Journal of Cleaner Production 87 (2015) 39e49

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Review

Toxic hazards of leather industry and technologies to combat threat:

a review
Sumita Dixit, Ashish Yadav, Premendra D. Dwivedi, Mukul Das*
Food, Drug & Chemical Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, P. O. Box 80, Lucknow 226001, U.P., India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Leather industry has significant economic influence; however, it suffers from the negative impact due to
Received 25 February 2014 environmental pollution caused by tannery wastes produced during leather processing processes. The
Received in revised form tanning processes contribute significantly to chemical oxygen demand (COD), total dissolved solids
24 September 2014
(TDS), chlorides, sulfates and heavy metal pollution. The chemicals discharged into aquatic systems end
Accepted 6 October 2014
Available online 16 October 2014
up in highly polluted sediments and salinisation of rivers. European Chemical Agency (ECHA) has
prioritized some of the hazardous chemicals used in leather under Substances of Very High Concern
(SVHC) and substances for Authorization. The situation has highlighted the need for greener technolo-
Keywords:
Bating
gies. Out of the two broad categories of technical methods, the first group involves the introduction of
Clean technology processing technologies by decreasing the effluent pollution load, avoiding the use of harmful chemicals
Finishing operations and producing solid wastes that can be used as by-products. The other category is related to the treat-
Pre tanning operations ment of wastewater, handling and processing of solid waste in an environment-friendly manner. Both
Post tanning operations methods have been applied to prevent negative impact on the environment during leather production.
Water management The methods have been reviewed for their technical suitability and commercial feasibility and it was felt
that combination of both is essential. The technologies can have up-front additional costs but have to be
balanced against multiple benefits in terms of environmental cleanup, improved labour productivity,
material quality consistency and better international image. By using the best available technologies and
optimized systems the leather industry can evolve as an environment friendly technology.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction upon various tanning processes are vegetable tanned leather

Leather industry, an age old enterprise provide a wide range of
consumer goods such as shoes, garments, bags etc by turning the
food industry's waste product into a desirable, useful and sustain-
able range of end products (Aloy et al., 1976). It has been estimated
that about 1.67
109 m2 of leather is being made annually in the
world (FAO, 2001). The annual global trade in leather sector is
estimated as seventy billion dollars (ITC, 1999).
Different manufacturing processes, ranging from cottage in-
dustry to heavy industry are involved for the durable and flexible
leather material by the tanning of putrescible animal rawhide and
skin (Heidemann, 1993). The different forms of leather depending
Abbreviations: AOP, Advanced oxidation process; BBP, Benzyl butyl phthalate;
BOD, Biological oxygen demand; COD, Chemical oxygen demand; CETPs, Common
effluent treatment plants; DBP, Di butyl phthalate; DBT, Di butyl tin; DEHP, Diethyl
hexyl phthalate; NMP, N-methyl pyrrolidine; OPP, Ortho phenyl phenol; TDS, Total
dissolved solids; TBT, Tri butyl tin; VOC, Volatile organic compounds.
* Corresponding author. Fax: þ91 522 2628227, þ91 522 2611547.
E-mail addresses: mditrc@rediffmail.com, mditrc@hotmail.com (M. Das).
(Madhan et al., 2001a), chrome-tanned leather (Heidemann, 1993;
Chagne et al., 1996), aldehyde-tanned leather (Serra et al., 1991;
Wojdasiewicz et al., 1992), synthetic-tanned leather (Dasgupta,
1980), alum-tawed leather (Montgomery, 1987; Takenouchi et al.,
1997) and rawhide (Bosnic et al., 2000). Cattle skin is generally
used for leather manufacturing, however, for soft leather items skin
of other animals like lamb, deer, goats, etc is also used (Heidemann,
1993).
2. Leather production processes
The manufacturing process for leather preparation can be
divided into three basic sub-processes: preparatory stage/beam
house stage, tanning stage and crusting stage (Suresh et al., 2001;
Sivakumar et al., 2010). Surface coating may be an additional step
into the leather process.
Preparatory stage or the beam house operation stage is car-
ried out when the hide/skin is prepared for tanning. This stage
includes preservation, soaking, liming, unhairing, fleshing, split-
ting, reliming, deliming, bating, degreasing, bleaching, pickling and

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.10.017
0959-6526/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
40 S. Dixit et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 87 (2015) 39e49

depickling (IL&FS, 2010). At the onset, the hides are trimmed and 3.1. Waste water
soaked not only to restore the lost moisture during curing but to get
rid of salt and other solids. Subsequently, the hides are fleshed to Enormous amount of water and pollutants are discharged dur-
remove excess tissue, muscles or fat adhering to the hide so that ing the entire tanning process (Kaul et al., 2001). The details of
uniform thickness may be obtained. Dehairing is performed mostly water consumption for several steps and the characteristic
by liming process using a series of drums containing lime liquors pollutant loads for each operation are presented in Table 1. Con-
(calcium hydroxide) and sharpening agents, however thermal, ventional pre-tanning and tanning processes accounts for nearly
oxidative, and chemical methods may also be applied. The softness 90% of the total pollution from a tannery (Aloy et al., 1976). Pre-
and flexibility to the leather may be obtained by bating and tanning process results in variations in pH and causes increase in
deliming, which is performed by keeping the hides in a solution of chemical oxygen demand (COD), total dissolved solids (TDS),
ammonium salt dissolved in water along with proteolytic enzymes chlorides, sulphates in tannery wastewaters (Thanikaivelan et al.,
at 27e32  C (Bienkiewicz, 1983; EPA, 1982). Pickling is required as 2000a). The conventional dehairing process with sodium sul-
the next step to adjust the acidity with the use of a brine solution phide and lime accounts to 84% of biochemical oxygen demand
and sulphuric acid. (BOD), 75% of COD and 92% of suspended solids (SS) from a tannery
Tanning converts the raw hide or skin into a stable material that (Marsal et al., 1999). The use of sodium sulphide not only gives rise
dries out to a flexible form without putrefying and becomes suit- to unfavourable consequences on environment but also affects the
able for a wide variety of end applications (Krishnamoorthy et al., efficacy of effluent treatment plants (Bailey et al., 1982). The poor
2012). In general, depending upon the end application of the uptake of 50e70% chromium during commercial chrome tanning
leather, two tanning methods is used; vegetable tanning or chrome method results in material wastage on one hand and creates
tanning. ecological imbalances on the other (Rao et al., 1997). The post-
The process of vegetable tanning usually requires 3 weeks so tanning processalso results in modifications in TDS, COD, and
that the dye penetrates to the hide. Further, the hides are dipped in heavy metal pollution significantly (Simoncini and Sammarco,
sodium bicarbonate or sulphuric acid drums for bleaching and for 1995).
the removal of tannins bound to the surface. Before set out to dry, Highly polluted sediments resulting from discharge of chem-
lignosulfate, corn sugar and oils may be added to the leather and icals adversely affect the ecological functioning of rivers (Schilling
then it undergoes further finishing steps. et al., 2012). High concentration of heavy metals has been found
Chrome tanning is done by the reaction between the hide and in sediments of the river Ganga and its tributaries (Singh et al.,
trivalent chromium salt, most commonly basic chromium sulphate. 2003; Tare et al., 2003). Increase salinisation of rivers and
At pH 3 the tanning materials are introduced and the pH is raised. groundwater has led to the loss of agricultural production and
The soaking, fleshing, liming/dehairing, deliming, bating, and reduced the quality of drinking water in Tamil Nadu, India (Money,
pickling and the drying/finishing steps are essentially the same as 2008). It has been estimated that over 55,000 ha of land have been
in the case of vegetable tanning except that an additional processes contaminated by tannery wastes and around 5 million people are
of retanning, dyeing, and fat liquoring to produce usable leathers. affected by low quality of social environment and drinking water
Many a times oil is applied on the skin before leather drying to (CSIRO, 2001; Sahasranaman and Jackson, 2005).
replace the natural oil lost during beam house and tanyard pro-
cesses; this step is called fat liquoring. The leather is thereafter
wrung, set out, dried, and finished. The pH of chrome tanned 3.2. Solid wastes
leather finish between 3.8 and 4.2 (Heidemann, 1993).
Chrome-tanned leather is more superior to vegetable tanned A great deal of sludge generated from the tannery plants
leather due to its softness, high thermal and water stability and less (Ramasami and Prasad, 1991) render the solid waste management
time consuming. Almost all leather made from the skin of sheep, system highly inactive due to non-biodegradability of the tanned
lambs, goats, pigs is chrome tanned. leather (Dhayalan et al., 2007; Lofrano et al., 2007). Leather itself is
Crusting takes place after the thinning, re-tanning and lubri- slow biodegradable and treatment of different chemicals during
cating of the hide. Sometimes dye is also added in this process. tanning process makes it resistant towards chemical, thermal, and
During crusting, the chemicals added have to be fixed followed by microbiological degradation (Hagerman, 1980; Han et al., 2001).
drying and softening process. Crusting involves several steps like
wetting back, sammying, splitting, shaving, re-chroming, neutrali-
Table 1
zation, re-tanning, dyeing, fat liquoring, filling, stuffing, stripping,
Quantity of wastewater generated and pollution load of each step during processing
whitening, fixating, setting, drying, conditioning, milling, staking, 1 tonne of skin/hide.
and buffing (Bienkiewicz, 1983).
Pollution load Processing operations load kg/tonne hide
Finishing process consists of surface coating that include: oil-
ing, brushing, padding, impregnation, buffing, spraying, roller Soaking Unhairing/ Deliming Chrome Post Finishing
liming and tanning tanning
coating, curtain coating, polishing, plating, embossing, ironing,
bating
combing (for hair-on), glazing and tumbling (Heidemann, 1993).
Waste water 9.0e12.0 4.0e6.0 1.5e2.0 1.0e2.0 1.0e1.5 1.0e2.0
generated
(m3 or Kilolitre)
3. Environmental impacts of leather industry Suspended solids 11e17 53e97 8e12 5e10 6e11 0e2
COD 22e33 79e122 13e20 7e11 24e40 0e5
Environmental impact of tannery wastes containing waste- BOD 7e11 28e45 5e9 2e4 8e15 0e2
Chromium 2e5 1e2
water; hazardous chemicals such as chromium, synthetic tannins, e e e e
Sulphides e 3.9e8.7 0.1e0.3 e e e
oils, resins, biocides, detergents; careless disposal of solid wastes NH3eN 0.1e0.2 0.4e0.5 2.6e3.9 0.6e0.9 0.3e0.5 e
and gaseous emissions creates a negative image of leather industry, Total Kjeldahl 1e2 6e8 3e5 0.6e0.9 1e2 e
although it has significant economic influence (Suresh et al., 2001; nitrogen
Nazer et al., 2006; Jerry, 2011; Sequeira et al., 2011; Shakir et al., Chlorides 85e113 5e15 2e4 40e60 5e10 e
Sulphates 1e2 1e2 10e26 30e55 10e25 e
2012; Islam et al., 2014).

Table 2
Uses, Structures, LD 50 and toxicity of chemicals used in leather industry.
Name
Benzyl butyl phthalate
Bis(2-ethylhexyl)
phthalate (DEHP)
Di butyl phthalate (DBP)
Anthracene
short chain chlorinated
paraffin's (PBT)
Sodium dichromate
Cobalt dichloride
Nonyl phenol
Methyl isothiazolinone
N-Methyl pyrrolidone
Formaldehyde
Heavy metalsArsenic
Chromium
Organotin compounds
(Dibutyl tin)
Azo dyes (Orange II)
S. Dixit et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 87 (2015) 39e49 41
Uses Structure LD50 in rats, oral (mg/kg) Target organs
Used in process for the production of 2330 Eyes, lungs, liver,
a micro porous artificial leather reproductive system
coating/water vapour-permeable
sheet materials.
Used as plasticizers in a processing 30,000 Liver and testes
of shoes soles, and artificial leather
manufacturing
Used as a Phthalate plasticizer in 7499 Eyes, lungs, gastrointestinal
the artificial leather industry tract, testes
Used as a tanning agent 16,000 Kidney, liver, fat and
(for leather) carcinogen
Additive for the leather treatment 3090 Liver, kidney, thyroid and
(renders smoothness to leather), carcinogen
leather clothing and belts and as
a leather oiling agent.
Principal raw material used in the Not available Blood, kidneys, heart,
production of chrome tanning lungs, eyes and
materials for the leather industry carcinogen
like Chrome-tanning salts
Used in leather dyeing and 80 Lungs, liver, kidney,
finishing as well found in heart, skin
tanned leather
Used in finishing 1475 Blood, lungs, eyes,
skin, CNS, kidneys and
low biodegradability
Biocide,microbiological protection 1800 Skin, eyes and carcinogen
Coalescence, plasticizers, wetting 3914 Eyes, kidney, lymphatic
agent system, liver, lung, testes
Leather finishing HCHO 100 Eyes, lungs and carcinogen
As 763 Liver, kidneys, skin, lungs,
lymphatic system and
carcinogen
used for dyeing Cr 3250 Kidney, CNS,
haematopoietic system
As a catalyst 175 Gastrointestinal tract,
liver and carcinogen
Used for Dyeing 3418 Blood, liver, testes
and carcinogen
42 S. Dixit et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 87 (2015) 39e49
This in turn affects the agro based activities and degrades
groundwater system (Mwinyihija et al., 2012). These wastes are a
threat to ecology and aquatic system in vicinity of tannery plants
(Mwinyihija et al., 2010). Adding of pesticides for hide conservation
during transport also add to the problem (Pollution Prevention and
Abatement Handbook, 1998).
3.3. Volatile organic compounds
Pollutants such as ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, volatile hy-
drocarbons, amines and aldehydes are emitted to the atmosphere
from tannery plants as effluents (Fela et al., 2010). Ammonia
emissions may occur during deliming, unhairing, or drying pro-
cesses, while, emissions of sulphides may be the result of liming/
unhairing and subsequent processes. Hydrogen sulphide is released
in tannery wastewater from alkaline sulphides if the pH is less than
8.0. Particulate emissions contain chromium, which may occur
(EPA, 1982; Streicher, 1987) due to reduction of chromate or
through handling of basic chromic sulphate powder or from the
buffing process (EPA, 1982; Streicher, 1987; Telecon, 1996). Thus
substantial amount of volatile organic compounds (VOC) are
emitted during different tanning processes which may pose threat
to the atmosphere if not controlled properly.
3.4. Toxicity of chemicals used in leather industry
A wide variety of chemicals are used in order to bring the leather
in the usable form in the preparation of a variety of products.
Table 2 describes the uses, structures, LD50 and toxicity of chemicals
used in leather industry. The regulatory bodies have put restriction
on the use of these chemicals in leather industry. Phthalates like
benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), di-ethyl hexyl phthalate (DEHP) and
di-butyl phthalate (DBP) are used as plasticizers in micro porous
artificial leather coating. Due to the reproductive toxic potential of
these phthalates, EU (2003 a) has directed the companies to label if
the products contain more than 0.5% of these phthalates. Nonyl
phenol, used in finishing of leather, should not be more than 0.1% in
finished products as prescribed by EU (2003 b). The decision was
taken due to high persistence of these chemicals in the environ-
ment because of its low bio-degradability. Additionally, nonyl
phenol shows oestrogens like activity. Biocides are used for the
microbiological protection of mainly water based finishing chem-
icals. Some biocides like methyl isothiazolinone (MIT) and chlor-
isothiazolinone (CIT) when used in combination act as an irritant
(EPA, 1998).
The use of o–phenyl phenol (OPP) is restricted for leather fin-
ishing chemicals due its carcinogenic activity (EPA, 2007). N-
Methyl pyrrolidone works as coalescence, plasticizer, levelling
agent, wetting agent and as a swelling material thus giving high
performance in finished leather. This compound has been classified
as a reproductive toxin (OEHHA, 2001). The use of formaldehyde is
inevitable in the manufacture of various types of leathers due to its
action as cross linker for casein top coats (Ram Mohan et al., 2008).
Due to the carcinogenic property of formaldehyde, its use is
restricted (EU, 1998). Inorganic pigments such as lead chromate,
cadmium sulphate are used due to their fastness and brilliant
colour but these are toxic heavy metals (ATSDR, 2008; IARC, 2004;
Louis et al., 2003). It has been shown that chromium (III) under
certain ligand environments leads to apoptosis by causing struc-
tural modifications in proteins (Shrivastava and Nair, 2001;
Balamurugan et al., 2002).
Azo dyes, the synthetic dyestuffs based on nitrogen are used in
leather industry for dyeing the leather articles. The toxicity of
several azo dyes has been mentioned earlier (Khanna and Das,
1991; Ramchandani et al., 1994). Many azo dyes on cleavage
produce carcinogenic and allergenic aromatic amines. The EU Azo
Colorants Directive (2002) has given a list of azo dyes that should
not be used in leather articles as they may release one or more
prohibited aromatic amines in detectable concentration above
30 ppm in the finished articles or in the dyed components. Orga-
notin compounds like dibutyl tin (DBT) used in leather finishing as
a catalyst may contain tributyl tin as an impurity which is highly
toxic and has hormone like activity (Omura et al., 2001). No re-
striction has been set yet for synthetic tannins although there have
been extensive impact assessment and treatment applications for
individual chemicals such as cresols, phenols (Hohreiter and Rigg,
2001; Wang et al., 2002).
4. Legislation scenario for leather industries
The discharge limit parameters are different from one country to
other. Some legislative authorities have a check on the quality of
treated effluents; while others on the quality of the recipient water
bodies; some define the permissible levels of impurities to be dis-
charged per day into the recipient water body, whereas in some
cases specifications are linked to the total amount of waste water
discharged (Bosnic et al., 2000).
In many countries, tannery effluents are subjected under overall
legislation of industrial waste discharge rather than specific limits
(Bosnic et al., 2000). During 1990's several tanneries in India were
ordered to close the units as they could not meet the standards of
pollution control systems, while many of them had to pay huge
compensation for the damage caused by salinisation of ground-
water (CSIRO, 2001). Government has encouraged the tanneries to
built Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs) to treat the toxic
wastewater from tanneries by giving subsidies. Despite this initia-
tive, many of the pollution problems are still unresolved due to the
higher cost associated to the treatment of effluents thereby causing
illegal dumping (Beg and Ali, 2008). It was noticed that one of the
Uganda's main leather producing company directly dumped its
waste water in a wetland adjacent to Lake Victoria (The Monitor,
2009). In Crotia the proper pollution abatement cost exceeded
the compensation cost against irresponsible behaviour (EcoLinks,
2001).
Some countries have made regulations related to production,
import and sale of leather products with regard to hazardous
substances. Table 3 describes the maximum permissible limits of
chemicals used in leather and leather products prescribed by some
of the countries. Furthermore, in order to restrict the use of these
chemicals, European Chemical Agency (ECHA) has prioritized few
chemicals under Substances of Very High Concern (SVHC) which
are considered to be hazardous not only to the environment but
also to humans (UK REACH, 2009). It has been observed that out of
these 30 SVHC substance list provided by ECHA, almost all of the
chemicals are used in the leather industry (ECHA, 2010).
5. Technological options to combat the threat posed by
leather industry
Environmental concerns over leather industries have been
growing for the past two decades. High industrial and human
population density and the use of old technologies all cause
increased levels of pollutant in the atmosphere (Maia, 1998). This
situation has highlighted the need for greener technologies (Gupta
and Babu, 2009; Sundarapandiyan et al., 2010, 2011;
Krishnamoorthy et al., 2012). The protection of the environment
has become a global issue throughout the world.
For reducing the negative environmental impact of hide pro-
cessing, there are two broad methods. The first method is generally
termed as low-waste or cleaner technologies that avoid the use of
 S. Dixit et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 87 (2015) 39e49 43

Table 3
Mandatory requirements in leather products of some countries.

Mandatory residual substances limits (RSLs) EU Germany Austria Denmark France Netherlands Switzerland

Pentachlorophenol 30 ppm 5 ppm 30 ppm 30 ppm 30 ppm 30 ppm

Azo dyes* 30 ppm
Chromium VI 3 ppm 10 ppm
Lead 90 ppm
Cadmium 100 ppm 75 ppm 100 ppm 100 ppm
Arsenic Absent
Organotin Compounds Absent
Specific Flame Retardants <0.1%
Phthalates 0.1% 0.1% 0.05%
PCBs and PCTs Not to be used
Biocides** 5 ppm 5 ppm 5 ppm 5 ppm 5 ppm 10 ppm
Formaldehyde >1500 ppm >1500 ppm 200-400 ppm 120 ppm

Source: http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/chemicals/legislation/markrestr/index_en.html.
Azo dyes or the following aromatic amines on cleavage*: Biphenyl-4-ylamine; 4-aminobiphenyl xenylamine; Benzidine; 4-Chloro-o-toluidine; 2-Naphthylamine; o-ami-
noazotoluene; 4-amino-20 ,3-dimethylazobenzene; 4-o-tolylazo-o-toluidine; 5-Nitro-o-toluidine; 4-chloroaniline; 4-methoxy-m-phenylenediamine; 4,40 -methylenediani-
line; 3,30 -dichlorobenzidine; 3,30 -dimethoxybenzidine o-dianisidine; 3,30 -dimethylbenzidine 4,4-bi-o-toluidine; 4,40 -methylenedi-o-toluidine; 6-methoxy-m-toluidine; p-
cresidine; 4,40 -methylene-bis-(2-chloroaniline); 4,40 -oxydianiline; 4,40 - thiodianiline; o-toluidine; 2-aminotoluene; 4-methyl-m-phenylenediamine; 2,4,5-trimethylaniline;
o-anisidine 2-methoxyaniline; 4-amino azobenzene.
Biocides**(23 approved): Human hygiene biocidal products; Private area and public health area disinfectants and other biocidal products; Veterinary hygiene biocidal
products; Food and feed area disinfectants; Drinking water disinfectants; Preservatives; In-can preservatives; Film preservatives; Wood preservatives; Fibre, leather, rubber
and polymerised materials preservatives; Masonry preservatives; Preservatives for liquid-cooling and processing systems; Slimicides; Metalworking-fluid preservatives; Pest
control; Rodenticides; Avicides; Molluscicides; Piscicides; Insecticides, acaricides and products to control other arthropods; Repellents and attractants; Other biocidal
products; Preservatives for food or feedstocks; Antifouling products; Embalming and taxidermist fluids; Control of other vertebrates.
PCBs: Polychlorinated biphenyls PCTs: Polychlorinated terphenyl.

harmful chemicals and produce solid wastes which can be used as
by-products (EC, 1997a). The second method is related to the
treatment of wastewater and the environment-friendly handling
and processing of solid waste (EC, 1997b; c). The methods applied in
both groups can be used to prevent leather production with less
negative impact on the environment.
5.1. Low waste or cleaner technologies
The cleaner processing options need to be cost-effective in order
to be economically viable and the success of these technologies
depends on: (a) reduction of pollution in terms of quantity and
quality, (b) leather quality improvement and/or cost reduction, (c)
reproducibility of the process, (d) cost effectiveness to be
economically viable, and (e) wide market opportunities. A report by
Ludvik (2000) shows some possible options of reduction of pollu-
tion load during processing of bovine hides into chrome tanned
leathers by introducing advanced technologies based on low-waste
processing methods (Fig. 1).
The recycling and reuse of spent liquor after the removal of the
pollutants in leather processing provides better water management
(Parthasarathy, 1995). It has been suggested that ideally zero or
near-zero discharge of waste liquors should be encouraged (Sykes,
1997). Common salt or sodium chloride emerges largely from the
curing, pickling, and chrome tanning practices. Salt less or less-salt
curing may be an alternative to wet salting (Kanagaraj, 2005). Solar
drying, freeze drying or microwave/dielectric drying should be
considered (Komanowsky, 2000). Chemicals like potassium chlo-
ride, boraxephenol, boric acid, zinc chloride, silica gel and metal
oxinates can be used in place of sodium chloride (Bailey, 1995a;
Kanagaraj et al., 2000, 2005). Processing green hides and skins,
use of gamma and electron beam irradiation techniques and
transportation in refrigerated condition are some other options for
a better cleaner processing (Bailey, 1995b, 1999; Bailey et al., 2001).
Soaking requires 25% of the total water consumption in con-
ventional leather processing. But the chloride load is a hurdle in
recycling process as salt is not eliminated during physical, chemical
and biological treatment of waste water. The industrially proven

Fig. 1. Advanced technological options for leather processing.

44 S. Dixit et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 87 (2015) 39e49
methods for reducing chloride load have been recommended by
shaking the liquor in special drums (EC, 1997a); using wheel type
de-salting machines (Rao et al., 2001) and counter-current soaking
technique (Rao et al., 2003). Addition of environmentally accept-
able antiseptics or commercial chemical bactericides such as ethyl
dithiocarbamate and isothiazolin (Buljan, 1995; EC, 1997a), use of
sodium sulphate (Vankar and Dwivedi, 2009), processing green
hides (Frendrup, 1995; EC, 1997a) have also been suggested to
decrease the salt load. The recycling of spent floats in liming and
unhairing processes showed substantial decrease in sulphide (70%),
Ca(OH)2 (90%), BOD (7%) and COD (26%) load (Frendrup, 1995; EC,
1997a).
Sulphide-lime based unhairing and liming achieves a significant
decrease in both total solids and dissolved solids (Frendrup, 1995;
EC, 1997a). Enzymatic unhairing is an option for a clean beam
house process (Frendrup, 1995; Thanikaivelan et al., 2000a; Valeika
et al., 2012). Enzyme-assisted unhairing followed by reliming with
once used relimed liquor ensures complete reduction of water
(Thanikaivelan et al., 2000b; Shrewsbury, 2002). An economically
viable option based on enzymatic dehairing and pickle-less chrome
tanning can lead to 67% and 78% decrease in COD and total solids
(Aravindhan et al., 2007). Lime splitted hides save chromium and
other chemicals and the waste can be easily utilized as a by-product
(Frendrup, 1995; EC, 1997a). Ultrasound not only decrease the
waste but also yield better leather quality (Valeika et al., 2009;
Dettmer et al., 2013; Sivakumar et al., 2009).
A 97% decrease in ammonia load in effluents may be obtained by
using ammonia-free deliming and bating with commercial prod-
ucts such as acids, esters of carboxylic acids, non-swelling aromatic
acids (Frendrup, 1995; IUE, 2008). Carbon dioxide deliming in place
of ammonia decrease the pollution load of effluents to a significant
extent (Palon and Marsal, 2002; IUE, 2008; Manfred et al., 2012;
Gallego-Molina et al., 2013). Furthermore, it has been established
that deliming and bating can be effectively carried out as a floatless
operation without impairing any physical/chemical or grain char-
acteristics (John et al., 2001).
The spent pickle liquor contains high concentrations of neutral
salts (8e10%) and has an acidic pH (Chandrasekaran et al., 1989).
The options of salt less pickling pickle less chrome tanning and
pickle recycle are some solutions to overcome the problem (Pojer
and Huynh, 1999; Burrows, 2001). These recycle methods reduce
TDS of the effluent discharged from the identified stream
(Sundarapandiyan, 2010).
Conventional chrome tanning processes use only 40e70% of the
material (Warrier et al., 1995a, 1995b) and the disposal of the
remaining wastes is a cause of concern (Ramasami, 1996; Fela et al.,
2010). Intrinsically modified chrome tanning salts (Suresh et al.,
2001; Thanikaivelan et al., 2002), use of chromium syntan or oxa-
zolidine (Gupta and Babu, 2009; Morera et al., 2006;
Sundarapandivan, 2011), high exhaustion tanning process
(Frendrup, 1995; Covington, 1995; EC, 1997a), recycling/reuse
techniques ((Rao et al., 1999a, 2002) would invariably help in
increasing the chrome utilisation and decreases the chrome
discharge. The reuse of pickle liquor for the subsequent batches as
well as resorting to pickle free alumechrome combination for
tanning result in reduction of significant levels of TDS (Rao et al.,
2004; Burrows, 2001; Sivakumar et al., 2005). Use of Sargassum
seaweeds to remove chromium from tannery effluent and make use
of this seaweed in the manufacture of basic chromium salt as a
reductant is another option (Aravindhan et al., 2004). A combina-
tion between the chemical precipitation and the biological removal
of chromium from tanning wastewater may render the tanning
process eco-sustainable and environment friendly (Abdullah et al.,
2010). Chromiumesilica-, chromium iron, aluminiumezinc-,
chromiumezinc-, chromiumezincesilica-, zirconium oxychloride
and aluminiumetannic acidesilica- based tanning agents have
been developed (Thanikaivelan et al., 2000b; Madhan et al., 2001b,
2002, 2003; Fathima et al., 2003, 2004; Sunderarajan et al., 2003;
Krishnamoorthy et al., 2012) for reducing the chromium emis-
sion. The controlled incineration of tannery wastes in a starved air
thermal incinerator and solidifying the calcined waste resulting in
99.1% metal ion fixation is another alternative to reduce the chro-
mium burden on the environment (Sekaran et al., 2007). The tan-
nery wastes then can be used as fuel or nitrogenous source for
leguminous plants (Famielec and Wieczorek-Ciurowa, 2011; Lima
et al., 2010).
5.2. Solid waste treatment and management
The conventional disposal methods are not practicable for the
disposal of tanned leather wastes due to leaching of Cr3þ from the
tanned leather wastes to groundwater and conversion of Cr3þ to
Cr6þ; emissions of nitrogen oxide (NOx); generation of hydrogen
cyanide (HCN); Cr3þ and NH3 during incineration (Rai et al., 1989).
Less toxic soluble Cr6þ can be produced at low incineration tem-
peratures (300e600  C) (Rai et al., 1989). More promising results
can be achieved by integrating the active microflora to degrade the
low molecular weight compounds and further degradation of the
metabolites by anaerobic species (Beccari et al., 2002).
Anaerobic digestion of solid waste produce biogas nutrient
enriched effluents for agricultural purposes (Gnanamani and
Kasturi Bai, 1992; Dhayalan et al., 2007). During leather process-
ing, 850 kg of solid waste is produced per tonne raw hide and
150 kg is converted into leather, the remaining waste can be
recycled and utilized as a useful by product and raw materials
(Colak et al., 2005; Ahmad and Ansari, 2013). Hydrolysate of keratin
has been employed in chrome tanning, retanning and exhaustion
without altering the physical strength of leather (Chakraborty and
Sarkar, 1998). Fleshings have been explored for the possible utili-
zation into useful end products such as soap, bio diesel and fat li-
quor (Colak et al., 2005; Ravindranath and Gopalakrishnan, 2010).
Modified fleshing hydrolysate not only has better uptake capacity
of chromium in chrome tanning and rechroming (Kanagaraj et al.,
2001a) but also, leather obtained has better physical and organo-
leptic properties than conventionally produced method
(Kanagaraj et al., 2001b). Fleshings hydrolysed by pancreatic en-
zymes could be used as a feed formulation by mixing with other
feed ingredients (Kumaraguru et al., 1998).
Glue, gelatine, reconstituted collagen, adhesives, films and
chrome cake can be obtained from chrome tanned leather, splits,
buffing dusts and trimmings (Brown et al., 1996; Cot et al., 2003;
Cantera et al., 2000; Cantera, 2003; Taylor et al., 2002, 2003). A
new parchment-like material from chrome shavings has been
found to be useful in the manufacture of home furnishing products
(Sastry et al., 2005). The wet blue shavings completely digested by
alkali protease have been used for casein formulation in leather
finishing (Crispim and Mota, 2003). Chrome collagen residues have
been used for the production of regenerated leather and various
articles (Cot et al., 1986, 2003). Utilization of tannery waste as feed,
fertilizer or cosmetic additive is a step for zero solid waste
(Castilhos et al., 2002; Daudt et al., 2007; Gish, 2000; Konrad and
Castilhos, 2002; Lima et al., 2010). Utilising tannery waste as a
protein source for poultry feed is a step for zero solid waste (Paul
et al., 2013).
5.3. Treatment of waste water
Conventional tannery effluent treatment plants (ETPs) offer
physicochemical treatment followed by biological and tertiary
treatment to meet the standards (Rao et al., 1999b). Significant
 S. Dixit et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 87 (2015) 39e49 45

technological advancements are being made in the end-of-pipe
treatment methods to achieve higher efficiency in meeting the
standards in a cost-effective manner. The anaerobic treatment of
tanning waste water has included the application of technologies
based on lagoons, contact filter, up flow anaerobic sludge blanket
(UASB) reactor, and high-rate biomethanation (Rajamani et al.,
1995; Van Groenestijn et al., 1995; Ramasami and Sahasranaman,
2000; Lefebvre et al., 2006; El-Sheikh et al., 2011). Post treatment
methodologies for tannery waste-water from anaerobic bio-
digestion have included the use of aerators with and without the
aid of aerobic microorganisms (Farabegoli et al., 2004; Ganesh et al.,
2006). Membrane technologies such as activated carbon filters,
reed bed, root zone techniques, crossflow microfiltration, ultrafil-
tration and reverse osmosis methods are being utilized for
providing tertiary treatment of tannery waste water (Daniels, 1995;
Rajagopalan and Thimmapuram, 1997; Labanda et al., 2009;
Gallego-Molina et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2011). Membrane bio-
reactors are being used for the treatment of tannery waste water
against conventional activated sludge process (Suganthi et al.,
2013). The high-rate transpiration system and an accelerated
evaporation with crystallization of saline streams using flat-plate
collectors have emerged as a possible method or treating salt-
bearing tannery wastewaters (Rao et al., 2001; Buljan et al.,
2001). Studies have shown that respirometry combined with
sequencing batch reactor (SBR) may be an effective way for the
biodegradation of tannery waste water (Ganesh et al., 2006).
AOP treatment such as UV light, ozone (O3), photocatalytic
oxidation and their combination (Schrank et al., 2004, 2005; Costa
et al., 2008; Monteiro et al., 2009; Hoshyar et al., 2012) and Fenton
reagent (Schrank et al., 2005; Lofrano et al., 2010; Mo
denes et al.,
2012) have been used as pre-oxidation or post-oxidation of tan-
nery wastewater (Di Laconi et al., 2002, 2010). These treatments are
based on the principle of production and utilization of powerful
oxidants in a short time. An improved coagulation process by
Lofrano et al. (2007) gave an effective removal of toxic components
from tannery wastewater. Integrated waste water ponds and con-
structed wetlands (CWs) are other options studied for treatment of
tannery effluents (Tadesse et al., 2004; Calheiros et al., 2008, 2012).
Plants such as Arundo donax and Sarcocornia fruticosa in CWs can
remove up to 51e80% COD and 53e90% BOD from the tannery ef-
fluents (Calheiros et al., 2012). Recently, Dunn et al. (2013) has
showed the use of tannery effluent for growth medium of Artho-
spira (Spirulina) and retaining of chromium in wetlands with the
help of non-specialized media (Dotro et al., 2012).
casein top coats but also as a biocide. Finishing chemicals may
contain formaldehyde even when no formaldehyde was used for
production as many raw materials are preserved in formaldehyde
base. To overcome this problem use of formaldehyde scavengers
can be adopted as in the case of some Wet End Chemicals (Ram
Mohan et al., 2008). Inorganic heavy metal pigments like lead
chromate, cadmium sulphide and others can be replaced by organic
pigments or pigments from rare earth colorants which are free of
carcinogenic aryl amines (Sreram et al., 2009).
6. Conclusion
A critical review on the conventional leather processes and the
principles behind each step reveals that the bulk of the pollution
rests in pre-tanning and tanning processes, though post tanning
and finishing steps also pollute the environment. The pre-tanning
and tanning processes causes increase in COD, BOD, TDS, SS, chlo-
rides and sulphates in tannery effluents. The post-tanning pro-
cesses result in modifications in TDS, COD and heavy metal
pollution. The sludge generated from the tannery plants effect the
agro based activities and degrade the groundwater in the vicinity.
Substantial amount of volatile organic compounds are emitted
during tannery process and cause a threat to environment if not
controlled properly. The negative impact of tannery industry has
call attention to the need for green technology. The emergent green
technologies have been divided into two broad methods; (i) Low
waste or cleaner technologies that decrease the effluent pollution
load, avoid the use of harmful chemicals and produce solid wastes
that can be changed into useful by products (ii) treatment of
wastewater and the environment-friendly handling and processing
of solid waste.

5.4. Development of some eco-friendly chemicals for leather and

leather products

The consumer consciousness and strict regulations by the

worldwide authorities require leather products with the lowest
possible risk for the environment. The chemical industry has
accepted the challenge with the development of new eco-friendly
products. Phthalates used as nitrocellulose lacquer emulsions, can
be successfully replaced by castor oil which maintains the typical
lacquer emulsion properties like glossy touch, softness and elas-
ticity (Blach, 2004). Enzymes, amino acids or oxazolidine can be
used as an alternative in tanning processes (Kanth, 2009;
Krishnamoorthy et al., 2012; Sundarapandivan et al., 2011).
The ecological useful alternatives for nonyl phenol and nonyl
phenol ethoxylates are fat alcohol ethoxylates especially C12 and
C14, the combination of which can successfully replace nonyl
phenol ethoxylates (Tox-Ecology, 2002). As an alternative for the
solvent N-Methyl pyrrolidone (NMP), high wear top coat acrylics
being free of solvents have been advocated (Blach, 2004). Formal- Fig. 2. Environmental impact of leather industry and technologies to combat the
dehyde in leather finishing is not only used as a cross linker for threat.
46 S. Dixit et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 87 (2015) 39e49
The present paper highlighted the environmental impact of the
leather industry and technologies comprising of both advanced
cleaner methods and environment friendly waste management to
combat the threat (Fig. 2). Zero discharge of waste liquor, salt less
curing, enzymatic unhairing, CO2 deliming and salt less pickling are
some of the emerging technologies that are helpful in removing or
reducing xenobiotics from the tannery effluents. The chemical
precipitation or biological removal of chromium or the use of some
alternative chemicals in place of chromium is required for eco-
sustainable or eco-friendly tanning. These technologies come un-
der the low waste or cleaner technologies. The solid waste utili-
zation, chrome saving wastes, treatment of waste water by
membrane technologies, membrane bioreactors and advanced
oxidation processes and constructed wetlands are the options of
environment friendly waste management method. It is clear that a
combination of both cleaner and waste water management tech-
nologies has to be followed by the tanning industries to sustain the
ecology and the environment. These processes may have the
additional cost but have multiple benefits in terms of environ-
mental cleanup, improved labour productivity, material quality
consistency and better international image. Benefits will also
accrue for the people living in the vicinity of the beneficiary tan-
nery units and the working personnel. Though the steps presented
in the paper for cleaner technology in leather industry are quite
stringent, nonetheless, regulators shall have to adopt these in order
to safeguard the environment and human health.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Director, IITR, for his keen in-
terest in the present study. One of us AY is thankful to CSIR/UGC for
the award of Senior Research Fellowship. The manuscript is IITR
communication # 3249.
References
Abdulla, H.M., Kamal, E.M., Mohamed, A.H., El-Bassuony, A.D., 2010. Chromium
removal from tannery wastewater using chemical and biological techniques
aiming zero discharge of pollution. In: Proceeding of Fifth Scientific Environ-
mental Conference. Zagazig University, pp. 171e183.
Ahmad, J., Ansari, T.A., 2013. Alkaline protease production using proteinaceous
tannery solid waste. J. Pet. Environ. Biotechnol. 4, 1e4.
Aloy, M., Folachier, A., Vulliermet, B., 1976. Tannery & Pollution. Centre Technique
Du Cuir, Lyon, France.
Aravindhan, R., Madhan, B., Rao, J.R., Nair, B.U., Ramasami, T., 2004. Bioaccumulation
of chromium from tannery wastewater: an approach for chrome recovery and
reuse. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38, 300e306.
Aravindhan, R., Saravanabhavan, S., Thanikaivelan, P., Raghava Rao, J., Unni Nair, B.,
2007. A chemo-enzymatic pathway leads zero discharge tanning. J. Clean. Prod.
15, 1217e1227.
ATSDR., 2008. Toxicological Profile for Cadmium. Agency for Toxic Substances &
Disease Register.
Bailey, D.G., 1995a. Preservation of cattle hides with potassium chloride. J. Am.
Leather Chem. Assoc. 90, 13e20.
Bailey, D.G., 1995b. Ecological concepts in rawhide conservation (preservation).
World Leather 8, 43e47.
Bailey, D.G., 1999. Gamma radiation preservation on cattle hides. A new twist on an
old Story. J. Am. Leather Chem. Assoc. 94, 259e266.
Bailey, D.G., Tunick, M.K., Kuzma, M.A., 1982. Effect of sulfide, chromium and
phosphate ions on methane production by an anaerobic sludge acclamatised of
tannery beam house effluent. In: Proceedings of the 14th Industrial Waste Mid
Atlantic Conference.
Bailey, D.G., DiMaio, G.L., Gehring, A.G., Ross, G.D., 2001. Electron beam irradiation
preservation of cattle hides in a commercial-scale demonstration. J. Am. Leather
Chem. Assoc. 96, 382e392.
Balamurugan, K., Rajaram, R., Ramasami, T., Narayanan, S., 2002. Chromium (III)
induced apoptosis of lymphocytes: death decision by ROS & Src-family tyrosine
kinase. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 33, 1622e1640.
Beccari, M., Bonemazzi, F., Majone, M., Riccardi, C., 1996. Interaction between
acidogenesis and metanogenesis in the anaerobic treatment of olive oil mill
effluents. Water Res. 30, 183e189.
Beg, K.R., Ali, S., 2008. Chemical contaminants & toxicity of Ganga river sediment
from up & down stream area at Kanpur. Am. J. Environ. Sci. 4, 362e366.
Bienkiewicz, K., 1983. Physical Chemistry of Leather Making. Krieger Publishing,
Malabar, FL.
Blach, R., 2004. New Aspects in the Ecology of Leather Finishing. Leather Ag. e pp
91e93, Clariant (Deutchland) GmbH.
Bosnic, M., Buljan, J., Daniels, R.P., 2000. Pollutants in Tannery Effluents. Regional
Programme for Pollution Control in the Tanning Industry in South-East Asia,
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) [Internet]; [cited
2010 jan 02]. Available from: http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/import/userfiles/
puffk/hexavalent.pdf.
Brown, E.M., Taylor, M.M., Marmer, W.N., 1996. Production & potential uses of co-
products from solid tannery waste. J. Am. Leather Chem. Assoc. 91, 270e275.
Buljan, J., 1995. Raw hide, preservation, trade. In: Proceedings of the XXIII.
I.U.L.T.C.S.Congress, Friedrichshafen.
Buljan, J., Sahasranaman, A., Sampathkumar, S., Mani, A., Venkatesh, A., 2001.
Accelerated evaporation of saline streams in solar pans. In: Proceedings of the
XXVI IULTCS Congress, Cape Town.
Burrows, G.H., 2001. Clean technology in the processing of leather. In: Proceedings
of TheXXVI IULTCS Congress, Cape Town.
Calheiros, C.S.C., Rangel, A.O.S.S., Castro, P.M.L., 2008. Evaluation of different sub-
strates to support the growth of Typha latifolia in constructed wetlands treating
tannery wastewater over long-term operation. Bioresour. Technol. 99,
6866e6877.
Calheiros, C.S.C., Quite
rio, P.V.B., Silva, G., Crispim, L.F.C., Brix, H., Moura, S.C., et al.,
2012. Use of constructed wetland systems with Arundo and Sarcocornia for
polishing high salinity tannery wastewater. J. Environ. Manag. 95, 66e71.
Cantera, C.S., 2003. Adding value to chrome shavings: hydrolysates as retanning
materials. World Leather 16, 27e29.
Cantera, C., Goya, L., Mingo, R., 2000. Collagen hydrolysate: soluble skin applied in
post tanning process Part 1: characterization. J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem. 84,
29e36.
Castilhos, D.D., Tedesco, M.J., Vidor, C., 2002. Rendimentos de culturas e alteraçeoes
quíımicas do solo tratado com re
sduos de curtume e cromio hexavalente. Rev.
Bras. Ci^encia do Solo, Viçosa 26, 1083e1092.
Chagne, V., Silvestre, F., Gaset, A., 1996. Review of chrome tanning. Part 2. Leather 4,
77e84.
Chakraborty, S., Sarkar, S.K., 1998. Enzyme hydrolysis of solid tannery wastes: solid
estate enzyme production. J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem. 82, 56e58.
Chandrasekaran, B., Raghava Rao, J., Prasad, B.G.S., Nair, B.U., 1989. Management of
chromium wastes in tanneries. J. Ind. Assoc. Environ. Mgmt. 16, 168e173.
Colak, S., Zengin, G., Ozgunay, H., Sari, O., Sarikahya, H., Yuceer, L., 2005. Utilisation
of leather industry: prefleshings in biodiesel production. J. Am. Leather Chem.
Assoc. 100, 137e141.
Costa, C.R., Botta, C.M.R., Espindola, E.L.G., Olivi, P., 2008. Electrochemical treatment
of tannery wastewater using DSA® electrodes. J. Hazard. Mater. 153, 616e627.
Cot, J., Aramon, C., Baucells, M., Lacort, G., Roura, M., 1986. Waste processing in the
tannery. Production of gelatin, reconstituted collagen & glue from chrome-
tanned leather splits & trimmings subjected to modified detanning process.
J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem. 70, 69e76.
Cot, J., Marsal, A., Manich, A., Celma, P., Choque, R., Cabaza, L., Labastida, L., Lopez, J.,
Salmeron, J., 2003. Minimisation of industrial wastes: adding value to collagen
materials. J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem. 87, 97e99.
Covington, A.D., 1995. Chrome Management. The Scope for Decreasing Pollution
Load in Leather Processing. US/RAS/92/120/11e51. Regional Programme for
Pollution Control in the Tanning Industry in South-East Asia. United Nations
Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) [Internet]; [cited 2010 jan 02].
Available from: http://www.elaw.org/system/files/L_scope.pdf.
Crispim, A., Mota, M., 2003. Leather shavings treatment e an enzymatic approach.
J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem. 87, 203e207.
CSIRO., 2001. Salinity Reduction in Tannery Effluents in India & Australia. Project
Proposal to ACIAR by CSIRO Textile & Fibre Technology, Leather Research
Centre.
Daniels, R.P., 1995. Working with nature: reed bed technology. World Leather 8,
41e45.
Dasgupta, S., 1980. Some thoughts on standardisation of synthetic tanning mate-
rials. J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem. 64, 16e23.
Daudt, R.H.S., Gruszynski, C., Ka €mpf, A.N., 2007. The use of residues of wet blue
leather as a growing media component. Cienc. Rural. 37, 91e96.


Dettmer, A., Cavalli, E., Ayub, M.A.Z., Gutterres, M., 2013. Environmentally friendly
hide unhairing: enzymatic hide processing for the replacement of sodium
sulfide and deliming. J. Clean. Prod. 47, 11e18.
Dhayalan, K., Nishad Fathima, N., Gnanamani, A., Raghava Rao, J., Nair, B.U.,
Ramasami, T., 2007. Biodegradability of leathers through anaerobic pathway.
Waste Mgmt. 27, 760e767.
Di Laconi, C., Di Pinto, A.P., Ricco Tomei, M.C., 2002. Treatment options for tannery
wastewater I: integrated chemical & biological oxidation. Ann. Chim. 92,
531e539.
Di Laconi, C., Del Moro, G., De Sanctis, M., Rossetti, S., 2010. A chemically enhanced
biological process for lowering operative costs and solid residues of industrial
recalcitrant wastewater treatment. Water Res. 44, 3635e3644.
Dotro, G., Castro, S., Tujchneider, O., Piovano, N., Paris, M., Faggi, A., et al., 2012.
Performance of pilot-scale constructed wetlands for secondary treatment of
chromium-bearing tannery wastewaters. J. Hazard. Matter 142e151.
Dunn, K., Maart, B., Rose, P., 2013. Arthrospira (Spirulina) in tannery wastewaters.
Part 2: evaluation of tannery wastewater as production media for the mass
culture of Arthrospira biomass. Water SA 59, 279.
 S. Dixit et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 87 (2015) 39e49
EC., 1997a. IUE Recommendations on Cleaner Technologies for Leather Production.
Environmental Commission of I.U.L.T.C.S, London. Updated Document.
EC., 1997b. Typical Performance for Tannery Waste Water Treatment. Environ-
mental Commission of I.U.L.T.C.S, London.
EC., 1997c. IUE Recommendations for Solid by Product Management. Environmental
Commission of I.U.L.T.C.S, London.
ECHA., 2010. Candidate List of Substances of Very High Concern for Authorisation.
European Chemical Agency.
EcoLinks, 2001. Introduction of Low Pollution Processes in Leather Production
[Internet]; [cited 2010 jan 02]. Available from: http://archive.rec.org/ecolinks/
bestpractices/PDF/croatia_hdko.pdf.
El-Sheikh, Mahmoud, A., Saleh, Hazem, I., Flora, J.R., AbdEl-Ghany, Mahmoud, R.,
2011. Biological tannery wastewater treatment using two stage UASB reactors.
Desalination 276, 253e259.
EPA., 1982. Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines & Standards
for the Leather Tanning & Finishing Point Source Category. EPA-440/1-82-016.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC.
EPA., 1998. Prevention, Pesticides & Toxic Substances. United States Environmental
Protection Agency. EPA-738-F-98e008.
EPA., 2007. Ortho-phenylphenol (OPP) & Sodium Ortho-phenylphenate (SOPP) Risk
Characterization Document. Dietary Exposure Health Assessment Section,
Medical Toxicology Branch, Department of Pesticide Regulation, California,
Environmental Protection Agency.
EU., 1998. Directive 98/8/EC of the European Parliament & of the Council of 16
February 1998 Concerning the Placing of Biocidal Products on the Market.
EU., 2002. Directive 2002/61/EC of the European Parliament & of the Council of 19
July 2002 Amending for the Nineteenth Time Council Directive 76/769/EEC
Relating to Restrictions on the Marketing & Use of Certain Dangerous Sub-
stances & Preparations (Azo Colourants).
EU., 2003a. Commission Decision of 20 May 2003 Amending Decision 1999/815/EC
Concerning Measures Prohibiting the Placing on the Market of Toys & Childcare
Articles Intended to Be Placed in the Mouth by Children under Three Years of
Age Made of Soft PVC Containing Certain Phthalates.
EU., 2003b. Directive 2003/53/EC of the European Parliament & of the Council of 18
June 2003 Amending for the 26th Time Council Directive 76/769/EEC Relating
to Restrictions on the Marketing & Use of Certain Dangerous Substances &
Preparations (Nonyl Phenol, Nonyl Phenol Ethoxylate & Cement).
FAO., 2001. World Statistical Compendium for Raw Hides and Skins, Leather and
Leather Footwear 1982e2000. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, Rome.
Famielec, S., Wieczorek-Ciurowa, K., 2011. Waste from leather industry. Threats to
the environment. Tech. Transac. Chem. Ch-1, 108.
Farabegoli, G., Carucci, A., Majone, M., Rolle, E., 2004. Biological treatment of tan-
nery wastewater in the presence of chromium. J. Environ. Manag. 71, 345e349.
Fathima, N.N., Madhan, B., Rao, J.R., Nair, B.U., 2003. Mixed metal tanning using
chromeezincesilica: a new chrome-saver approach. J. Am. Leather Chem.
Assoc. 98, 139e146.
Fathima, N.N., Saravanabhavan, S., Rao, J.R., Nair, B.U., 2004. An eco-benign tanning
system using aluminium, tannic acid and silica combination. J. Am. Leather
Chem. Assoc. 99, 73e81.
Fela, K., Wieczorek-Ciurowa, K., Wozny, Z., Konopka, M., 2010. Koncepcja termicz-
nego unieszkodliwiania odpadow garbarskich. In: Jubileuszowa Miedzynar-
odowa Kinferencja Naukowa Nt. Jakosc I Innowacyjnosc W Inzynierii
Materialowej, Technologii I Budowie Maszyn, Zakopane 2010, Materialy Kin-
ferencyjne, pp. 85e88.
Frendrup, W., 1995. UNEP Cleaner Production Industrial Sector Guide. Leather In-
dustry, Taastrup.
Gallego-Molina, A., Mendoza-Roca, J.A., Aguado, D., Galiana-Aleixandre, M.V., 2013.
Reducing pollution from the delimingebating operation in a tannery. Waste-
water reuse by microfiltration membranes. Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 91, 369e376.
Ganesh, R., Balaji, G., Ramanujam, R.A., 2006. Biodegradation of tannery wastewater
using sequencing batch reactordrespirometric assessment. Bioresour. Technol.
97, 1815e1821.
Gish, A.J., 2000. Leather board, a practical use of tannery offal. J. Am. Leather Chem.
Assoc. 95, 43e47.
Gnanamani, A., Kasturi Bai, R., 1992. Influence of biodigested slurry on rice-gram
cultivation. Bioresour. Technol. 41, 217e221.
Gupta, S., Babu, B.V., 2009. Removal of toxic metal Cr(VI) from aqueous solutions
using sawdust as adsorbent: equilibrium, kinetics and regeneration studies.
Chem. Eng. J. 150, 352e365.
Hagerman, A.E. 1980. Ph.D. Thesis, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
Han, B., Jaurequi, J., Tang, B.W., Nimni, M.E., 2001. Proanthocyanidin: a natural cross
linking reagent for stabilizing collagen matrices. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A
65, 118e124.
Heidemann, E., 1993. Fundamentals of Leather Manufacture. Eduard Roether KG,
Darmstadt, Germany.
Hohreiter, D.W., Rigg, D.K., 2001. Derivation of ambient water quality criteria for
formaldehyde. Chemosphere 45, 471e486.
Houshyar, Z., Khoshfetrat, A.B., Fatehifar, E., 2012. Influence of ozonation process on
characteristics of pre-alkalized tannery effluents. Chem. Eng. J. 191, 59e65.
IARC., 2004. Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. In:
Inorganic & Organic Lead Compounds, vol. 87. International Agency for
Research on Cancer, pp. 10e17 [LID7420].
IL & Fs Environment, 2010. Technical EIA Guidance Manual for Leather/skin/hide
Processing Industry. Ministry of Environment and Forest. Government of India.
47
Islam, B.I., Musa, A.E., Ibrahim, E.H., Sharafa, S.A.A., Elfaki, B.M., 2014. Evaluation and
characterization of tannery wastewater. J. For. Prod. Ind. 3, 141e150.
ITC., 1999. Trade Analysis System on Personal Computer 1994e1998 SITC3. Interna-
tional Trade Centre UNCTAD/WTO, United Nations Statistics Division, Geneva.
IUE -1, 2008. IUE Recommendations on Cleaner Technologies for Leather Produc-
tion. Updated document, pp. 1e11.
Jerry, S., 2011. Environmental production and public health issues, 88. Leather, Fur
and Footwear. In: Michael, Mc Cann, Stellman, J.M. (Eds.), Encyclopaedia of
Occupational Health and Safety. International Labor Organization, Geneva.
John, S.V., Ramesh, R., Sambasiva Rao, P., Saravanan, P., Muralidharan, C.,
Sridharnath, D., 2001. J. Sci. Ind. Res. 60, 443e450.
Kanagaraj, J., Chandrababu, N.K., Sadulla, S., Rajkumar, G.S., Visalakshi, V.,
Chandrakumar, N., 2000. A new approach to less-salt preservation of raw skin/
hide. J. Am. Leather Chem. Assoc. 95, 368e374.
Kanagaraj, J., Rafiuddin Ahmd, M., John Sundar, V., Jayakumar, R., 2001a. Reactive
proteinoid in tanning process. Indian Pat 1063/DEL/2001.
Kanagaraj, J., Rafiuddin Ahmd, M., Samivelu, M., Jayakumar, R., 2001b. A process for
the preparation of a noval proteinoid-acrylate composite having molecular
weight in the range of 15000e20000D. Indian Pat 210/DEL/2001.
Kanagaraj, J., John Sundar, V., Muralidharan, C., Sadulla, S., 2005. Alternatives to
sodium chloride in prevention of skin protein degradationda case study.
J. Clean. Prod. 13, 825e831.
Kanth, S.V., Venba, R., Madhan, B., Chandrababu, N.K., Sadulla, S., 2009. Cleaner
tanning practices for tannery pollution abatement: role of enzymes in eco-
friendly vegetable tanning. J. Clean. Prod. 17, 507e515.
Kaul, S.N., Nandy, T., Vyas, R.D., Szpyrkowicz, L., 2001. Waste management in tan-
neries: experience & outlook. J. Ind. Ass. Environ. Mgmt 28, 56e76.
Khanna, S.K., Das, M., 1991. Toxicity, carcinogenic and clinico-epidemiological
studies on dyes and dye- intermediates. J. Sci. Ind. Res. 50, 965e974.
Komanowsky, M., 2000. Microwave drying of hides under vacuum. J. Am. Leather
Chem. Assoc. 95, 179e188.
Konrad, E.E., Castilhos, D.D., 2002. Alteraçeoes químicas do solo e crescimento do milho
decorrentes da adicçeao de lodos de curtume. Rev. Bras. Ci^encia, Viçosa 26, 257e265.
Krishnamoorthy, G., Sadulla, S., Sehgal, P.K., Mandal, A.B., 2012. Green chemistry
approaches to leather tanning process for making chrome-free leather by un-
natural amino acids. J. Hazard. Mater. 173e182.
Kumaraguru, S., Sastry, T.P., Rose, C., 1998. Hydrolysis of tannery fleshings using
pancreatic enzymes: a biotechnological tool for solid waste management. J. Am.
Leather Chem. Assoc. 93, 32e38.
Labanda, J., Khaidar, M.S., Llorens, J., 2009. Feasibility study on the recovery of
chromium (III) by polymer enhanced ultrafiltration. Desalination 249, 577e581.
Lefebvre, O., Vasudevan, N., Torrijosa, M., Thanasekaran, K., Moletta, R., 2006.
Anaerobic digestion of tannery soak liquor with an aerobic post-treatment.
Water Res. 40, 1492e1500.
Lima, D.Q., Oliveira, L.C.A., Bastos, A.R.R., Carvalho, G.S., Marques, J.G.S.M.,
Carvalho, J.G., de Souza, G.A., 2010. Leather industry solid waste as nitrogen
source for growth of common bean plants. App. Env. Soil Sci. 7.
Lofrano, G., Aydin, E., Russo, F., Guida, M., Belgiorno, V., Meric, S., 2007. Character-
ization, fluxes & toxicity of leather tanning Bath chemicals in a large tanning
district area (IT). Water Air Soil Pollut. Focus 8, 529e542.
Lofrano, G., Meriç, S., Inglese, M., Nikolaou, A.D., Belgiorno, V., 2010. Fenton oxidation
treatment of tannery wastewater and tanning agents: synthetic tannin and
nonylphenol ethoxylate based degreasing agent. Desalin. Water Treat. 23, 1e8.
Louis, E.D., Jurewicz, E.C., Applegate, L.K., Factor-Litvak, P., Parides, M., Rews, L.,
Slavkovich, V., Graziano, J.H., Carroll, S., Todd, A., 2003. Association between
essential tremor & blood lead concentration. Environ. Health Perspect. 111,
1707e1711.
Ludvik, J., 2000. The Scope for Decrease of Pollution Load in Leather Processing (US/
RAS/92/120/11e51). United Nations Industrial Development Organization e
Regional Programme for Pollution Control in the Tanning Industry in South-East
Asia, 2000-08-09. [Internet]; [cited 2010 jan 02]. Available from: http://www.
elaw.org/system/files/L_scope.pdf. Retrieved 2010-01-02.
Madhan, B., Jayakumar, R., Muralidharan, C., Gnanasekaran, C.S., 2001a. Improve-
ments in vegetable tanning- can acrylics be co-tanning agents. J. Am. Leather
Chem. Assoc. 96, 120e126.
Madhan, B., Rao, J.R., Nair, B.U., 2001b. Tanning salts based on mixed metal com-
plexes of aluminium and zinc. J. Am. Leather Chem. Assoc. 96, 343e349.
Madhan, B., Fathima, N.N., Rao, J.R., Nair, B.U., 2002. A new chromiumezinc tanning
agent: a viable option for less chrome technology. J. Am. Leather Chem. Assoc.
97, 189e196.
Madhan, B., Sundararajan, A., Rao, J.R., Nair, B.U., 2003. Studies on tanning with
zirconium oxychloride: part II, development of a versatile tanning system.
J. Am. Leather Chem. Assoc. 98, 107e114.
Maia, R.A.M., 1998. Clean technologies, targets already achieved & trends for the
coming years. J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem. 82, 111e113.
Manfred, R., Eckhard, W., Bjo €rn, J., Helmut, G., 2012. Free of water tanning using CO2
as process additived an overview on the process development. J. Supercrit.
Fluids 66, 291e296.
Marsal, A., Cot, J., Boza, E.G., Celma, P.J., Manich, A.M., 1999. Oxidizing unhairing
process with hair recovery. Part I: experiments on the prior hair immunization.
J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem. 83, 310e315.
Mo
denes, A.N., Espinoza-Quin ~ ones, F.R., Borba, F.H., Manenti, D.R., 2012. Perfor-
mance evaluation of an integrated photo-Fenton e Electrocoagulation process
applied to pollutant removal from tannery effluent in batch system. Chem. Eng.
J. 197, 1e9.
48 S. Dixit et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 87 (2015) 39e49
Money, C.A., 2008. Salinity Reduction in Tannery Effluents in India & Australia. final
report on project AS1/2001/005. ACIAR, Canberra.
Monitor, The, 2009. Uganda: Leather Factory Faces Closure over Pollution
[Internet]; [cited 2010 jan 02]. Available from: http://allafrica.com/stories/
200911050279.html.
Paschoal, F.M.M., Anderson, Marc, A., Zanon, M.V., 2009. Simultaneous removal of
chromium and leather dye from simulated tannery effluent by photo-
electrochemistry. J. Hazard. Mater. 166, 531e537.
Montgomery, K.C., 1987. Alternatives to chromium tanning. Part III: effect of organic
acid anions on aluminium sulphate tannage of collagen. J. Soc. Leather Technol.
Chem. 71, 59e67.
Morera, J.M., Bacardit, A., Olle, L., Costa, J., 2006. Study of a chrome tanning process
without float and with low-salt content compared to a traditional process. Part
II. J. Am. Leather Chem. Assoc. 101, 454e460.
Mwinyihija, M., 2010. Ecotoxicological Diagnosis in the Tanning Industry. Springer
Publisher, New York, USA.
Mwinyihija, M., 2012. Pollution control and remediation of the tanning effluent.
Open Environ. Pollut. Toxicol. J 3, 55e64.
Nazer, D.W., Al-Sa’, R.M., Siebel, M.A., 2006. Reducing the environmental impact of
the unhairinge liming process in the leather tanning industry. J. Clean. Prod. 14,
65e74.
OEHHA., 2001. Chemical Listed Effective June 15, 2001 as Known to the State to
Cause Reproductive Toxicity: N-methylpyrrolidone. Office of Environmental
Health Hazard Assessment. California Environmental Protection Agency.
Omura, M., Ogata, R., Kubo, K., Shimasaki, S., Aou, S., Oshima, A., Tanaka, A.,
Hirata, M., Makita, Y., Inoue, N., 2001. Two-generation reproductive toxicity
study of Tributyltin chloride in male rats. Toxicol. Sci. 64, 224e232.
Palon, P., Marsal, A., 2002. Auxiliary agents with non-swelling capacity used in
pickling/tanning processes. Part I. J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem. 86, 139e142.
Parthasarathy, K., 1995. Water management in tanneries. In: International Confer-
ence on Water ManagementdWater 95, Madras.
Paul, H., Antunes, A.P.M., Covington, A.D., Evans, P., Phillips, P.S., 2013. Towards Zero
Solid Waste: Utilizing Tannery Waste as a Protein Source for Poultry Feed. Paper
presented to: 28th International Conference on Solid Waste Technology and
Management, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 10e13 March 2013. Philadelphia USA: The
Journal of Solid Waste Technology and Management.
Pojer, P.M., Huynh, C.P., 1999. A salt free pickling regime for hides and skins. In:
Science and Technology for Leather into the Next Millennium. Tata McGraw-
Hill, New Delhi, pp. 308e313.
Pollution Prevention & Abatement Handbook, 1998. Environmental Guidelines for
Tanning & Leather Finishing. Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency, World
Bank Group [Internet]; [cited 2010 jan 02]. Available from: http://www.miga.
org/documents/Tanning&LeatherFinishing.pdf.
Rai, D., Eary, L.E., Zachara, J.M., 1989. Environmental chemistry of chromium. Sci.
Total Environ. 86, 15e23.
Rajagopalan, N., Thimmapuram, P., 1997. Innovative technologies for a cleaner
environment: opportunities in the leather industry. In: Proceedings of the 32nd
LERIG, Chennai, pp. 62e85.
Rajamani, S., Suthanthararajan, R., Ravindranath, E., Mulder, A., van
Groenestijn, J.W., Langerwerf, J.S.A., 1995. Treatment of tannery wastewater
using up flow anaerobic sludge blanket system (UASB). In: Proceedings of the
30th LERIG, Chennai, pp. 57e66.
Ram Mohan, C., Saravanabhava, S., Thanikaivelan, P., Raghava Rao, J., Nair, B.U.,
2008. Development of formaldehyde-free leathers in the perspective of retan-
ning: part II. Combination of formaldehyde-free retanning syntans. Clean.
Technol. Environ. Policy 10, 287e294.
Ramasami, T., 1996. Greening of chrome tanning in Indian leather industry. ILIFO J.
Clean. Tann. 1, 12e14.
Ramasami, T., Prasad, B.G.S., 1991. Environmental aspects of leather processing. In:
Proceedings of the LEXPOeXV. Calcutta, India.
Ramasami, T., Sahasranaman, A., 2000. Biomethanation of fleshings and sludge
from tannery and effluent treatment plants. World Leather 13, 38.
Ramcahandani, S., Das, M., Khanna, S.K., 1994. Effect of Metanil yellow, Orange II
and their blend on hepatic xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes in rats. Food
Chem. Toxicol. 32, 559e563.
Rao, J.R., Nair, B.U., Ramasami, T., 1997. Isolation & characterization of a low affinity
chromium (III) complex in chrome tanning solutions. J. Soc. Leather Technol.
Chem. 81, 234e238.
Rao, J.R., Sreeram, K.J., Nair, B.U., Ramasami, T., 1999a. Some strategies towards mitiga-
tion of pollution from tanneries: a review. In: Goel, P.K. (Ed.), Advances in Waste-
water Treatment Technologies. Technoscience Publications, Jaipur, pp. 135e152.
Rao, R.J., Rajamani, S., Chandrababu, N.K., Rao, P.S., Ramesh, R., Suthanthararajan, R.,
Nair, B.U., Nair, K.M., Warrier, K.G.K., Ramsami, T., Langerwerf, J.S.A., 1999b.
Surveillance of chromium in tanning: a revisit. In: Science & Technology for
Leather into the Next Millennium. Proceedings of the XXV IULTCS Congress.
McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, pp. 295e301.
Rao, J.R., Ramasami, T., Sahasranaman, A., Hashim, M.M., Ahmed, M.R., 2001. Doe-
cology solutions for leather sector: technology initiatives. In: Regional IULTCS
Conference of South and South East Asian Countries on Leather and Allied
Technologies, Kolkata.
Rao, J.R., Chandrasekaran, B., Nair, B.U., Ramasami, T., 2002. Eco-benign manage-
ment options for cleaner chrome tanning. J. Sci. Ind. Res. 61, 912e926.
Rao, J.R., Chandrababu, N.K., Muralidharan, C., Nair, B.U., Rao, P.G., Ramasami, T.,
2003. Recouping the wastewater: a way forward for cleaner leather processing.
J. Clean. Prod. 11, 591e599.
Rao, J.R., Kanthimathi, M., Thanikaivelan, P., Sreram, K.J., Ramesh, R.,
Ramalingam, S., Chandrababu, N.K., Nair, B.U., Ramasami, T., 2004. Pickle-free
chrome tanning using apolymeric synthetic tanning agent for cleaner leather
processing. Clean. Technol. Environ. Policy 6, 243e249.
Ravindranath, E., Gopalakrishnan, A.N., 2010. Enhancement of biomethanization by
pretreatment of limed fleshings from tanneries. J. Sci. Ind. Res. 69, 711e716.
Sahasranaman, A., Jackson, M., 2005. Salinity Reduction in Tannery Effluents in
India & Australia: Project Review. ACIAR, Canberra.
Sastry, T.P., Sehgal, R.K., Ramasami, T., 2005. Value added eco-friendly products
from tannery solid wastes. J. Environ. Sci. Eng. 47, 250e255.
Schilling, K., Ulrike, B., Helmut, K., Zessner, M., 2012. Adapting the Austrian Edict on
wastewater emissions for tanneries as consequence of foam formation on
surface waters. Environ. Sci. Pol. 23, 68e73.
Schrank, S.G., Jose
, H.J., Moreira, R.F.P.M., Schroder, H.Fr, 2004. Elucidation of the
behavior of tannery wastewater under advanced oxidation conditions. Che-
mosphere 56, 411e423.
Schrank, S.G., Jose
, H.J., Moreira, R.F.P.M., Schroder, H. Fr, 2005. Applicability of
Fenton & H2O2/UV reactions in the treatment of tannery wastewaters. Che-
mosphere 60, 644e655.
Sekaran, G., Swarnalatha, S., Srinivasulu, T., 2007. Solid waste management in
leather sector. J. Des. Manufac. Technol. 1, 47e52.
Serra, A., Cot, J., Gregori, J., Satorres, J., Bastoli, E., Robert, A., 1991. Carbonyl com-
pounds in tanning process. AQEIC Boletin Tec. 42, 246e257.
Shakir, L., Ejaz, S., Ashraf, M., Aziz Qureshi, N., Ahmad Anjum, A., Iltaf, I., et al., 2012.
Ecotoxicological risks associated with tannery effluent wastewater. Environ.
Toxicol. Pharmacol. 34, 180e191.
Shrewsbury, C., 2002. Biotechnology for improved product quality. World Leather
Febr. 40e42.
Shrivastava, H.Y., Nair, B.U., 2001. Chromium (III) mediated structural modification
of glycoprotein: impact of the ligand and the oxidants. Biochem. Biophys. Res.
Commun. 285, 915e920.
Simoncini, A., Sammarco, U., 1995. The possibility of reducing the CODs deriving
from the fatliquoring of the softy leathers in residual baths. In: Proceedings of
the XXIII IULTCS Congress: Germany.
Singh, M., Muller, G., Singh, I.B., 2003. Geogenic distribution & baseline concentration of
heavy metals in sediments of the Ganges River. India. J. Geochem. Explor 80, 1e17.
Siqueira, I.R., Vanzella, C., Bianchetti, P., Siqueira Rodrigues, M.A., Stülp, S., 2011.
Anxiety-like behavior in mice exposed to tannery wastewater: the effect of
photoelectrooxidation treatment. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 33, 481e484.
Sivakumar, V., John Sundar, V., Rangasamy, T., Murlidharan, C., Swaminathan, G.,
2005. Management of total dissolved solids in tanning process through
improved techniques. J. Clean. Prod. 13, 699e703.
Sivakumar, V., Swaminathan, G., Rao, P.G., Ramasami, T., 2009. Sono-leather tech-
nology with ultrasound: a boon for unit operations in leather processingdre-
view of our research work at Central Leather Research Institute (CLRI), India.
Ultrason. Sonochem. 16, 116e119.
Sivakumar, V., Swaminathan, G., Rao, P.G., Muralidharan, C., Mandal, A.B.,
Ramasami, T., 2010. Use of ultrasound in leather processing Industry: effect of
sonication on substrate and substances e new insights. Ultrason. Sonochem. 17,
1054e1059.
Sreram, K.J., Raghav Rao, J., Nair, B.U., 2009. Leather Pigment: towards a Cleaner
Greener Approach. Central Leather Research Institute (CSIR), Chennai, India.
Streicher, V.R., 1987. Entkaa €lkung mit ammoniumsalzfreien Entkaa €lkungsmitteln.
Leder u Hautemarkt 39, 7e12.
Suganthi, K.V., Mahalaksmi, M., Balasubramanian, 2013. Development of hybrid
membrane bioreactor for tannery effluent treatment. Desalination 309,
231e236.
Sundarapandiyan, S., Chandrasekar, R., Ramanaiah, B., Krishnan, S., Saravanan, P.,
2010. Electrochemical oxidation and reuse of tannery saline wastewater.
J. Hazard. Mater. 180, 197e203.
Sundarapandiyan, S., Brutto, P.E., Siddhartha, G., Ramesh, R., Ramanaiah, B.,
Saravanan, P., et al., 2011. Enhancement of chromium uptake in tanning using
oxazolidine. J. Hazard. Mater. 190, 802e809.
Sundararajan, A., Madhan, B., Rao, J.R., Nair, B.U., 2003. Studies on tanning with
zirconium oxychloride: part I standardization of tanning process. J. Am. Leather
Chem. Assoc. 98, 101e106.
Suresh, V., Kanthimathi, M., Thanikaivelan, P., Rao Raghava, J., Nair, B.U., 2001. An
improved product process for cleaner chrome tanning in leather processing.
J. Clean. Prod. 9, 483e491.
Sykes, R., 1997. Zero emissionsdPattern for the future? Leather 2, 35e38.
Tadesse, I., Green, F.B., Puhakka, J.A., 2004. Seasonal and diurnal variations of
temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen in advanced integrated wastewater
pond system® treating tannery effluent. Water Res. 38, 645e654.
Takenouchi, K., Kondo, K., Nakamura, F., 1997. Composition of complexes in citrate
masked aluminium solutions & their affinity for collagen. In: Proceedings of the
Centenary IULTCS Congress (London), pp. 500e510.
Tare, V., Yadav, A.V.S., Bose, P., 2003. Analysis of photosynthetic activity in the most
polluted stretch of river Ganga. Water Res. 37, 67e77.
Taylor, M.M., Liu, C.K., Latona, N., Marmer, W.N., Brown, E.M., 2002. Enzymatic
modification of hydrolysis products from collagen using a microbial trans-
glutamase II, preparation of films. J. Am. Leather Chem. Assoc. 71, 225e233.
Taylor, M.M., Liu, C.K., Marmer, W.N., Brown, E.M., 2003. Enzymatic modification of
hydrolysis products from collagen using a microbial transglutamase III, prepa-
ration of films with improved mechanical properties. J. Am. Leather Chem.
Assoc. 98, 435e444.
 S. Dixit et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 87 (2015) 39e49
Telecon, A.M., 1996. Midwest research Institute, with F. Rutl &, environmental
Consultant, Leather Industries of America.
Thanikaivelan, P., Rao, J.R., Nair, B.U., 2000a. Development of leather processing
method in narrow pH profile. Part 1: standardization of dehairing process.
J. Soc. Leather Technol. Chem. 84, 276e284.
Thanikaivelan, P., Geeta, V., Rao, J.R., Sreeram, K.J., Nair, B.U., 2000b. A novel
chomiume iron tanning agent: cross fertilization in solo tannage. J. Soc. Leather
Technol. Chem. 84, 82e87.
Thanikaivelan, P., Kanthimathi, M., Rao, J.R., Nair, B.U., 2002. A novel formaldehyde
free synthetic chrome tanning agent for pickle-less chrome tanning: compar-
ative study on syntan versus modified basic chromium sulfate. J. Am. Leather
Chem. Assoc. 97, 127e136.
Tox-Ecology, 2002. Alternatives to Nonylphenol Ethoxylates: Review of Toxicity,
Biodegradation, & Technical-economic Aspects. Final Report. Prepared for
Environment Canada by Tox Ecology. Environmental Consulting Ltd., Vancou-
ver, BC. V5Y 1Z5.
UK REACH, 2009. REACH - Substances of Very High Concern. UK REACH Competent
Authority Information Leaflet Number 12.
Valeika, V., Beleska, K., Valeikiene,
_ V., Kolodzeiskis, V., 2009. An approach to cleaner
production: from hair burning to hair saving using a lime-free unhairing sys-
tem. J. Clean. Prod. 17, 214e221.
Valeika, V., Beleska, K., Sirvaityte, J., 2012. Alkali-free method of hide preparation for
tanning. Braz. J. Chem. Eng. 29, 315e323.
49
Van Groenestijn, J.W., Mariappan, M., Sekaran, G., Rajamani, S., 1995. Evaluation of
performance of lagooning systems for tannery effluent treatment in South In-
dia. In: Proceedings of the 30th LERIG, Chennai, pp. 10e22.
Vankar, P.S., Dwivedi, A., 2009. Sulphates for skin preservationdA novel approach
to reduce tannery effluent salinity hazards. J. Hazard. Mater. 163, 207e212.
Wang, X., Sun, C., Wang, Y., Wang, L., 2002. Quantitative structureeactivity re-
lationships for the inhibition toxicity to root elongation of Cucumis sativus of
selected phenols & interspecies correlation with Terahymena pyriformis. Che-
mosphere 46, 153e161.
Wang, H., Wang, Y., Zhou, L., 2011. Purification and recycling of tannery degreasing
wastewater by ultrafiltration with polyimide membrane. In: International
Conference on Remote Sensing, Environment and Transportation Engineering
(RSETE).China.
Warrier, K.G.K., Nair, K.M., Damodaran, A.D., de Vries, A.H., van der Zwan, J.,
Prasad, B.G.S., Nair, B.U., Venba, R., Mahadevan, T.S.K., Ramasami, T., 1995a. Safe
utilization of chrome containing sludges in brick making. In: Proceedings of the
XXIII IULTCS Congress, Germany.
Warrier, K.G.K., Nair, K.M., Perumal, P., Mukundan, P., Damodaran, A.D., de
Vries, A.H., van Der Zwan, J., Ramasami, T., Prasad, B.G.S., 1995b. Effective
disposal of tannery sludge as admixture to building bricks. In: Proceedings of
the 30th LERIG, Chennai, pp. 84e95.
Wojdasiewicz, W., Szumowska, K., Skornicki, W., Przybylski, A., 1992. Tanning with
hides to the wet white stages. J. Am. Leather Chem. Assoc. 87, 121.