity to optimize quality
of life and performance for individuals possessing anatomical
impairments yet who seek to train for and participate in high-level
competition (31). As an example, there was a talented Paralympic
athlete who benefitted from the inclusion of such highly
specialized co-training within his annual training calendar at the
Paralympic Games. This athlete was born with fibular hemimelia
(absence of the right fibula), which resulted in the below-knee
amputation of his right leg after his first birthday. He was classified
in the F44 class, which is the disability sport classification for an
individual with a single, below-knee amputation who can walk
with moderately reduced function in one or both legs. This article
presents one example of inter-professional collaboration that
helped a Paralympian discus thrower in the F44 class better realize
his potential as a world-class discus thrower and earn a gold
medal in the Paralympic Games.
NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 41
NSCA COACH 5.3
THROW REQUIREMENTS
The discus throw is one of the most complex track and field events
from a motor control standpoint, as it is a discrete motor task
requiring optimal power generation, multi-segmental balance,
and object manipulation (15). A successful throw requires strength
and explosiveness combined with sound throwing technique as
a means of translating angular into linear motion (30). The basic
throwing technique is similar for all discus throwers, but variations
due to anthropometrics, physical ability, training, and error can
influence performance (30). Designing a periodized strength and
conditioning program for the F44 class Paralympic discus thrower
presented a unique coaching challenge, requiring individualized
technical and training models to meet his physical abilities. The
program presented here was based on periodization theory widely
used by strength and conditioning professionals (6,10), and was
augmented with rehabilitation models widely employed by sports
medicine practitioners (26,27). This synthesis was accomplished
by integrating physical therapy assessment and therapeutic
exercise regimens into the athlete’s annual training program.
PROGRAMMING CONSIDERATIONS
Periodization of training involves the manipulation of duration,
volume, and intensity in an attempt to maximize the physiological
adaptations that produce strength gains, increased power, and
enhanced muscle velocity (8). The classical method of linear
periodization divides strength training into different periods or
cycles: macrocycles (9 – 12 months), mesocycles (3 – 4 months),
and microcycles (1 – 4 weeks), increasing intensity gradually while
training volume is reduced between and within these cycles as
training progresses (6). On the other hand, undulating or nonlinear
periodization is characterized by more frequent alterations in the
intensity and volume training measures over the duration of the
training calendar (22). This model was adapted by Rhea et al.,
receiving the name of daily undulating periodization (DUP), in
which modifications in volume and intensity are made daily (25).
DUP using 2 – 3 training zones or ranges per week was used as a
guide in designing the training program for this Paralympic discus
thrower as this conceptual model provided a means of maximizing
workout volume without negatively impacting recovery between
training sessions (Table 1).
While the specialized training of DUP provides great benefits, any
enhancement of power can be severely restricted if base strength
parameters, mobility, and posture are not also addressed (25).
Similarly, not only may an athlete’s power generation abilities be
limited, he or she is often at greater risk of injury if, for example,
musculoskeletal imbalances which contribute to abnormal static
and dynamic postures are not addressed prior to initiating a
periodization plan. The literature has many examples of throwing
athletes who sustain injury to musculoskeletal structures, nervous
tissue, or both within the upper extremities due to repetitive
micro-trauma (1,7,9,17,21). These can occur in areas engaged in
regular throwing in practice and competition. However, these
athletes are also susceptible to spine and lower extremity
injuries due to the effects of repetitive micro-trauma sustained
asymmetrically over time (4,13). Paralympic throwers typically are
BALANCING THE IMBALANCE­—THE TRAINING OF A PARALYMPIC F44 DISCUS THROWER

TABLE 1. DAILY UNDULATING PERIODIZATION - SAMPLE 2-WEEK SEGMENT OF THE TRAINING CALENDAR
STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING COMPONENT OF THE REHABILITATION COMPONENT OF THE CO-
CO-TRAINING REGIMEN TRAINING REGIMEN
Long-term goal is to increase base speed-strength Long-term goal is to isolate neuromuscular recruitment
and functional power as a means of fostering limitations, isolate such limitations, and transition to
improvements in throwing performance weight bearing stimulation during functional movements
WEEK 1 (PRIMARY AND SECONDARY FOCUS
WEEK 1 (PRIMARY FOCUS OF EACH SESSION)
OF EACH SESSION)
FOCUS: ABSOLUTE STRENGTH FOCUS: HIP-SPECIFIC NEUROMUSCULAR CALIBRATION
TO CORE TRAINING
Warm-up: Cleans on Knees: 5 x 5
Isolated muscle activation
Back Squat: 5 x 6
DAY 1 Non-bodyweight bearing
Step-Ups with Dumbbells: 5 x 10
Romanian Deadlift: 3 x 12
Left Leg Calf Raises (machine): 3 x 20
FOCUS: FUNCTIONAL MOVEMENTS, WORK CAPACITY ABDOMINAL NEUROMUSCULAR CALIBRATION
TO CORE TRAINING
Warm-up: Hang Clean Complex (midthigh high pull,
midthigh clean, hip clean): 5 x 3 Isolated muscle activation
(lighter - work capacity: 9 reps per set) Non-bodyweight bearing
DAY 2
Forward Lunges with Right-Left Twist with 45-lb plate:
5 x 10 alternating right and left leg lead
Upper body lifts (hypertrophy)
(minimum 48 hours - to next training day)
FOCUS: PRIME MOVERS, POSTERIOR CHAIN FOCUS: COORDINATED ACTIVATION OF POSTURAL
MUSCLES AND PRIME MOVERS
Warm-up: Light Overhead Squat: 5 x 6
DAY 3 (technique balance) Isolated muscle activation
Front Squat: 4 x 8 Non-bodyweight bearing
Seated Good Mornings: 4 x 12
FOCUS: HIP EXTENSION, ROTATION FOCUS: HIGH REPETITIONS OF CORE TRAINING USING
MEDICAL EXERCISE TRAINING
Warm-up: Push-Press (light - bar speed)
Isolated muscle activation
Upper body lifts (absolute strength)
DAY 4 Non-bodyweight bearing
Back Hyperextensions: 5 x 15 (using plate)
Backwards Russian Twists (on hyper bench): 5 x 20
rotations with powerbar (or similar equipment)
WEEK 2 WEEK 2
FOCUS: UPPER BODY POWER, POSTERIOR FOCUS: HIP-SPECIFIC NEUROMUSCULAR CALIBRATION
CHAIN HYPERTROPHY OF CORE TRAINING
Warm-up: Overhead Squat: 3 x 10 (light) Compound muscle activation
Upper body lifts (power sets of 3) Transition to bodyweight bearing, functional movements
DAY 1
Back Squat: 1 warm-up set, 4 x 12 working sets at 72%
Romanian Deadlift: 5 x 12 right and left leg lead
Left Leg Calf Raises: (hypertrophy 8 - 12 reps)
(minimum 48 hours - to next training day)

42 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM

 NSCA COACH 5.3

TABLE 1. DAILY UNDULATING PERIODIZATION (CONTINUED)

WEEK 2 WEEK 2
FOCUS: WORK CAPACITY, HIP EXTENSION, ROTATION FOCUS: ABDOMINAL NEUROMUSCULAR CALIBRATION
OF CORE TRAINING
Warm-up: Snatch Complex (midthigh snatch, hip snatch
- quick/quicker) Compound muscle activation
Weighted Step-Ups with Bar to Box (box height roughly Transition to bodyweight bearing
DAY 2
at base of patella): 5 x 8 (isolateral)
Back Hyperextensions: 5 x 15 (using plate)
Backwards Russian Twists (on hyper bench): 5 x 20
rotations with powerbar (or similar equipment)
FOCUS: PRIME MOVERS POSTERIOR CHAIN FOCUS: COORDINATED CORE ACTIVATION OF POSTURAL
MUSCLES AND PRIME MOVERS
Warm-up: Light Overhead Squat 5 x 6 (technique balance)
DAY 3 Compound muscle activation
Front Squat: 4 x 8
Transition to bodyweight bearing, functional movements
Seated Good Mornings: 4 x 12
Week 3 - Repeat Week 1, increase wt as needed
Week 4 - Repeat Week 2, increase wt as needed
Week 5 - Deload Week

FIGURE 1. PHASES OF DAILY UNDULATING PERIODIZATION

NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 43
BALANCING THE IMBALANCE—THE TRAINING OF A PARALYMPIC F44 DISCUS THROWER

at greater risk of such injuries due partly to the chronic effects

of asymmetrical biomechanical demands placed upon the body
during throwing motions. Paralympic athletes with prosthetic
limbs are even more susceptible to musculoskeletal imbalances
but these can be addressed by physical therapy evaluation,
prescription of therapeutic exercises, and re-evaluation (26,27).
Thus identifying musculoskeletal imbalances and prescribing
therapeutic exercises to better address these limitations is an
important consideration when coaching these athletes.

The annual training program for the Paralympic discus thrower

discussed in this article is depicted in Figure 1. Musculoskeletal
imbalances were identified initially through physical therapy
evaluation. Emphasis was placed on identifying positional
muscular weaknesses, as well as limitations in static and dynamic
flexibility measures, particularly in the thrower’s torso and lower
extremities. Examination of the thrower’s standing posture
revealed no abnormalities in the torso or upper extremities, FIGURE 2. LATERAL TRUNK PROGRESSION – POSITION 1
although he demonstrated a mild obliquity in the transverse
plane of the anterior sacral based, as measured by the typical
bony landmarks of the right and left anterior superior iliac spine.
Qualitative movement tests of the axial spine in the cardinal
planes were unremarkable to visual inspection, as well as did
not produce symptoms with either active movement or over-
pressure. Qualitative measures of core strength revealed moderate
deficits in the strength of the lower abdominal and hip muscles,
as assessed using methods described by Sahrmann (26,27). The
hip strength deficits were more evident in his right limb with the
congenital deformity. The athlete also demonstrated numerous
quantitative deficits in hip and lower extremity muscular flexibility
measures; again, these deficits were more pronounced in his right
hip and lower extremity.

Such therapeutic exercises should always be selected by trained

professionals and based upon the needs of the individual client.
Further, core strength and lower extremity flexibility exercises
must be specifically designed for the demands of the event and FIGURE 3. LATERAL TRUNK PROGRESSION – POSITION 2
adapted to account for the athlete’s physical ability (Figures
2 – 14). Therapeutic exercises were selected and integrated into
the daily training plan to not only address these musculoskeletal
limitations but also “re-calibrate” the neuromuscular system so he
recruited involved musculature, increasing to high repetitions with
exacting technique of each core training exercise, in the most ideal
manner possible during training (26,27). Throughout this training
period, emphasis was placed upon first facilitating the athlete’s
neural activation of the core musculature and then progressing to
increasingly more complex motor weight-bearing activities, as is
needed when throwing the discus (2,3,14,16,20,26,27,32). Examples
of therapeutic exercises used in this case include the lateral trunk
progression, posterior chain progression, prone trunk stability,
Romanian deadlift, and jump lunge progression (Figures 2 – 14).

The throwing coach then integrated the above prescribed

activities into the athlete’s annual training program. The physical
therapist re-examined the athlete at regular intervals, and
FIGURE 4. LATERAL TRUNK PROGRESSION – POSITION 3
44 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
 NSCA COACH 5.3

FIGURE 5. POSTERIOR CHAIN PROGRESSION – POSITION 1 FIGURE 6. POSTERIOR CHAIN PROGRESSION – POSITION 2

FIGURE 7. PRONE TRUNK STABILITY – POSITION 1 FIGURE 8. PRONE TRUNK STABILITY – POSITION 2

FIGURE 9. ROMANIAN DEADLIFT – POSITION 1 FIGURE 10. ROMANIAN DEADLIFT – POSITION 2

NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 45

BALANCING THE IMBALANCE—THE TRAINING OF A PARALYMPIC F44 DISCUS THROWER
FIGURE 11. ROMANIAN DEADLIFT – POSITION 3
FIGURE 13. JUMP LUNGE PROGRESSION – POSITION 2
modified his therapeutic exercises as needed in order to foster his
power development in an injury-free manner (Table 1).
SUMMARY
The training of Paralympic throwers represents a unique
challenge to coaches and offers them the opportunity to work
collaboratively with healthcare professionals to provide maximum
benefit to the athlete. In order to establish an annual training
program, the throwing coach integrated the physical therapist-
prescribed “prehabilitation” activities into the athlete’s annual DUP
training program. The physical therapist remained part of the team
and re-examined the athlete throughout the year to modify these
prophylactic exercises as needed in order to foster the athlete’s
power development in an injury-free manner.
The Paralympian discussed, a three-time World Champion,
recorded the second best all-time discus throw (63.66 meters)
by an F44 thrower; no doubt aided by his ability to train for
46 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
FIGURE 12. JUMP LUNGE PROGRESSION – POSITION 1
FIGURE 14. JUMP LUNGE PROGRESSION – POSITION 3
prolonged stretches without sustaining injury. This athlete
destroyed three prosthetic feet during discus training and
competition over a 3-month period, indicating that the available
equipment was the weak link in his throwing kinetic chain. While
repeatedly replacing prosthetic feet is expensive, it is arguably
less disruptive to the athlete’s progression than repeatedly
rehabilitating injuries. His success was substantially aided by; 1)
an efficient technical pattern achieved through sport-specific
coaching; 2) use of the DUP training model that helped the
athlete balance the positive training stresses necessary to elicit
improvements in strength and power with his capacity to recover
from these training stimuli, and 3) a balanced approach to training
informed by regular consultation with a physical therapist,
allowing the coach and athlete to more effectively overcome his
anatomical impairments.

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5. Frossard, LA, O’Riordan, A, and Smeathers, J. Performance
of elite seated discus throwers in F30s classes: part II: does feet
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7. Hayter, CL, and Giuffre, BM. Overuse and traumatic
injuries of the elbow. Magnetic Resonance Imaging Clinics
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8. Hoover, DL, VanWye, WR, and Judge, LW. Periodization
and physical therapy: Bridging the gap between training and
rehabilitation. Physical Therapy in Sport 18: 1–20, 2016.
9. Izzi, J, Dennison, D, Noerdlinger, M, Dasilva, M, and Akelman,
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Broome, R, et al. The integration of sport science and coaching:
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throw. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching
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intensive care units: Have we cracked the code? World Journal of
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13. Klingenstein, GG, Martin, R, Kivlan, B, and Kelly, BT. Hip injuries
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14. Magarey, ME, and Jones, MA. Dynamic evaluation and early
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BALANCING THE IMBALANCE—THE TRAINING OF A PARALYMPIC F44 DISCUS THROWER
26. Sahrmann, S. Diagnosis and Treatment of Movement
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27. Sahrmann, S. Movement System Impairment Syndromes
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Brenneman, A. CMS Therapy Cap Team Members. 62
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Product of 21st Century Strength and Conditioning. Strength &
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Product_of_21st_Century.2.aspx
30. Silvester, J. Complete Book of Throws. 1 edition. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics, 2003.
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48 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Lawrence Judge is a professor, Associate Chair of the School of
Kinesiology, and coordinator of the graduate coaching program
at Ball State University. Judge has been a leader in track and field
coaching education and coach development for over 30 years.
Since 2013, Judge has served as the National Chair of United
States Track and Field (USATF) coaching education. In 2018, Judge
was named a Fellow of the National Strength and Conditioning
Association (FNSCA). In 2016, Judge was named as a Research
Fellow by the Society of Health and Physical Educators (FSHAPE).
He was the 2016 recipient of the United States Track and Field – Joe
Vigil Sport Science award. This past summer, for the fifth time in
his career, Judge was named to the coaching staff for the United
States of America Paralympic National Team.
Don Hoover is a Professor in the Physical Therapy Department
at Western Michigan University. Hoover is the author/co-author
of numerous peer-reviewed articles and abstracts in the areas of
human movement and rehabilitation. More specifically, his research
interests focus on the areas of sports medicine, sport science, and
pedagogy, and he has been published in many top-tier journals and
presented internationally on those topics. Hoover’s areas of clinical
interests include the treatment of orthopaedic conditions, the role
of motor control and learning in rehabilitation, and the prevention
of injuries in youth athletes.
David Bellar is a Professor and Director of the School of Kinesiology
at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. He obtained his
Bachelor of Science degree in Biology and Chemistry from John
Carroll University, a Master of Education degree from John Carroll
University, and a PhD with a focus in Exercise Physiology from Kent
State University. Bellar’s research interests are in understanding
how nutrients can affect post exercise muscle performance,
hormonal profile, and inflammation/immune function, which are
inspired by his career as a track and field coach. He was the 2017
recipient of the United States Track and Field – Joe Vigil Sport
Science award. He was named a Fellow of the National Strength
and Conditioning Association (FNSCA) in 2017.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding: The authors report no
conflicts of interest and no source of funding.
DELIVER THE SUPPORT TO CRUSH
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USING LTAD TO PROGRAM FOR A MIDDLE SCHOOL ATHLETE AND A HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETE:
PART 2 ­­– CREATING A DEVELOPMENTALLY-APPROPRIATE STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING PROGRAM
RICK HOWARD, MED, CSCS,*D
T
his article continues the discussion of long-term athletic
development (LTAD) by providing a sample program
design. Part 1 of this two-part article served to help sports
coaches better understand and apply LTAD principles to the
development of athletic profiles for their youth athletes based on
multiple dimensions of physical maturity (at the youth level, the
sports coach often is the strength and conditioning coach) (3).
These athletic profiles were divided into two major groups based
on peak height velocity (PHV); “the period of time in which an
adolescent experiences their fastest upward growth in stature…”
(3). As athletes that are pre-PHV (not yet adolescent) have
different exercise and movement goals when compared with post-
PHV (adolescent) athletes, practical application of LTAD can be
complicated. This article provides practical application of the LTAD
principles by examining two sample programs. The first program
is for a middle school athlete who is pre-peak height velocity
(pre-PHV). The second program is for a high school athlete who is
post-peak height velocity (post-PHV). Recognizing that coaches
are most often faced with an uncertain combination of pre-PHV
and post-PHV, the practical application is not always so easy or
straightforward for coaches working with young athletes.
PRE-PHV AND POST-PHV DIFFERENCES IN YOUTH
Coaches should recognize that pre-PHV and post-PHV aspiring
athletes will have overlapping, yet different program goals. Pre-
PHV should focus on “mastery of fundamental motor skills, sport
sampling, general physical preparation, development of muscle
strength using a variety of implements, introductory sport skills,
physical literacy, attention to volume of training/playing, rest,
and nutrition,” (3). This includes locomotor skills, object control
50 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
skills, and body awareness. The development of fundamental
motor skills is also demonstrated by the ability to establish
proper athletic positioning via the universal athletic stance, body
awareness when shifts in position occur, and development of
movement abilities in all three cardinal planes of motion (4). On
the other hand, post-PHV youth “may narrow focus to one or
two sports but also may continue to sample/play multiple sports,
continue focus on general physical preparation with enhanced
sport skills, continue to develop muscle strength and power,
correctly periodize the volume of training/playing, and pay
attention to rest, and nutrition,” (3). The post-PHV athlete should
apply strength and skill to the desired sports or activities. These
categories lead to the testing that best matches level of maturity,
with pre-pubertal youth continuing to focus on improving general
athleticism while pubertal youth can apply that athleticism in a
sport setting (3).
EXAMPLE TEST RESULTS AND PROGRAM DESIGN
FOR PRE-PHV YOUTH
TEST RESULTS FOR PRE-PHV YOUTH
In accordance with pillar 8 of the National Strength and
Conditioning Association’s Position Statement on Long-term
Athletic Development, testing is a snapshot of the athlete’s
performance on that test or battery of tests on that day only
(5). Test results are to be used to establish individual athlete’s
strengths and weaknesses, not to predict athletic talent. The
example test results for the pre-PHV youth (Table 1) focus on
fundamental movements, exercise technique, and generic fitness
tests. Note that not all tests have gender-specific data. Testing
is designed to be completed in one session but larger numbers
of athletes may require testing over two or three initial sessions.

Testing order follows the NSCA testing protocol, where available—
motor skill mastery is not included in the NSCA protocol,
for example. These tests are samples of tests conducted by
the author (1).
NSCA COACH 5.3
and relative strength. These tests are examples of tests conducted
by the author for comparison to testing of PHV youth. Since this
athlete needs general fitness and movement remediation, sports-
relevant testing is not conducted as part of this profile.

PROGRAM DESIGN FOR PRE-PHV YOUTH PROGRAM DESIGN FOR POST-PHV YOUTH
Following NSCA principles, trainees with no prior lifting experience The post-PHV athlete in this example is training age 2 which
are considered training age 0 (1). The pre-PHV athlete in this means he has experience with resistance training exercise
example is training age 0, so, according to NSCA guidelines this technique, although it is noted his power development is below
aspiring athlete should begin with resistance training 1 – 2 times standard, so his power exercise progressions need to be regressed.
per week (1). According to his test results (Table 1), the focus of According to NSCA guidelines, this developing athlete should
LTAD training should not only be on all 10 fitness attributes (pillar engage in resistance training according to seasonal requirements,
2, 3, 6, and 7) but also focusing on improving the fitness attributes i.e., based on whether he is off-season, pre-season, in-season, or
with scores below the norm (5). The exercises selected are usually post-season (1). However, multisport participation is factored as
available to coaches and address fundamental movement patterns the focus of LTAD and he has not yet declared a sport in which he
such as hinging, lunging, and squatting; strength; and overall chooses to specialize, so training should continue to be on all 10
athleticism. A sample 2 times per week program might look fitness attributes (pillar 2, 3, 6, and 7) (5). In order to improve his
like the following: test results in exercises and motor abilities in which he is below
the norm (see Table 2), a sample 3 times per week program might
Day 1 look like the following:
Motor Warm-up:
Walk-March-Skip progressions (30 s x 2) Day 1 (Monday)
Alternate coach pick/athlete pick (the coach and athlete Power:
take turns selecting the next exercise, which helps the Triple Extension 5 x 3
athlete learn and take responsibility for the exercises Core:
and helps the coach by finding which exercises the Front Squat 5 x 5
athlete chooses vs. the exercises the athlete needs Romanian Deadlift 3 x 5
in his program) Push Press 3 x 5
Accessory:
Sample Alternating Coach/Athlete Exercise Selection: Glute/Ham Raise 3 x 8
Coach Pick: 15 lunges (bodyweight) Shoulder IYTLs 2 x 8
Athlete Pick: Assault Bike 2 min Push-Ups As Many Repetitions As Possible (AMRAP)
Coach Pick: Hip Hinge with Kettlebell (4 kg)
Athlete Pick: Leg Press 0.5 x bodyweight Day 2 (Wednesday)
Coach Pick: Cable Push/Pull unilateral 15 lb/20 lb Power:
Athlete Pick: Game: Gaga High Shrug Pulls 3 x 3
Standing Broad Jumps 3 x 3
Day 2 Core:
Motor Warm-Up: Step-Ups 5 x 5
Obstacle Course: Hopscotch Poly-Spots, Hula Hoop, Cone Incline Press 5 x 5
Zig-Zag, Balance Beam Step and Trap Bar Deadlift 5 x 5
Stop, Jump Rope (20 s each, 40 s rest) Accessory:
Circuit Training: Pull-Ups AMRAP
Hip Bridge, Can Openers, Suspension Training Squats, Lateral Band Walks Light Tubing x 30 s each way
Medicine Ball Lateral Rotations,
Mountain Climbers, Barre Romanian Deadlifts (1 Day 3 (Friday)
circuit to start) Power:
Jump Shrugs 3 x 3
EXAMPLE TEST RESULTS AND PROGRAM DESIGN Vertical Jumps 3 x 5
FOR POST-PHV YOUTH (MALE) One-Leg Hops x 10
TEST RESULTS FOR POST-PHV YOUTH Core:
For post-PHV youth, test results can be used not only to establish Back Squats 5 x 3
individual athlete’s strengths and weaknesses but also to predict Landmine One-Arm Press 3 x 5
athletic talent. The example test results for the post-PHV youth One-Leg RDL 3x 10
(Table 2) focus on fundamental movements, exercise technique, Accessory:
and generic fitness tests, similar to pre-PHV youth, and also Pallof Press 2 x 12
reveal that this athlete still has not mastered critical fundamental Medicine Ball Against the Wall 3 x 5
movements and has below standard test results for power, speed, Mountain Climbers 30 s x 3
NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 51
USING LTAD TO PROGRAM FOR A MIDDLE SCHOOL ATHLETE AND A HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETE:
PART 2 – CREATING A DEVELOPMENTALLY-APPROPRIATE STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING PROGRAM

TABLE 1. SAMPLE ATHLETIC PROFILE TEST RESULTS FOR PRE-PHV YOUTH (MALE)
ABOVE NORM,
PRE-PHV
FITNESS ATTRIBUTE EXERCISE/MOVEMENT ATHLETE SCORE BELOW NORM,
NORMS (2)
OR MEETS STANDARD

Fundamental Fundamental Motor Skill Knee valgus on Below for

Does not meet standard
Motor Skill Mastery Mastery Checklist (8) skipping and landing Skipping and Landing

Met standard when

Proper Athletic Stance Meets standard Meets standard
coached properly

Was aware of balance,

Body Awareness center of gravity, and Meets standard Meets standard
base of support changes

Cardinal Does not Below for frontal

Does not meet standard
Planes of Motion move well laterally plane movements

Basic Exercise Technique

Needs further Needs further
for Foundational
Exercise Technique (1) coaching and cuing for Meets standard coaching and cuing for
Movements such as
foundational movements foundational movements
Squat, Lunge, and Hinge

30 s (boys);
Balance (static) Stork Stand 24 s (boys) Below norm
20 s (girls)

Below, especially
for movements such
Agility Pro-Agility 7.15 s Not found
as deceleration
and reacceleration

59 in. (boys);
Power (horizontal) Standing Broad Jump 52 in. (boys) Below norm
56 in. (girls)

10.5 in. (not gender

Power (vertical) Vertical Jump 12 in. Slightly above norm
differentiated)

Strength (absolute) Handgrip Dynamometer 25.5 kg 29.7 kg (11-12 y/o) Below norm

Pull-Ups: 0 34 (boys); 21 (girls) / Below norm for

Strength (relative) Pull-Ups/Push-Ups
Push-Ups: 8 8 (boys); 3 (girls) push-ups and pull-ups

Speed 40-Yard Dash 6.21 s 5.97 s (boys) Below norm

Cardiovascular 6:57 min (boys);

One-Mile Run Could not complete Below norm
Endurance 8:00 min (girls)

52 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM

 NSCA COACH 5.3

TABLE 2. SAMPLE ATHLETIC PROFILE TEST RESULTS FOR POST-PHV YOUTH

ABOVE NORM,
POST-PHV
FITNESS ATTRIBUTE EXERCISE/MOVEMENT ATHLETE SCORE BELOW NORM,
NORMS (2)
OR MEETS STANDARD

Motor Skill Mastery Meets standard

Fundamental Fundamental Motor Skill Below norm for static
except for static and (in combinations
Motor Skill Mastery Mastery Checklist (8) and dynamic balance
dynamic balance for sport skills)

Proper Athletic Stance Meets standard Meets standard Meets standard

Body Awareness Meets standard Meets standard Meets standard

Cardinal
Meets standard Meets standard Meets standard
Planes of Motion

Exercise technique on
power exercise (Clean)
is very poor. Core Programming needs to
Exercise Technique for
exercise performance is be regressed for power
Foundational Exercises
Exercise Technique (1) very good (training Meets standard exercises. All other
as well as sport-
age = 2). Accessory exercises programmed
relevant exercises
exercise performance at training age 2
also matches
training age 2.

31-40 in. (boys)

Balance (static) Stork Stand 43 s (boys) Meets standard
16-32 in. (girls)

Agility Pro-Agility 5.19 s 5.02 s +/- 0.24 s Meets standard

79 in. (boys);
Power (horizontal) Standing Broad Jump 70 in. (boys) Below norm
65 in. (girls)

20.5 in. (boys);

Power (vertical) Vertical Jump 17.5 in. (boys) Below norm
15.5 in. (girls)

43.4 kg +/-
Strength (absolute) Handgrip Dynamometer 45 kg Above norm
7.3 kg (17 y/o)

Pull-Ups: 5 (boys)/ 15 (boys); 2 (girls)/

Strength (relative) Pull-Ups/Push-Ups Below norm
Push-Ups: 27 (boys) 56 (boys); 28 (girls)

Speed 40-Yard Dash 5.00 s (boys) 4.76 s (boys) Below norm

Cardiovascular
One-Mile Run 6:10 (boys) 5:57 (boys); 7:58 (girls) Below norm
Endurance

NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 53

USING LTAD TO PROGRAM FOR A MIDDLE SCHOOL ATHLETE AND A HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETE:
PART 2 – CREATING A DEVELOPMENTALLY-APPROPRIATE STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING PROGRAM

COMMONALITIES AND DIFFERENCES REFERENCES

IN PROGRAM DESIGN
Program design for pre- and post-PHV has the
following similarities:
• Programming is based on the needs analysis and test results
• Fundamental movement skills need to always be
taught and reinforced
• Exercise technique should always be reviewed and corrected
when necessary (during the growth spurt, for example)
• Training age is always based on the experience of the athlete
with each movement—chronological age is not the primary
determinant of program design
• Training needs to occur in all three planes of movement
• While it seems that there are significant training differences,
foundational strength and conditioning is often the correct
approach for athletes of all ages and abilities. Sports practice
differentiates sport-relevant and sport-centric movements,
patterns, and strategies.
Program design for pre- and post-PHV has the
following differences:
• A group of aspiring athletes may vary in training age, level of
maturity, and interest in the program. Movements need to be
modified, progressed, and regressed as applicable.
• Pre-PHV athletes still need to focus on development
of movement, strength, and technique; post-PHV
athletes need to also consider building on their strength
capabilities as power.
• As training age advances, program design also advances.
Coaches need to be prepared with exercise progressions
and regressions to adjust for athletes of different ages and
abilities in the same group.
1. Haff, G, and Triplett, T. Essentials of strength training and
conditioning, 4th Ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2015.
2. Hoffman, J. Norms for fitness, performance, and health.
Chicago: Human Kinetics, 2006.
3. Howard, R. Using LTAD to program for a middle school athlete
and a high school athlete: Part 1 – Generating an athletic profile.
NSCA Coach 4(2): 10-15, 2018.
4. Howard, R. The ABCs of long-term athletic development. NSCA
Coach 5(2): 36-39, 2017.
5. Lloyd, R, Cronin, J, Faigenbaum, A, Haff, G, Howard, R, et al.
National Strength and Conditioning Association position statement
on long-term athletic development. Official position stand of
the National Strength and Conditioning Association. Journal of
Strength and Conditioning Research 30(6): 1491-1509, 2016.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Rick Howard helped start the National Strength and Conditioning
Association (NSCA) Youth Special Interest Group (SIG) and served
this year as Immediate Past Chair. In addition, Howard serves on
the NSCA Membership Committee and is the NSCA State/Provincial
Program Regional Coordinator for the Mid-Atlantic Region. Howard
is involved in many pursuits that advance knowledge, skills, and
coaching education to help all children enjoy lifelong physical
activity and sports participation.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding: The authors report no
conflicts of interest and no source of funding.

CONCLUSION
Strength and conditioning coaches can apply LTAD to help create
a developmentally-appropriate strength and conditioning program
for youth of varying ages, abilities, and interests. Regardless
of training age, chronological age, or developmental age, all
fitness attributes need to be continuously developed throughout
childhood and adolescence (pillar 3, 6, and 9), while programming
for specific deficits, as identified in the needs analysis and test
results. Part 2 of this article is but one example of how LTAD
can be utilized to develop a strength and conditioning program
for pre-PHV and post-PHV youth. Factors including movement
proficiency, fitness attribute test results, sports-relevant skill/
attribute test results, goals, and periodization phase need to be
considered when designing training programs.

54 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM

YEAR-ROUND STRENGTH TRAINING FOR COLLEGIATE FEMALE CROSS COUNTRY RUNNERS—
SAMPLE PROGRAM
DAVID GRANATO, MS, CSCS
S
trength training is an often neglected aspect of training
for distance athletes. Female athletes especially are often
reluctant to participate in strength training, and coaches are
hesitant to include it into their overall program design. However, it
is an important component to success in cross country racing.
Cross country running, for female National Collegiate Athletic
Association (NCAA) Division I and II athletes, is characterized by
races of 5,000 or 6,000 meters, over a variety of surfaces, such
as grass, sand, and dirt, and also includes uneven terrain and hills.
Races can last anywhere from 16 to 22 minutes, depending on the
level of the athlete, and the length and difficulty of the course.
Strength training is especially important for female athletes, as
they are at a greater risk of overuse injuries, compared to male
athletes (12). The Naval health research center has found that
lower extremity weight training is negatively correlated with
incidences of stress fractures in females (5), and other research
has specifically shown that significantly stronger hip abductors,
and greater external rotation strength result in a lower overall
injury rate (7). The purpose of this article is to outline the guiding
principles of a suggested strength training program for female
cross country runners, in order to reduce the incidence of injury.
Reducing the incidence of injury will result in longer periods of
un-interrupted sport specific training, with the result of improved
racing performance.
56 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS
The main physiological adaptations expected to occur as a result
of a strength training program are anatomical adaptations, mainly
the strengthening of the musculature and connective tissue. There
will also be neurological adaptations, especially for athletes that
have not lifted before (3). A greater number of motor units will be
recruited and at a faster rate (3). Stored adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) might also increase slightly. Ligament strength, tendon
strength, and collagen content will all increase (3).
TRAINING PHASES AND GOALS
NCAA female distance runners, in addition to the cross country
season, will also compete in indoor and outdoor track. This three
sport format, with three separate and distinct championship
seasons, necessitates a three peak per year system. The annual
plan should be built around this schedule, and planning should
work backwards from the championship segments.
As part of a year round training program, the year has been
divided into three phases, which are repeated throughout the year,
as well as six sub-phases, which are also repeated throughout the
year. The 52-week plan is made up of nineteen mesocycles, each
consisting of anywhere from two to five one-week microcycles.
See Table 1 for a visual representation of this 52-week plan.

TABLE 1. SAMPLE 52-WEEK ANNUAL PLAN

PHASES PREPARATORY I
Sub Phases General Prep Specific Prep
Mesocycles 1 2 3
Microcycles 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Competitions

PHASES COMPETITIVE I
Sub Phases Pre-Competitive Competitive Peaking
Mesocycles 4 5 6
Microcycles 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Cross Cross Cross Conference Regionals Nationals
Competitions
Country 5k Country 6k Country 5k 6k 6k 6k

PHASES TRANSITION I PREPARATORY II

Sub Phases Transition General Prep Specific Prep
Mesocycles 7 8 9
Microcycles 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Competitions

PHASES COMPETITIVE II PREP III

NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM

General Specific
Sub Phases Pre-Competitive Competitive Peaking
Prep Prep
Mesocycles 10 11 12 13 14 15
Microcycles 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
Indoor
Husky Conference
Competitions 3000 Nationals
Invite 5k Mile
5k

PHASES COMPETITIVE III TRANSITION II

Sub Phases Pre-Competitive Competitive Peaking Transition
Mesocycles 16 17 18 19
NSCA COACH 5.3

Microcycles 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
Outdoor
Competitions 1500 Mt. Sac 10k Conference 5k
Nationals 10k

57
YEAR-ROUND STRENGTH TRAINING FOR COLLEGIATE FEMALE CROSS COUNTRY RUNNERS—
SAMPLE PROGRAM
During each of the general prep phases, anatomical adaptations
will occur as the athlete is re-introduced to strength training.
Training is slowly increased in frequency and intensity, allowing
adaptation. The main objective of this phase is to prepare the
muscles, ligaments, tendons and skeleton to handle the intensity
of the training to follow. The strength training program should
focus on the abdominal muscles, the lower back, the muscles
along the spinal column, as well as the hips, with a secondary
focus on the legs for cross country athletes. Additionally, this is
the time to address and correct any imbalances that might exist
between agonist and antagonist muscle groups, which could
result in injuries (6). The goal is to involve all muscle groups in a
program that includes multi-joint exercises, as well as increase the
volume of work athletes are able to effectively handle. Especially
in untrained athletes, a greater volume of training has been shown
to increase strength (11).
Following the general prep phase is the specific prep phase. In this
phase, repetitions are reduced and intensity is increased, as well as
exercises being adjusted to increase sport specificity.
During the pre-competitive and competitive phases, the goal is
to maintain the strength gains that were made during the general
and specific prep phases. During this phase, strength training
should not be increased, and can even be decreased at times.
However, frequency should be maintained so that de-training
does not occur.
During the peaking phase, strength training is reduced or
eliminated altogether. This allows the athlete to compete at the
highest level with minimal fatigue from training, but this phase can
only last for a few weeks before de-training occurs. Determining
the duration of the taper is one of the most important, as well as
most challenging, aspects of exercise prescription. According to
research by an expert on tapering, Inigo Mujika, a 14-day taper
seems to be the longest a taper can last for distance runners,
without any adverse effect on performance (10).
During the transition phase, following the peak competition of
the season, the goal is to mentally and physically recover, as well
as slowly reintroduce strength training at a lower frequency, and
intensity than what was done during the season.
THE ANNUAL PLAN
The annual plan used by the author is laid out as follows; training
begins each summer with a long preparatory phase for the cross
country season. The prep phase consists of an eight-week general
prep sub phase, and a four-week specific prep sub phase. These
phases take place in June, July, and August. The preparatory
phase is followed by a five-week pre-competitive phase, starting
in September and progressing into October. Starting in October,
there is a four-week competitive phase, during which the bulk
of the regular season races occur. Finally, there is a three-week
peaking phase, which includes the two most important meets of
58 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
the cross country season, the regional and national championships.
This peak is followed by a two-week transition phase.
Following the cross country season, two weeks of general prep
training are done before the start of the indoor pre-competitive
phase, followed by four weeks of specific prep. These phases
occur starting in December and into January. There is then a
two-week pre-competitive phase in the middle of January. The
competitive phase starts at the end of January when the students
return for spring semester, and lasts six weeks. There is a short
peaking phase, lasting one week in March for the indoor national
championships, followed by two weeks of specific prep for the
outdoor track season.
To start the outdoor season, there is a two-week pre-competitive
phase, which is followed by a four-week competitive phase. This is
followed by a two-week peaking phase with the goal of the athlete
having their best performance of the track season at the outdoor
national championships at the end of May.
Following the third peak of the year, there is a one-week transition
phase to allow for physical and mental recovery, before the 52-
week program starts again.
NEEDS ANALYSIS
A needs analysis should be conducted on an individual basis
to highlight specific needs, deficiencies, and weakness that an
individual athlete might have that could result in injury. Given the
outcome of the individual needs analysis, a strength coach can
create, or modify, a program to best suit the needs of that athlete.
However there are some common things that all female cross
country runners can benefit from.
Running is a single leg sport, requiring the athlete to strike the
ground with one leg, while the other goes through a swing phase.
This foot-strike results in an immediate eccentric contraction,
followed by a concentric contraction where the runner puts
force into the ground to propel themselves forward. In cross
country races, this often occurs in uneven terrain that can cause
different steps to occur in different planes and ranges of motion,
as well as soft surfaces that do not return as much energy as
is put into them.
Running utilizes every muscle in the lower body, as well as the hips
and core for forward propulsion, or stabilization. The physiological
needs are for muscular endurance, as well as the oxidative and
glycolytic energy systems in order to compete effectively for
distances between 5,000 and 6,000 meters.
EXERCISE SELECTION
Exercise selection should be based on what the needs analysis
showed to be the requirements of the sport, as well as the
available equipment. The exercises are divided into primary
exercises, secondary exercises, and assistance exercises. Primary
exercises are the exercises that form the basis of the program. The
 NSCA COACH 5.3

primary exercises selected all focus on large or multiple muscle TABLE 3. TRAINING FOCUS FOR SPECIFIC PREP PHASE
groups, and are multi-joint movements. Secondary exercises are PERIOD SPECIFIC PREP PHASE
exercise that are not primary exercises, but are important to the
Goal Basic Strength
training goals because they strengthen or activate antagonist
muscle groups. Assistance exercises focus on small muscle groups, Moderate
and usually only involve one joint. Assistance exercises are mostly Intensity
80 – 85% 1RM
used to rehab a previous injury or to correct an imbalance or
concern that could cause an injury in the future. These exercise High to moderate
can and should be individualized to the specific needs of each Volume 3 sets
athlete. The exercises chosen should include movement patterns,
6 – 8 repetitions
and a range of motion, in excess of typical running movement
pattern and range of motion. Frequency 2x per week

TRAINING LOAD, REPETITIONS, AND VOLUME During the pre-competitive phase, the repetition/set scheme
Training load, repetitions and volume will be determined by the undulates between 3 x 6 – 8 at 80% of 1RM, and 3 x 10 – 12 at 65 –
goals of the program as well as the phase of the program. Based 70% of 1RM to maintain strength gains, without being so tiring as
on the author’s experience, the following are recommended to take away from the focus of the training program.
training loads, repetitions, and volume.
TABLE 4. TRAINING FOCUS FOR PRE-COMPETITIVE PHASE
During the general prep phase, when the focus is on anatomical PERIOD PRE-COMPETITIVE PHASE
adaptations as well as learning the proper technique and methods Goal Strength/Maintenance
for the exercises, the best strategy we found was light weight
High to moderate
and higher repetitions. This will allow the desired anatomical Intensity
adaptations to take place as well as offer a safe and easy way 65 – 80% 1RM
for athletes to learn exercises. During this phase for the primary High to moderate
exercises, 3 sets of 12 – 15 repetitions are utilized, at approximately
65% of an estimated one-repetition maximum (1RM). During the Volume 3 sets
general prep phase, when the goal is to increase strength, the 6 – 12 repetitions
weight is increased and a repetition/set scheme of 3 x 8 – 10 at
Frequency 2x per week
approximately 75% of 1RM was used.

TABLE 2. TRAINING FOCUS FOR GENERAL PREP PHASE During the competitive phase, the repetition/set scheme undulates
between 3 x 6 – 8 at 80% of 1RM, and 3 x 10 – 12 at 65 – 70% of
PERIOD GENERAL PREP PHASE
1RM to maintain strength gains as well. However, frequency is
Hypertrophy/Endurance reduced during certain weeks, to once per week, to accommodate
Goal
and Basic Strength the competition schedule.
Low to moderate
Intensity TABLE 5. TRAINING FOCUS FOR COMPETITIVE PHASE
65 – 75% 1RM
PERIOD COMPETITIVE PHASE
High to moderate
Goal Maintenance
Volume 3 sets
High to moderate
8 – 15 repetitions Intensity
65 – 80% 1RM
Frequency 2x per week
High to moderate
During the specific prep phase, the repetition/set scheme was 3 x Volume 3 sets
6 – 8 at approximately 80 – 85% of 1RM. 6 – 12 repetitions
Frequency 1 – 2x per week

NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 59

YEAR-ROUND STRENGTH TRAINING FOR COLLEGIATE FEMALE CROSS COUNTRY RUNNERS—
SAMPLE PROGRAM
During the peaking phase, the repetition/set scheme is 3 x 6 – 8
at 80% of 1RM; however, only 1 – 2 sets are performed, and the
frequency is reduced to once per week to maintain strength gains.
TABLE 6. TRAINING FOCUS FOR PEAKING PHASE
PERIOD PEAKING PHASE
Goal Maintenance
Moderate
Intensity
80% 1RM
Moderate
Volume 1 – 2 sets
6 – 8 repetitions
Frequency 1x per week
PRIMARY EXERCISES stabilization. They should be assisted because very few female
The primary exercises utilized throughout the program include the
Turkish get-up, split squat, walking lunges, and bench step overs.
The Turkish get-up was selected because it is a full body exercise
that utilizes nearly every muscle group. It is also a complex, multi-
joint exercise. The Turkish get-up, when used properly, activates all
the abdominal and core support musculature around the spine, as
well as the hips, shoulders, and legs (8).
The split squat was selected because it is a leg and hip
strengthening exercise that also activates the core and spinal
musculature. The split squat also mimics the single-leg balance
aspect of running. The increased range of motion and increased
resistance means that the split squat is sport specific to running.
The walking lunge was selected because it is a leg and hip
strengthening exercise that also activates the core and spinal
musculature. The walking lunge also mimics the single-leg balance
aspect of running, as well as the need to smoothly transition from
one leg to the other. The increased range of motion, and increased
resistance beyond what is required for running, means that the
walking lunge is sport specific.
The bench step over is a hip/leg exercise, and activates the
abdominal and spinal musculature. The bench step over is
performed with a medicine ball held above the head, maintaining
straight arms. The athlete steps over the bench forward leading
with the right leg. The athlete then turns 90 degrees right, and
executes a side step over the bench, again leading with the right
leg. While facing the same direction, the athlete then side steps
back over the bench, leading with the left leg. This is followed by a
90 degree right turn and another forward step over the bench, this
time leading with the left leg. This constitutes one repetition.
The Turkish get-up and bench step over are both full body
movements that occur in multiple planes, involve complex
movement patterns, and require stability with overhead weight.
For this reason, these have been selected as the primary exercises
60 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM
for each session. All of the primary exercises were selected
because of their similarity to the running motion and the specific
demands of cross country running.
SECONDARY EXERCISES
The secondary exercises utilized throughout this program include
Romanian deadlifts (RDL), glute bridges, and assisted pull-ups.
The RDL was selected because it is a leg and hip extension
strengthening exercise that also utilizes the core and spinal
musculature. The RDL also focuses on the glutes, hamstrings,
and lower back which are antagonistic muscle groups to the
running motion.
The assisted pull-up was selected because it increases strength
of the arms, trapezius, and latissimus dorsi, which, along with the
spinal and lower back muscles are important to posture and pelvic
cross country athletes are able to perform unassisted pull-ups.
The secondary exercises were selected because of their
complementary nature to the core exercises, and strengthening of
antagonistic muscle groups to those usually used in running. It is
important to strengthen these muscle groups so that injuries do
not occur due to strength imbalances.
ASSISTANCE EXERCISES
The author recommends a variety of assistance exercises
be utilized in any program targeting distance runners. It is
recommended that different athletes be assigned different
assistance exercises based on their individual and specific needs.
Recommended assistance exercises include: planks, dynamic
planks, Russian twists, monster walks, glute bridges, inch worms,
band side steps, clam shells, and leg curls.
Planks, dynamic planks, inch worms, and the Russian twist were
all selected as exercises to strengthen the abdominal, spinal,
and postural musculature, especially in a manner similar to the
demands placed on them by cross country running.
Monster walks, band side steps, clam shells, and leg curls were
selected as assistance exercises because they activate and utilize
the glute muscles, strengthen hip extensors and knee flexors,
as well as utilizing lower body movement patterns in a manner
not usually used in running. The main focus of these assistance
exercises is either core/postural strength or glute/hip activation
and strengthening. Increased hip abduction and external
rotation strength has been shown to negatively correlate with
patellofemoral joint pain (4), so assistance exercises should also
be chosen to address this.
TRAINING FREQUENCY
During the training year, the training frequency utilized by
this program is twice per week, immediately following sport-
specific running training of either a VO2max interval training

session or anaerobic threshold training session. On the weeks of
important races or during the pre-competitive and competitive
phases, frequency of strength training is reduced to once per
week, to allow for additional rest prior to competition. During
the peaking phase, which only lasts up to 14 days, frequency
can remain at once per week, with a reduction in volume, while
maintaining intensity.
REST PERIOD
The rest period between exercises is determined by the goals
of the training session. Given the goals of a strength training
program for female cross country athletes, sets of the primary,
or secondary, exercise will be alternated with sets of the paired
assistance exercise.
STRETCHING/WARM-UP
The purpose of the warm-up should be to activate the gluteal and
hamstring muscles, and exaggerate the running form. This warm-
up should aid in increasing dynamic mobility, proprioception, and
connective tissue strength. Static stretching should not be used,
due to research showing that it is not as effective as a dynamic
warm-up, and can reduce power and agility performance (9).
This warm-up should be performed prior to all lifts. An example
warm-up can start with leg swings, front to back and side to
side, followed by unweighted lunges with a trunk twist, and then
high knees and butt kicks. These can be followed by a simple
hurdle mobility workout consisting of stepping over hurdles with
opposite legs, alternating over and under hurdles, and lateral step
overs. Following this simple dynamic warm-up, the athletes will
move to the weight room and begin the lifts.
TESTS AND EVALUATIONS
In the author’s experience, given the nature of the strength
training program, the goals, as well as the infrequent nature of
the lifts, it is more important to spend the time on the actual lifts,
rather than on weight room testing and evaluation. Proper loads
can be found through trial and error, and the experience of the
coach, favoring lifting lighter rather than heavier, and focusing on
instruction of proper form and technique. This is especially true
with those new to the program, and new to resistance training
in general, as many female cross country runners often are. The
goal of the strength training session is to provide a basis for
injury free running, rather than improving specific weight room
performance; therefore, no tests or evaluations are required.
However, if performed properly, with experienced athletes, testing
does allow for better load selection and potential prevention of
injury by avoiding too heavy of loads. This is up to the discretion
of the coach, and the allowed time. Testing should never be done
during the competitive or peaking phases because there is a risk
of impeding sport performance.
TAKEAWAY
The main purpose of this strength training program is to avoid
injury. Avoiding injury will allow the athlete to spend more
NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 61
NSCA COACH 5.3
uninterrupted time on sport-specific training, as well as be able to
handle a higher volume and intensity of sport-specific training. In
a sport not based in strength or power, but rather energy system
development, strength training should be supportive without
hindering the sport-specific training necessary for success.
REFERENCES
1. Fields, KB, Sykes, JC, Walker, KM, and Jackson, JC.
Prevention of running injuries. Current Sports Medicine Reports
9(3): 176-182, 2010.
2. Häkkinen, K, Alen, M, Kraemer, WJ, Gorostiaga, E, Izquierdo,
M, Rusko, H, et al. Neuromuscular adaptations during concurrent
strength and endurance training versus strength training. European
Journal of Applied Physiology 89(1): 42-52, 2003.
3. Hakkinen, K, Pakarinen, A, Alen, M, Kauhanen, H, and Komi,
PV. Neuromuscular and hormonal adaptations in athletes to
strength training in two years. Journal of Applied Physiology 65(6):
2406-2412, 1988.
4. Ireland, ML, Willson, JD, Ballantyne, BT, and Davis, IM. Effect of
pain and hip muscle strength and flexibility on functional status of
females with patellofemoral pain syndrome. International Journal
of Science and Research 5(4): 423-427, 2016.
5. Jankowski, C. Epidemiology of stress fracture and lower-
extremity overuse injury in female recruits. Yearbook of Sports
Medicine 294-295, 2007.
6. Knapik, JJ, Bauman, CL, Jones, BH, Harris, JM, and Vaughan,
L. Preseason strength and flexibility imbalances associated with
athletic injuries in female collegiate athletes. The American Journal
of Sports Medicine 19(1): 76-81, 1991.
7. Leetun, DT, Ireland, ML, Willson, JD, Ballantyne, BT, and Davis,
IM. Core stability measures as risk factors for lower extremity
injury in athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise
36(6): 926-934, 2004.
8. Liebenson, C, and Shaughness, G. The Turkish get-up. Journal
of Bodywork and Movement Therapies 15(1): 125-127, 2011.
9. McMillian, DJ, Moore, JH, Hatler, BS, and Taylor, DC. Dynamic
vs. static-stretching warm up: The effect on power and agility
performance. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
20(3): 492-499, 2006.
10. Mujika, I, and Padilla, S. Scientific basis for precompetition
tapering strategies. Medical Science in Sport and Exercise 35:
1182-1187, 2003.
11. Paulsen, G, Myklestad, D, and Raastad, T. The influence
of volume of exercise on early adaptations to strength
training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
17(1): 115-120, 2003.
12. Yang, J, Tibbetts, AS, Covassin, T, Cheng, G, Nayar, S, and
Heiden, E. Epidemiology of overuse and acute injuries among
competitive collegiate athletes. Journal of Athletic Training
47(2): 198-204, 2012.
YEAR-ROUND STRENGTH TRAINING FOR COLLEGIATE FEMALE CROSS COUNTRY RUNNERS—
SAMPLE PROGRAM

TABLE 7. SAMPLE GENERAL PREP WORKOUT

Phase: Preparatory I Phase: Preparatory I

Sub Phase: General Prep Sub Phase: General Prep
Macrocycle: 1 Macrocycle: 1
Microcycle: 1 Microcycle: 1

DAY 1 WT REPS DAY 2 WT REPS

10 x 15 10 x 15
Turkish Get-Up 10 x 15 Bench Step Over 10 x 15
10 x 15 10 x 15
Russian Twist with Medicine Ball
Dynamic Plank
30 s In between sets of 5 lb 30 s
In between sets of Turkish Get-Up
Bench Step Over
25 x 15 50 x 15
Walking Lunge 25 x 15 Split Squat 50 x 15
25 x 15 50 x 15
Glute Bridge 30 s Clam Shell with Light Band 3 x 10

TABLE 8. SAMPLE SPECIFIC PREP WORKOUT

Phase: Preparatory I Phase: Preparatory I

Sub Phase: Specific Prep Sub Phase: Specific Prep
Macrocycle: 3 Macrocycle: 3
Microcycle: 12 Microcycle: 12

DAY 1 WT REPS DAY 2 WT REPS

30 x6 30 x6
Turkish Get-Up 30 x6 Bench Step Over 30 x6
30 x6 30 x6
6 Russian Twist with Medicine Ball
Assisted Pull-Up
6 In between sets of 10 lb 30 s
In between sets of Turkish Get-Up
6 Bench Step Over

85 x6
Dynamic Plank
30 s RDL 95 x6
In between sets of Split Squat
100 x6
85 x6 65 x6
Split Squat 85 x6 Walking Lunge 65 x6
85 x6 65 x6
Glute Bridge 45 s Clam Shell with Medium Band 3 x 10

62 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM

 NSCA COACH 5.3

TABLE 9. SAMPLE PRE-COMPETITIVE WORKOUT

Phase: Competitive I Phase: Competitive I

Sub Phase: Pre-Competitive Sub Phase: Pre-Competitive
Macrocycle: 4 Macrocycle: 4
Microcycle: 14 Microcycle: 14

DAY 1 WT REPS DAY 2 WT REPS

25 x 8 – 10 25 x 8 – 10
Turkish Get-Up 25 x 8 – 10 Bench Step Over 25 x 8 – 10
25 x 8 – 10 25 x 8 – 10
8 Russian Twist with Medicine Ball
Assisted Pull-Up
8 In between sets of 15 lb 30 s
In between sets of Turkish Get-Up
8 Bench Step Over

75 x 8 – 10
Dynamic Plank
45 s RDL 80 x 8 – 10
In between sets of Split Squat
85 x 8 – 10
55 x 8 – 10 80 x 8 – 10
Split Squat 55 x 8 – 10 Walking Lunge 80 x 8 – 10
55 x 8 – 10 80 x 8 – 10
Glute Bridge 60 s Clam Shell with Medium Band 3 x 10

TABLE 10. SAMPLE COMPETITIVE WORKOUT

Phase: Competitive I Phase: Competitive I

Sub Phase: Competitive Sub Phase: Competitive
Macrocycle: 5 Macrocycle: 5
Microcycle: 19 Microcycle: 19

DAY 1 WT REPS DAY 2 WT REPS

25 x 10 – 12 25 x 10 – 12
Turkish Get-Up 25 x 10 – 12 Bench Step Over 25 x 10 – 12
25 x 10 – 12 25 x 10 – 12
Inch Worms
Planks
60 s In between sets of 3 x 15
In between sets of Turkish Get-Up
Bench Step Over
8 80 x 8 – 10
Assisted Pull-Up
9 RDL 85 x 8 – 10
In between sets of Walking Lunge
10 90 x 8 – 10
55 x 10 – 12 80 x 10 – 12
Walking Lunge 55 x 10 – 12 Split Squat 80 x 10 – 12
55 x 10 – 12 80 x 10 – 12
Band Side Step Monster Walks
3 x 10 3 x 10
with Medium Band with Medium Band

NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM 63

YEAR-ROUND STRENGTH TRAINING FOR COLLEGIATE FEMALE CROSS COUNTRY RUNNERS—
SAMPLE PROGRAM

TABLE 11. SAMPLE PEAKING WORKOUT

Phase: Competitive I Phase: Competitive I

Sub Phase: Peaking Sub Phase: Peaking
Macrocycle: 6 Macrocycle: 6
Microcycle: 24 Microcycle: 24

DAY 1 WT REPS DAY 2 WT REPS

30 x6
Turkish Get-Up No Day 2
35 x6
Dynamic Plank
45 s
In between sets of Turkish Get-Up
65 x6
Walking Lunge
70 x6
Glute Bridge 35 s

TABLE 12. SAMPLE TRANSITION WORKOUT

Phase: Transition I Phase: Transition I

Sub Phase: Transition Sub Phase: Transition
Macrocycle: 7 Macrocycle: 7
Microcycle: 26 Microcycle: 26

DAY 1 WT REPS DAY 2 WT REPS

Turkish Get-Up 15 x 15 Bench Step Over 15 x 15
Inch Worms
Plank
60 s In between sets of 3 x 15
In between sets of Turkish Get-Up
Bench Step Over
Walking Lunge 30 x 15 Split Squat 55 x 15
Monster Walks
Band Side Step with Light Band 3 x 10 3 x 10
with Medium Band

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

David Granato is currently the Assistant Coach and Recruiting
Coordinator for the men’s and women’s cross country and track
and field programs at Adams State University. Working primarily
with distance and mid-distance runners, he has helped lead seven
national championship teams, and 17 individual national champions.
He holds a Master of Science degree from Adams State.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding: The authors report no
conflicts of interest and no source of funding.

64 NSCA COACH 5.3 | NSCA.COM

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