Harappa Environment

During this period, the climate of the region was moist with humid land; dense forests grew where animals like
tiger, elephants and rhinoceros roamed. The forests provided timber for brick kilns, which supplied bricks to the
cities.

Date of Harappan Culture

This civilization belonged to the Chalcolithic period. In this age, a new metal called bronze by mixing tin and
copper came to be produced. It was harder and better suited to meet the needs of the people. The better tools led
to intensive cultivation. Iron was not known to the Indus Valley people. According to Sir John Marshall, the Hindus
Valley Civilization may be dated between 3250 B.C. arid 2750 B.C.
Extent
The Harappan culture spread to Sindh, Gujarat. Undivided Punjab (including Harayana), Jammu,
Western parts of Uttar Pradesh and Northern parts of Rajasthan (Kalibangan). The remains found in
these places are similar to those found in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
Contacts with other civilizations in Harappa
The indus Valley people had overseas trade contacts with Sumeria, Babylonia and Egypt,
Thus India ranks with the ancient Western cultures of Burner, Akkad, Babylon, Egypt and
Assyria.
Planned Cities in Harappa
Mohenjo and Harappa were the planned cities. They were the two biggest cities, 600 km apart.
They had similar planning, layout and technique in construction. They were probably the twin
capitals. Mohenjo-daro, means ‘the mound of the dead’.
The city of Mohenjo-dato could be divided into three parts-the Citadel, the lower town arid the small
huts on the outer limits of the city.
The Citadel in Harappa
It was the raised part of the city. It has often been described as a fort or administrative block. People
might have lived here. The ruling classes included priests and wealthy merchants. The citadel had
massive walls. Those walls provided protection against the floods of the Indus river. The citadel
consisted of important buildings like the Granary and the Assembly or Town Halls, We also come across
the Great Bath here.

The Great Bath

it was situated in the citadel, it measures 1.88 meters X 7.01 meters and is 2.43 meters deep. It had
two flights or steps on oTher side, It was made of burnt bricks and mortar, it was provided with two
openings one at the top (to let in water) and the other a the bottom (used as an outlet), The idea was to
clean the Bath periodically. 1”here were small rooms around tile Bath. They were probably used as
dress changing rooms. One of the rooms contained a big well.
The Granary in harappa
In Mohenjo-daro the arqost building is the Granary. It s 45,71 meters long and 15.23 meters
wide. InHarappa there were 6 granaries. To the sooth of the granaries, there were circular brick
platforms. They were meant for threshing grain.
Town Hall in Harappa
The Town Hall is an imposing structure with 69 meters long arid 23.4 meters wide. The thickness of the
walls varied from 1.2 to 1.5 meters. lt might have been used as an administrative block, an
assembly hall, a prayer hall, or as a hall for cultural shows.
Lower Town in Harappa
Below the citadel laid a lower town. It was inhabited by petty merchants and craftsmen. This town was
divided into rectangular blocks by wide roads. The roads run from north to south and east to west.
These roads cut each other at right angles. Here, the remains of brick houses can be seen. The drainage
system is praiseworthy. Provision was made for street lighting.
 Harappan Houses
The houses were one or two storey high. All the houses were made of baked bricks of uniform size.
Every house had two or more rooms, a bath-room, a kitchen and a courtyard. The houses were also
provided with doors and small windows The grinding stones were found close to the hearth

Drainage System in Harappa

The kitchen and the bathroom had drains leading out. The main drain was running alongside the main
roads. The drains were lined with bricks. Most of them were covered. There were flights of steps leading
to drains. The drains were cleaned periodically.

Occupations of the people in Harappa

The Indus people were farmers, weavers, potters, metal workers, toy makers, jewelers, stone cutters
and traders Agriculture was the most important occupation In the fertile soils, farmers cultivated two
crops a year They were the first who had grown paddy They knew different methods of irrigation. They
used ploughs and sickles Pottery was a popular industry. They were skilled in the use of potter’s wheel.

Animal Husbandry in Harappa

The Indus people had domesticated a number of animals such as oxen, buffaloes, goats,
sheep, pigs, asses and camels.
Spinning and Weaving in Harappa
The Indus people were skilled in the art of spinning and weaving. They manufactured woollen cloth from
sheep and goats’ hair.

Toy-making and sculptures in Harappa

Manufacture of terracotta (burnt clay) was a major industry of the people. The figures of toys, animals
and figurines were manufactured. A miniature toy-cart with a driver pulled by oxen is praiseworthy.
Figures of animals such as sacred bull and dove were discovered. The figures of Mother Goddesses were
used for religious purposes

Seal-making in Harappa
A large number of seals numbering more than 2000 have been discovered. They carry short inscriptions
with carved pictures of animals. The seals were made of terracotta or satellite. They were used
for trade. They have provided lot of information about the daily life of the people, their religion,
occupations, customs and trade.
Building Industry in Harappa
In building industry, large number of people were employed Manufacture of bricks was an important
industry. The bricks were more or less of an uniform size.

Trade in Harappa
The lndus people had engaged themselves in internal and foreign trade The Mesopotamian seals were
found in Indus cities and the Indus seals were found in Mesopotamia. Remains of dockyard have
been discovered at Lethal in Gujarat. In this dockyard, the ships might have been loaded and
unloaded. Thus, the Hindus people were familiar with ships. The merchants were prosperous and lived
lavishly. They used sticks with marks to measure articles. They also used various kinds of weights and
measures.
Political Organization in Harappa
The city was well administered by a class of wealthy merchants and priests. There was some kind of
municipal organization It took care of sanitation and regulated trade. It collected taxes in the form of
grains and also maintained law and order in the city

Social Life in Harappa

There were three social groups. The first group or the ruling class lived in the citadel It comprised of
wealthy merchants and the high priests. They second group consisted of petty merchants, artisans arid
craftsmen. The laborers belonged to the third group and lived in small huts. Generally speaking, the
social organization was more definite

Life of the People in Harappa

The Indus people led prosperous life. They had more time for leisure. There was a very big improvement
in their food habits, dress and amusements.

Food in Harappa
Wheat and barley were the staple food of the people. Besides these, they consumed milk, meat, fish,
fruits and dates.

Dress and Ornaments in Harappa

The women wore a short skirt. It. was held at the waist with a girdle. The men wore a long,
looseunstitched garment Women wore necklaces bangles, bracelets, earrings and waist
bands. These were made of gold and silver, bone, stone, ivory and she! Men had also adorned
themselves with ornaments like armlets. The rich wore gold and silver jewelry. The poor used shell,
copper and silver ornaments. The women combed their hair.
Indus Script in Harappa
Indus Script Most of the inscriptions were engraved on seals They contain only a few words They
developed picture writing (Pictographs,,). Altogether about 250 to 400 pictographs were discovered. It is
interesting to note that the Indus script has not yet been deciphered.

Religious Life in Harappa

The Papal tree was used as a religious symbol. They worshipped Pasupathi (Siva) and Mother
GoddessMother Goddess represented fertility. There are no temple structures among the remains. The
Indus people believed in life after death. They buried their dead in huge earthen pots along with food
and ornaments. The articles used by them in then’ daily life were also kept in those pots.
Decline of the Indus Civilization
The Indus Civilization was at its peak for about 500 years They lived in the same kind of houses, used
the same tools and ate the same food. The city (Mohenjo-daro) was destroyed for a number of
times and it was built again and again. The exact causes for the destruction of this great
civilization are not known. The cities might have been destroyed by natural disasters like earthquakes,
floods or a change in the course of the Indus. The cities declined owing to Aryan invasions also.
Deforestation was another cause for the destruction of this civilization

The Harappan did not know the use of iron.

Sutra (Buddhism)
The Sutras (Sanskrit; Pali Sutta) are mostly discourses attributed to the Buddha or one of
his close disciples. They are all, even those not actually spoken by him, considered to be
'Buddhavacana' or the word of the Buddha, just as in the case of all canonical literature. The Buddha's
discourses were perhaps originally organised according to the style in which they were delivered; there
were originally nine, but later twelve, of these.
The Sanskrit forms are:
• Sūtra: prose discourses, especially short declarative discourses.
• Geya: mixed prose and verse discourse. Identified with the Sagāthāvagga of the Saṁyutta
Nikāya
• Vyākarana: explanation, analysis. Discourses in question and answer format.
• Gāthā: verse
• Udāna: inspired speech
• Ityukta: beginning with 'thus has the Bhagavan said'
 • Jātaka: story of previous life
• Abhutadharma: concerning wonders and miraculous events
• Vaipulya either 'extended discourses' or 'those giving joy' (cf Mahayana Texts)
• Nidāna: in which the teachings are set within their circumstances of origin
• Avadāna: tales of exploits
• Upadesha: defined and considered instructions

Jain Agamas
Agamas are canonical texts of Jainism based on Mahavira’s teachings. Mahavira’s preaching were orally
compiled by his disciples into various Sutras (texts) which were collectively called Jain canonical or
Agamic literature. Traditionally these sutras were orally passed on from teachers (acaryas or gurus) to
the disciples for several centuries. The scholars date the composition of Jain agamas at around 6th to
3rd century BCE.
The Agamas were composed of the following forty-five texts:
• Twelve Angās
• Twelve Upanga āgamas (Texts that provide further explanation of Angās)
• Six Chedasūtras (Texts relating to the conduct and behaviour of monks and nuns)
• Four Mūlasūtras (Scriptures which provide a base in the earlier stages of the monkhood)
o Daśavaikālika
o Uttarādhyayana
o Āvaśyaka
o Pindaniryukyti
• Ten Prakīrnaka sūtras (Texts on Independent or miscellaneous subjects)
• Two Cūlikasūtras (The scriptures which further enhance or decorate the meaning of Angas)

Bhagavatī Sūtra
Bhagwati Sutra gives the valuable information about the life of Bhagwan MAHAVIRA
The Jain Scripture Bhagavatī Sūtra (Bh.S.) occupies probably the foremost position if we set out to enlist
books with ample possibilities of the study of philosophy and science.
Though the basic object of the Bh.S. is to explore the subtle mysteries of philosophy and spirituality, yet
at many places there are significant scientific discourses. For example, the Bh.S. describes cosmology,
matter,space, time, the medium of motion and the medium of rest, velocity, energy black hole etc. All
these pertain to Physics and have been treated quite at length.

Rig Veda
Rig Veda is regarded as the book of Mantra and it possesses the oldest kind of the Sanskrit
mantras. It was composed by giving stress on the pronunciation of each letter thus giving a particular
meaning and power to each of the letters in it. A majority of the facets of Vedic science including
mantra, meditation, yoga and Ayurveda are there in Rig Veda which is still in use.
The central history of the Rigveda is that of Indra slaying Vritra (literally "the obstacle"),
liberating the rivers; in a variant of the myth, Indra smashes the stone Vala, liberating the cows that
were imprisoned within. Rivers and cows are often compared or mythically identified in the Rigveda, for
example in 3.33, a notable hymn describing the crossing of two swollen rivers by the cars of

the Bharata tribe,

Richas refers to a shloka or couplet or mantra, usually two to four sentences long, found in the
Hindu religious scriptures, in the Rig Vedas. The origin of Richas is the Sanskrit word which means to
praise. Richa can also refer to a verbal composition of celestial sounds called "Shrutis". The Gayatri
Mantra is a Richa as well. Richas were recited by the priests or Brahnins.
There are 1058 rhichas in Rig Veda
Yajurveda
The Yajurveda literature is divided into the White (Shukla) and the Black (Krishna) Yajurveda literature,
and the latter is divided into four Branches (Shakas), the most important of which is the Taittiriya Shaka.

Shukla Yajurveda
There are two (nearly identical) shakhas or recensions of the Shukla (White) Yajurveda, both known
asVajasaneyi-Samhita (VS):
• Vajasaneyi Madhyandiniya (VSM), originally of Bihar
• Vajasaneyi Kanva of originally of Kosala (VSK)

Krishna Yajurveda
There are four recensions of the Krishna ("black") Yajurveda:
• Taittirīya saṃhita (TS) originally of Panchala
• Maitrayani saṃhita (MS) originally of the area south of Kurukshetra
• Caraka-Katha saṃhita (KS) originally of Madra and Kurukshetra
• Kapiṣṭhala-Katha saṃhita (KapS) of the southern Panjab, Bahika
Brahaman who gave an account of agricultural operations for a
season--Sapatha

Pashupat
Lakulish is the founder of this sect. He established this sect in the 2nd century B.C.

Comparison between Pashupat and some other Shaiva sects

Some other Shaiva
Pashupat
sects
1. What is the End of unhappiness End of unhappiness or
concept of the and attainment of The attainment of the Final
Final Liberation Supreme God, Liberation (Kaivalya)
(Moksha)? attainment of The
Supreme Energy and
end of unhappiness
thereafter
2. Origin of the The mission is perpe- From the Great
mission tual, e.g. the embodied Illusion (asat)
soul
3. Causes of the Absent. Maheshvar The cause requires an
causes carries out His mission auxillary cause for the
independently fulfillment of causation
4. Result of Samip Mukti (no Attainment of heaven
spiritual practice rebirth) (hence there is rebirth)

Bimbisara (558-491 B.C.), the greatest patron of Goutam Budhha, was one of the early kings of
the ancient indian kingdom of Magadha. He extended his kingdom upto Anga in the east and this
expansion is considered to have laid the foundation for the vast expansion of the Maurya
Empire in future.

Bimbisara belonged to the Shishunaga Dynasty and Rajgir was his capital. He was only fifteen
when he became the king and he ruled for fifty-two years. His wife was a princess of Kosala, who brought
Bimbisara the village of Kashi as dowry and also bore him his son Ajathshatru.. Among his other wives there
were Khema, Silava, Jayasena and Chellana also. The latter one was a Lichchavi princess from Vaishali. It is
evident from these facts that Bimbisara used marriage alliances to strengthen his position. He had another
son, Vimala Kondanna, by the famous courtesan, Ambapali.

In the Pabbaja Sutta of the Sutta Nipatta Atthakatha it is stated that he saw Goutam Budhha for the first
time through his palace window, under the Pandava Pabbata. Bimbisara invited him to visit his court but
Budhha refused as he was in search for Enlightenment. The king wished him luck and requested him to visit
Rajgir as soon as he would receive Enlightenment. Later Budhha visited Rajgir to fulfill the promise he made
to Bimbisara. He became a serious disciple of Goutam Budhha and continued to patronized Budhhism for
the rest of his life.

This great king was unfortunately imprisoned by his own son Ajatashatru in his intense desire to
become the monarch. He was instigated by Devdatta, who hated the king's patronage to the
Budhha. Ajatashtru starved his father to death resulting in the end of an able and kind-hearted king's
reign.

Mahajanapadas (महाजनपद) literally means "Great kingdoms" (from Sanskrit Maha =

great, Janapada = foothold of tribe = country). Ancient Buddhist texts like Anguttara Nikaya (I. p 213; IV. pp
252, 256, 261) make frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and republics (Solas Mahajanapadas)
which had evolved and flourished in the northern/north-western parts of the Indian sub-continent prior to
the rise of Buddhism inIndia.
The 16 Mahajanapadas
1. Kasi
2. Kosala
3. Anga
4. Magadha
5. Vajji (or Vriji)
6. Malla
7. Chedi
8. Vatsa (or Vamsa)
9. Kuru
10.Panchala
11.Machcha (or Matsya)
12.Surasena
13.Assaka
14.Avanti
15.Gandhara
16.Kamboja
Works by Kalidas
Malavikagnimitra is a five-act drama based on king Agnimitra's love for a
beautiful girl, Malavika.

About two thousand years ago, there ruled in south-west India, a dynasty of Shunga
kings. Agnimitra(son of Pushyamitra) was the most celebrated among them. Vidisha was
the capital of his kingdom. He had two queens Dharani and Iravati. Dharani was the
elder of the two. She was mature and tolerant. Iravati was sharp and a little
impatient. Both however were equally devoted to the king and he too, loved them
dearly.
Perhaps the most famous and beautiful work of Kalidasa is the Shakuntalam. It is the second play
of Kalidasa after he wrote Malavikagnimitra. The Shakuntalam tells the story of king Dushyant who falls in
love with a beautiful girl Shakuntala, who happens to be the daughter of a saint. They get married and lead
a happy life until one day, the king is asked to travel somewhere. In his absence, a sage curses Shakuntala
as she offends him unknowingly by not acknowledging his presence.

Due to the curse, Dushyant's entire memory is wiped off and he doesn't remember his marriage or
Shakuntala. But the sage feels pity for her and gives a solution that he will remember everything if he sees
the ring given to her by Dushyant. But she loses the ring one day in the river while bathing. After a series of
incidents, a fisherman who finds the ring inside a fish rushes to the king with the ring. The king then recalls
everything and rushes to Shakuntala to apologize for his actions. She forgives him and they live happily
ever after.

Kalidasa also wrote two epic poems called Kumaarasambhava, which means birth of Kumara and
the Raghuvamsha, which means dynasty of Raghu. There are also two lyric poems written by Kalidasa
known asMeghadutta that stands for cloud messenger and the Ritusamhara that means
description of the seasons. Meghadutta is one of the finest works of Kalidasa in terms of world literature.
The beauty of the continuity in flawless Sanskrit is unmatched till date.

Kumarasambhava'
(mention of sati system)
One of Kalidasa's greatest works is 'Kumarasambhava'. Critics maintain that Kalidasa wrote only the first eight chapters of
the epic poem. The work describes the marriage of Lord Shiva and his consort Parvati. It begins with a fine description of
that giant among mountains, the Himalaya. Kalidasa writes: "Himalaya is rich in life. Living there are the Siddhas. Kinnaras
and Vidyadhara beauties. Clouds in front of the caves look like curtains. You can trace the track of lions' by looking at the
precious stones spilled from the heads of elephants and not by bloodstains. You have to know the paths they tread by
recognizing 'Sarala' trees against whose stem the elephants rub themselves attracted by the sweet milk exuded by the
trees. All the things needed for a sacrifice ('Yajna') are available here. Brahma (the God of creation) himself has made this
the king of the mountains." It is not only a place for lovers who want to find happiness in life; it is also an ideal retreat for
those who want to meditate.

MAURYAN DYNASTY (from 321 to 185

B.C.E.)
KINGS
CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA ( ascended the throne 322BC) :Identified with Sandrocottus;
overthrew last of the Nandas- Dhanananda ; his capital: Pataliputra ; conquered: Guj , Kathiawar, some
parts of Deccan ;300B.C.-abdicted his throne , starved himself in 298BC at Sravanabelagola( Mysore ) ;
succeeded by his son
BINDUSARA : maintained friendly ties with Hellenic west;
He requested Antiochus I (Seleucid King of Syria) to send the figs, wine nd sophist. Antiochus I sent figs,
wine but not sophist nd replied greek sophist were not export Deimachos- greek envoy at his court
ASOKA : succeeded in about 269 BC ; B4 he came to d throne, he was viceroy of Taxila & Ujjain ; known
as Devanampiya & Piyadassi
fought only one war – Kalinga (261 BC) he embarked on conquest by righteousness (Dhamma Vijaya )
won many victories by righteousness- 5 Hellenic Kings - Antiochus II Theos of Syria, Ptolemy II Philadephus
of Egypt, Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia , Magas of Cyrene , Alexander of Epirus
strongly supported d doctrine of ahimsa , not a complete pacifist
despite d remorse at conquest of kalinga , he dint restore it to its original rulers; he inaugurated new class
of officers “ Officers of Righteousness” his personal region was Buddhism; was not metaphysician , never
mentions nirvana but heaven
The Last Mauryas
Brihadratha – was assassinated by his senapat Pushymitra ( Shunga dynasty)
ADMINISTRATION
Centralized Administration : the kings was highest authority , had unlimited power ;
Acc. to Kautilya : “ sovereignty is possible only with assistance”
imp functionaries called Tirthas – 27 adhyakshas( superintendents)
Provincial Administration
empire was divided into no. of provinces, der was governor for each provinces
Kumar-mahamatras- prince of royal blood as viceroy
Mahamatras- rest of the mahamatras
Asoka had four provinces
Provinces Capital
• Magadha ---Pataliputra
• North-western ---Taxila
Provinces
• Western ---Ujjain
Province
• Southern ---Swarnagiri
Province
Kalinga with its capital Tosali
Mahamatras were assisted by yukta( tax collector),rajuka ( revenue officer) sthaniks( district officer)
Village- smallest unit nd officer known as Gramika
Land revenues from rural areas –
• Bhaga: was levied at the rate of one- fourth to one –sixth
• Pindikara- assessed on groups of villages and paid by husbandsmen
• Hirayna – paid in cash
• Bali- known from the Vedic times ,
• Pranaya- was levy imposed by the state during emergency periods.
Justice And Punishment – the Arthashtra mentions two types of courts
• Dharmasthiya- analogus with modern civil courts
• Kantakasodhan- analogus with modern criminal courts
Seven Penalties Were Imposed On Law-Breakers; Capital punishment was know and practiced ;penalties were
based on Varna hierarchy
Espionage: worked underMahamatyapasurpa
2 types of spies- santha & sanchara
Male spies known as santi, tishna, sarad while female spies were called vrishali, bhikshuki, parivarjaki

SOCIETY
caste system had become very rigid in Asoka’s reign – caste system had become
somewhat loose
women position – they were respected but they had to face discrimination; Purdah
system was not known but practiced
polygamy – was prevalent in royal family
slaves were employed in agriculture

RELIGION
Hinduism , Jainism & Buddhism were popular religion , rivalry existed between dem yajnas were performed
but animal sacrifices had lost much of importance , image worship still not in vogue
Asoka’s Dhamma
personal religion was Buddhism , it is dhamma that had made Asoka of the greatest ruler of Indian history

ECONOMICS CONDITION
economy was agrarian ; Indian silk & COTTAN WERE IN MUCH DEMAND IN WESTERN COUNTRIES existence
of srenis( guilds)
coins of different metals
nishka- gold
purana- silver
karshapana- copper
heavy taxation
The royal highway betn Taxila & Pataliputra was the ancestor of the grand trunk road of 2day.

ART &ARCHITECTURE

Chandragupta Maurya built his capital & palace apparently of wood.

introduced stone masonry
Palace @ Kumahar near Patna – 80 pillared hall
Asoka’s reign the art of sculpture & rock cutting attained great heights.
four rock-cut sanctuaries on the Barabar hills nd three on Nagarjuni hills near Gaya( Bihar)
Pillar at Sarnath.
It was in the Mauryan times that burnt bricks first used in north- eastern India.

LITERATURE
Literature---Chandragupta & bindusara favored Sanskrit & & BRAHMANICAL learning Asokan Inscription
– composed mainly in Prakrit language & in brahmi script also used Kharoshthi and Greek scripts
kautilya’s Arthashastra
Bhadrabahu’s Kalpasutra
Buddhist scripture – Katha Vathu

Dhamma of Ashoka
There is no doubt that Ashoka's personal religion was Buddhism. In his Bhabru edict he says he had
full faith in Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha. He showed respect to all sects and faiths and believed in using
among ethical and moral values of all sects. In Rock Edict VII he says all seeks desire both self control and
purity of mind. In Rock Edict XII he pronounces his policy of equal respect to all religious sects more clearly.

The Dhamma as explained in Ashoka's edicts is not a religion or a religious system but a moral
law, a common code of conduct or an ethical order. In Pillar Edict II Ashoka himself puts the
question what is Dhamma? Then he enumerates two basic attributes or constituents of Dhamma:
less evil and many good deeds. He says such
evils as rage, cruelty, anger, pride and envy
are to be avoided and many
good deeds like kindness, liberty, truthfulness, gentleness, selfcontrol, purity of heart,
attachment to morality, inner and outer purity etc
are to be pursued vigorously. Ashoka established hospitals for humans and animals and made liberal
donations to the Brahmans and ascetics of different religious sects.

The Shungas :
KING
Pushyamitra: founder , referred as senapati, Agnimitra: son of Pushyamitra & viceroy of Vidisa ; was
instrumental in suppressing the revolt of Vidarbha under Yajnasena
Vasumitra: grandson of Pushyamitra, repulsed a major attack of Demetrius

ADMINISTRATION
not a closely-knit centralized rule; was more of federal one
RELIGION
brahmanical influence revived , the practice of Vedic sacrifice was popularized , Pushyamitra is said to
have performed two ashvamedha yajnas ; Bharhut stupa being built , besides the fine railings of the Sanchi
stupa (despite Buddhist persecution)

LITERATURE
Mahabhashya- Patanjali ( was born at Gonanda in this period)Malavikagnimitra- Kalidasa ( based on
life of Agnimitra)

THE KANVAS: founder of dynasty-

Vasudeva Kanva comprised four kings & ruled for 45 years. Its decline was due to the
expansion of Satavahana power in the Deccan and the foreign invasions in the north.

THE CHETIS OF KALINGA : SOURCE OF INFORMATION: Hathigumpha

inscription ( near Bhubaneswar, Orissa)

Kharavela
- 3rd king of dynasty ,said to have defied the Satavahana ruler Satakarni , follower of
Jainism nd he constructed the caves in Udaigiri

THE SATAVAHANAS
referred to as the ANDHRAS in the puranas; came into prominence in the Deccan after ending
the rule of shungas nd kanvas .SIMUKA : founder of dynasty
King
SIMUKA : founder of dynasty HALA: famous king SRI SATAKARNI:ruled for 18 yrs, identified with the
Satakarni the Nanaghat inscription ( called as Lord of Deccan &^ husband of Naganika) ; performed two
horse sacrifice ; capital was at Pratisthan( Paithan- Maharashtra)
GUATIMIPUTRA SATAKARNI: saved Deccan from Shaka onslaught s; managed to salvage whatever
damage was done by Nahapana( Shaka King) , also overthrew Parthian & Greeks ; control over Malwa,
Kathiawar, Gujarat , Berar
VASHISHTHIPUTRA PULAMAYI : son of GUATIMIPUTRA SATAKARNI, first satavahana ruler to establish
his authority in Andhra country
VASHISHTHIPUTRA SATAKARNI:married to the daughter of Rudradaman i but this didn’t prevent him
from twice defeating satavahanas
YAJNASRI SATAKARNI: recovered north-Konkan and Malwa from the Shakas, lover of navigation & trade,
his coins have been found in ANDHRA, Maharashtra. Gujarat & Madhya Pradesh , ship on his coins

ADMINISTRATION

monarchy was hereditary, content simple title of Rajan , empire was divided into janapadas & aharas;
Gama – division below ahara ; taxes – neither burdensome nor many
sources of income- royal domain, salt monopoly, taxes on land & income from court fees
Satavahanas acted as link between north nd south India ( in trade & exchange of ideas )

SOCIETY

Gautamiputra Satakarni – re-established the four –fold Varna system Absorption Of Shakas in Hindu
society as Kshatriyas
In social hierarchy, there were at least four classes – mahabhojas. Maharathis and mahasenapatis : cream
of society
amatyas, mahamatras, bhandagarikas & non-officials – 2nd class
vaidya, lakhaka, suvarnakara- 3rdclass
malakara, vardhaki, dasaka- 4thclass
customary to their king to be named after his mother , the women enjoyed a good deal of importance,
family was patriarchal coz succession to the throne passed to the male member
RELIGION
worshipped a large number of Vaishnava gods such as Krishna, Vasudeva & others , Vedic sacrifice were
performed & Brahmans were paid , king also promoted Buddhism , Mahayana Buddhism commanded
considerable following , Buddhism flourished in Nasik & Junnar areas in the western Deccan
ECONOMICS CONDITION
In Karimnagar district a blacksmith’s shop has been discovered ; gold may have been used as bullion . dint
issue gold coins but coins of lead ,potin, copper and bronze money kingdom was famous for production of
rice and cotton
ART & ARCHITECTURE
many Buddhist chaityas nd vihars were cut out of the solid rock in the north –western Deccan , most
famous chaitya – Karle( 1st cen. BC)rock –cut architecture found in Andhra
Amravati stupa – began in about 200 BC but completed in 2ndcentury AD
Nagarjunakonda- prospered most in the 2nd-3rd centuries under the patronage of the Ikshvakus
LITERATURE
official language – Prakrit all inscription were written in Prakrit & in brahmi script
prakrit text called Gathasapati is attributed to a Satavahana king Hala

Gupta Dynasty
KINGS
Sri Gupta & Ghatatkacha – first two rulers of dynasty Chandra Gupta: son of Ghatatkacha , assumed the
title of Maharajadhiraja strengthened his position by matrimonial alliance with Lichchavis(kshratiyas) , the
lichchavis princess Kumaradevi must have brought to the Guptas
the gupta era started in AD 320
Samudra GUPta: has been called Indian Napolean by V.A.Smith
prayag prasaTI- EULOGIC INSCRIPTION composed by his minister and court poet Harisena , on old Asokan
pillar( @ Allahabad ) ; HArisena described him as the hero of hundred battle , some coins of samdrugupta
represent him as playing on the vina, performed Ashvamedha sacrifice , follower of brahmanical
learning..he granted permission to the Buddhist king of Ceylon-Meghaverman to build monastery @ Bodh
Gaya ;assumed the title of Vikramankaand Kaviraja
Chandra Gupta II: in the play Devichandrapuptam of Visakhadatta…Rama Gupta is elder brother of Chandra
Gupta II however Gupta records do not refer to Rama Gupta...married with the Nga princess Kubernaga
and allowed his daughter Prabhavati to marry with Rudrasena II,a Vakataka King …invaded the shaka
Kingdom of Gujrat &Khatiawar , killed the Shaka chief Rudrasimha III …Ujjain - @nd capital of Guptas …
adopted the title of Vikaramaditya …adorned by many scholars ….Kalidasa Amarsimha…Chinese Pilgrim -
FA-Hsien(399-414) visited india …Mehrauli iron pillar inscription near Qutab Minar ,Delhi ,enumerates the
exploits of Chandra gupta II
Kumaragupta
Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta I. Known as the Mahendraditya, he ruled until 455.
Towards the end of his reign a tribe in the Narmada valley, the Pushyamitras, rose in power to threaten the
empire.
Skandagupta: is generally considered the last of the great rulers. He defeated the Pushyamitra threat, but then was faced with
invading Hephthalites or "White Huns", known in India as the Huna, from the northwest. He repulsed aHuna attack c. 455, But the
expense of the wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to its decline. Skandagupta died in 467 and was succeeded by his
sonNarasimhagupta Baladitya

Administration
golden age of ancient India .. the country was divided into into several Bhuktis(provinces) …further
divided into Visyas(districts)adopted titles like Parambhattaraka, Paramdaivata, Chakravati,Parmeshwar
etc.
Kumaraamtyas- most imp officials

Economy
issued the largest no. of gold coins …called dinars. Items of import included Chinese silk in greater quantity
& ivory from Ethiopia …Horses too imported from Arabia, Bactria & Iran...cities like Banaras, Thaneshwar &
Mathura came into prominence

Society and Religion

Acc to Naradasmriti( 5th cen) – Brahmanas became richer because oif land grants position of Shudras-
improved slightly , permitted to listen to the epics & Puranas , to worship new god called Krishna , now
considered as agriculturists rather than slaves but untouchables increased in numbers (chandalas)
women position declined ..disallowed formal education & inheritance of property , widow marriage was
disallowed …the fisrt reference to sati appears in Gupta Times in AD 510 at Eran…
Buddhism- no longer received Royal patronage …Bhagavatism or Vaishnavism overshadowed
Mahayana Buddhism
Vishnu became a member of trinity of Goods
shakti cult gave rise to consorts to gods, and goddess like Lakshmi , Paravati , Durga ..by the fourth

century AD Bhagavad-Gita was finally complied

Art & Crafts

brick temples – Bhitargaon(Kanpur), Bhatari(Ghazipur), Deogarh(Jhansi)Nalanda( Buddhist University ) –
was set up in 5th century
two important styles – Nagara & Dravida
stupas : Mirpur Khas(sind), Dhamekh at Sarnath
rock-cut architecture- chaitya nd viharas..mostly found in Ajanta, Ellora & Bagh
sculpture - 2 metre high bronze image of the Buddha(Sultanganj, near Bhagalpur)
hindu sculpture- Deogarh temple( mythological themes of Rama, Vishnu And Narayana)
Art of Painting- high degree of proficiency…narrative scenes mostaly portray Jataka stories
Ajanta : portray panorama the whole human and natural drama

literature
Sanskrit- official language of gupta empire …Ramayana and Mahabharata were complied in this
period
Science and technology
Indian notational system –called Arbic by the English , called Hindsa by the Arabs themselvesAryabhatta-
calculated vale 22/7& length of solar year , theorized upon the Earth’s rotation on its axis
Varahamitra- astronomer: moon rotated the earth which rotates around the sun
Vagabhatta – renowned physician

SMALL KINGDOMS IN NORTH

Maitrakas of Valabhi:- family belonged to the Maitraka clan in Saurashtrafounder:Bhatarka;
Capital: Valabhi
Dhruvasena II married to the Daughter of Harsh of Kanauj
during the time of Dhruvasena IV that the celebrated Sanskrit Epic Bhattikavyam or Ravanavadham was
composed by Bhatti
overthrown by the Arabs of Sind
Maukharis of Gayas:- source of information: Barabar & Nagarjuni inscription first ruler of branch
– Yajnavarnma
Maukharis of Kanauj :- probably were Kshatriyas, isanavarman- claimed victory over Andhras,
Sulikas of Orissa & the Gaudas long dual between Maukharies & the later Guptas
The Later Guptas:- Kumara Gupta: 1st independent ruler of Dynasty Adityasena- took title of Parama-
Bhagavata, got a temple of Vishnu constructed
Aspad inscription from Gaya- gives name of eight late-gupta kings
Gaudas of Bengal :- greaset ruler of dynasty- Sasanka…fought against the rulers of Thaneshwar nd
Kanuaj …entered into alliance of Maukhari ruler

Small kingdoms of Deccan

the Vakatakas :- belonged to Bundelkhand ; founder: Vindyasakti Pravarasena ( son
of Vindyasakti) ruled over territories extending from Bundelkhand to Andhara Pradesh
Prithvisena: contemporary of the Great Gupta Emperor Samudragupta
Rudrasena II: married to Prabhavati (daughter of Chandragupta II)
Harisena – belonged to minor branch of Vakataka
Vakataka power was destroyed by the kalachuries & THE Kadambas
Ajanta cave fresco paintaings were excavated during their rule.

Ikshvakus
after fall of Satavahanas ,there arose the kingdom , they built monument at Nagarjunakonda &
Dharanikonda. rule ended with their conquest by the Pallavas

Chalukyas-
Jayasingha & Ranaraja- !st two ruler Pulakesin I(535-566) ; founded the fort of Vatapi ( Bijapur, Karnataka)
Pulakesin II(611-642): known as Satyasraya, contemporary of Harshvardhana…victory over Harsha in
620.
established his influence over the whole of Deccan…defeated the Pallava king, Mahendra Varman I ….made
himself master of 3 kindoms – Maharashtra, Konkan and Karnata
killed by Narasimhavarman( Pallava king) in 642
Vikaramaditya (655-6810):son of Pulekesin II , succeeded in recovering his paternal dominions from grip of
the Pallavas.
Vikaramaditya II(733-746): defeated the The Pallava
kirtivarman- II (733- 757): lost Maharashtra to Dantidurga( Rashtrakuta)
Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi
founded by Kubja-Vishnu-Vardhana (Pulakesin II’s brother )…transferred his capital from Pishtapura to the
ancient city of Vengi(Andhra)….hostilities between of the Rashtrakutas and Chalukyas of Vengi were
strongVijayaaditya III(848-892) : credited with the victories over the Pallavas, the Pandyas and the
Rashtrakutas
they became the allies of the Cholas- Kulottunga chola annexed the empire

Western Chalukyas of Kalyani descent from the main line of Chalukyas of Vatapi…re-
established by Taila in 973, when he defeated the last Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghvarsha IV Somesvara
I(1043-1068) : involved in a protracted war with Cholas 7 was finally defeated by Chola ruler, Virarajendra
in the battle of kudal
Somesvara II(1068-1076): a tyrannical ruler –was overthrown by his brother Vikramaditya II
Tribhuvanamalla(1076-1126): the hero of Bilhana’s Vikramaaditya Charita…he introduced Chalukya-
Vikrama Era (1076 AD)
Jagadekamalla II- with the death of him Challukyan power was eclipsed…nd the thorne was usurped by the
Kalachuri minister – Vijjala/Vijjana…
Achievements of Chalukya
Much of the paintings & sculptures of Ajanta & Ellora caves were completed during this region …style of
temple –vesara( admixture of the Dravida & Nagara) : famous temple- Virupaksha temple (Pattadakal, near
Badami) , the Vishnu temple of Badami, the Siva temple of Maguti, the Kashi Visveswara temple of
LakhundiSanskrit writer : Bilhana-Vikramaaditya Charita and Chaurapanchasika(poet)
Vijnanesvara- Mitaksara

Rashtrakutas

Dantidurga: founder ….succeeded by his uncle Krishna(758-722)….succeeded by his son Govinda(773-780)

…was deposed by his younger brother Dhruva Nirupama- regarded as peak of rashtrakuta…territories
ultimately came to his son, Govinda III Jagattunga(793-814)…succeeded by son Sarva, known as
Amoghvarsha I(814-878)…said to hav built the city of Manyakheta as his capital….last great ruler of the
dynasty was Krishna III(939-967)- who occupied Kanchi and Tanjore & defeated a chola army at the battle
of Takkolam(949)
Achievements of Rashtrakutas
Krishna I –built the rock-cut Kailasa temple @Ellora(latter half of the 8 cen AD), constructed in
Dravidyan style of the Chalukyas ….Amoghvarsha said to have written the earliest book of poems in
Kannada

Gangas
either belonged to the line of Ishvakus or associated with the river Ganga…kingdom included the greater
part of Mysore or with Kanvas…founded by Didiga(konganivarman) & Madhava(in 4th cen AD)…early capital
was Kuluvala but was trf to Talkad by Harivarma…Durvinita..had to conflict with the Chalukyas of Vengi and
Dhruva Nirupama devotees of Jainism- it was during reign of Rajamala IV(977-985) that his minister &
general , CHamundaraya, erected the celebrated imge of Gomateshvara at Sravanabelagola(983)
Yadavas
descendents of the Yadu race to which belonged Mahabharata hero Krishna Bhillama V- made Devgiri his
capital, but was defeated by Vira Ballala I Hoysala @ battle of Lakhundi
Jaitrapala I1191-1210) – killed the Rudradeva ( Kakatiya ruler )….Singhana(`1210-1247)- most energetic
ruler
during the reign of Mahadeva & Ramachandra- greater Brahman minister, Hemadri- renowned for his Hindu
Dharmashtra flourished , his most imp work – Chaturvarga-Chinatamani
during the reign
during the reign of Ramachandra- army led by Ala-ud-din Khalji then Governor of Kara…invaded Devagiri
(1294)
Harapala was killed at the behest of Sultan Mubarak
Kakatiyas
first feudatories of the Later Chalukyas ….they rose to power in Telegana… seat of power shifted from
Anmakonda to Telengana…Prolaraja- warfare against the western Chalukyas
Ganapati – successfully overcame the Cholas, Kalingas, Yadavas …succeeded by his daughter, Rudramba
in 1261….assumed the male title of Rudradeva Maharaja…succeeded by her grandson, Prataparudradeva-
immortalized by Vaidyanatha’s Prata- Parudriya (poetics work)….had to submit b4 d muslim invader, Malik
Kafur…

Silaharas
notable monarch Bhoja(1175-1210): aftr whom d kingdom was conquered by Singhana( Yadava Ruler)
Kadambas
founder- Mayurasarman….kakusthavarman- under whom influence grew considerably….Ravivarman…his
capital at Halsi
Hoysalas
Founder- a kshatriya named Sala…Bittiga Vishnuvardhana(1110-1140)….transferred his capital from
Velapura to Dwarasamdudra( Halebid) & made himself independent of Chalukyan Suzerain Vikaramaditya
VI… Vira-Ballala I(1172-1215): first to assume the title of Maharajadhiraja ….. Vira-Ballala III- last ruler …
kingdom was ravaged by Malik Kafur
hoysalas were great temple builders….Kesava temple @ Belur( Hasan district), dedicted to Vishnu
Hoysaleswara temple @ Helabid , dedicted to Siva

THE THREE EARLY Kingdoms

The Pandyas
first mentioned by Megasthense… kingdom was celebrated for pearls & was ruled by woman ….capital was
Madurai…the kingdom profited with the trade with the Roman empire & sent embassies to the Roman
emperor, Augustus..Brahmans enjoyed considerable influence and Pandyan king performed Vedic
sacrifices
The Cholas
chief centre of power lay at Uraiyur( famous for cotton trade )… chola king Elara conquered Sri Lanka
( middle of 2nd Century ) nd ruled over it for about 50yrs …were expelled by the Sinhalese national hero,
king Dutugamunu(161-137 BC)….Karikala , chola king- who founded Puhar( Kaveripattanam)- chola capital
… last remnants of Chola power were wiped out by the attacks of the Pallavas
The Chera
flourishing trade with Romans… Romans had set up 2 regiments at Muziris (modern Cranganore ) in the
Cgera country …they hav built a temple of Augustus ….thhe greatest Chera king : Senguttuvan, the Red /
Good Chera, he is credited with having invaded the North nd crossed the Ganga…

Economic country
mostly self-sufficing….single source of revenue land tax called Karai… war booty was known as Irai …they
had volumionious trade with the Greek /Hellenistic kingdom, Egypt & Arabia, the Malay archipelago &
China…
Polity
hereditary monarchy…entire kingdom was called mandalam , below it was nadu..the ur was town….puhar
was harbor area…Pattanam…coastal town ..village was fundamental unit of administration & looked aftr
by7 manrums(panchayats)…
Society
Brahmans first appear in the South in the Sangam age…captains of the army were invested with the title of
enadi ruling class was called arasar…members of lowest class: Kadaisiyar…agriculturist labourers:
pariyars..referrence of sati
Religion
Kings were performed Vedic sacrifices….MURUGAN- god worshipped by the people…

The Imperial Cholas

KINGS
founder: Vijayalaya( first feudatory of the Pallavas)…captured Tanjore(in 850) Aditya I Chola : wiped out the
Pallavas of Kanchi…
Parantaka(907-955)….captured Madurai but was defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler, Krishna III( battle of
Takkolam) lost Tondaimandalam
Sundara-Chola: overcame Rashtrakuta & wrested Tondaimandalam 4m him
Rajaraja (985- 1014): destroyed the Chera navy @ Thiruvandapuram nd attacted Quilon..captured the
Pandyan Capital Madurai…also annexed the northern part of Sri Lanka…conquest of Maldive Islands
Rajendra I (1014-1044): annexed the rest of Sri Lanka which remained under Chola rule for next 50
yrs..sent an expedition against Bengal…defeated the Pala Kin g , Mahipala of Bengal …he assumed the
title Gangaikonda ( in --commemoration of his victories in the Gangetic delta) n& founded the capital –
Gangaikonda Cholapuram…naval expedition against revived Sri Vijaya( Sumatra empire) ..conquest of
Kadaram/ kedah
Kulottunga I : remained undiminished under his rule except loss of Ceylon
Kulottunga III (1178-1210): : was last great Chola Monarch….involved in the Pandyan wars of succession
..sacked Madurai( pandyan capital)
Administration
Hereditary monarchy… Rajaraja I ; initiated the system of Prefacing the stone inscription of the
reignVelams: the palace servants of the Chola were organized into velams and settled in separate quarters
in the capitals
udankutaam: the chola monarch had immediate attendants, a group of ministers
olai: there were corresponding officers in the Chalukyan court
The officials tended to form a separate class in society, organized in two ranks, an upper perundanam nd a
lower sirudanam…
jivitas: the officials were often remunerated by assignments of land suited to their station
the empire was divided into convenient areas …the division in ascending order being Vlanadu/mandalam,
nadu and Kurram
local self –government
ur: assembly of common village , all members of the village could become the member of ur sabha:
exclusively Brahman assembly of the brahmadeya villages ; criteria to secure the membership of Sabha:
ownership of more than Fourth veli( abt an acre nd half) , residence in house built on one’s own land , age
between 35 nd 70, knowledge of vedic literature
variyam system : local administration were entrusted to committees of 6 to 12 members ….memebers
called Variyapperumakkal
Economy:
self – sufficing…overseas trade eas the strength of the chola merchants Persia & Arabia- destinations of
those trading with the west…
Society
the centre of social nd economic life at the time…particularly in the rural areas was the temple….devadasis
were commomnly found Brahmans maintained a distinctness….slavery was comman……society was
divided into Brahmans & non- Brahmans …temple continued to be the centre of formal education in
Sanskrit …
oral instruction , much simpler than the Sanskrit learning of colleges , was imparted through the medium of
the Saivite nd Vaishnavite hymns composed by the Tamils saints….
Literature
Kamban’s version of Ramayana ( in tami)… Kuttan, Jayangondur, Kalladanar…
Religion
Sanskrit remained the language of hindu theology nd of the Brahmans…buddhism practically disappeared
by the end of the period …Buddha being commonly accepted as an incarnatyion of Vishnu Jainism: survived
with a following in Mysore.
variety of extreme sects: such as the tantric nd shakti cult
Kalamukha sect: ate food out of human skull, were generally seen carrying a pot of wine and a club
Saivism- produced other sects at this time….Lingayat/ Virasaiva sect : founded by Basavaraja in
12thcentury, questioned the authority of the Vedas, worshipped Siva in form of Lingam(phallic emblem)..nd
encouraged late post-puberty marriage and widow-remarriage…
Art and Architecture
The masterpiece of chola sculpture is the famous Nataraja (the dancing Siva) bronze image of
Chidambaram.

THE SANGAM AGE

Historical and Pre-Historical Background

· The extreme southern part of India from the Tirupati Hill (Vengadam) also known as Pullikunram in an
Aham passage to Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari), bounded by sea on the East and the West, was known as
Tamilgam, Tamilham, Tamilkam or Tamizhakam (the Tamil realm).

· It was more or less co-terminus with the beginning of the Iron Age in this part of the sub-continent.

· Iron appears to have arrived in South India without a preceding Copper/Bronze Age or a Chalcolithic Age.

· Historians assign a variety of sources to this period:

1. the megaliths and their grave goods;

2. the hero-stones; the Tamil Brahmi cave labels;
3. the early Tamil anthologies;
4. the Punch-Marked Coins;
5. references in the Arthasastra and in the in Asokan Edicts;
6. occasional sherd of the NBPW (Northern Black Polished Ware);
7. A scholium of Katyayana on Panini; Megasthenes; Greeco-Roman accounts; the archaeology and
numismatics of Roman presence and so on.

The Sangam Literature

· Tamil is the oldest among the spoken literary languages in South India.

· The earliest known phase of this literature is usually designated the Sangam literature for the reason that
the anthologies of odes, lyrics and idylls that form the bulk of that literature were composed by a body of
Tamil scholars or poets in three successive literary academies called ‘Sangam’.

· These academies were established by the Pandyan kings.

· The term Sangam was first referred to by Tirunavukkarasu Nayanar (Appar), the Shiva or Saiva saint
belonging to the early seventh century in the Tripputtur Tiruttanndaham.

· The next reference is to be found in the contemporary to the lraiyanar Ahappiorul belonging to the ninth
century AD.

· This text talks about three successive Sangams, i.e., first Sangam or Talai Sangam, the middle Sangam or
Idai Sangam and the last Sangam or Kadai Sangam.

· In the traditional accounts, the first Sangam was constituted at the first Pandyan capital at Ten-Madurai.

· On the occasion of a ‘deluge’, the Pandyan capital and the Sangam was shifted to Kapatapuram, which
was also engulfed by sea, and the capital as well as the Sangam were again shifted to Madhurai, an inland
city.

· On these occasions of deluge, many texts were lost.

· Silappadikaram and Kalittogai refer to the “loss of territory by deluge”.

· Before the seventh century AD the alternative term for Sangam was Avaiyam or Kudal or its variant Kuttu
or Punarkuttu or even Togai.

Important Sangam Works

· Ettuttogai (the eight anthologies) and Pattupattu (the ten idylls) are the two major groups of texts
included in the corpus of Sangam Literature.

· The group of Ettuttogai consists of:

1. Narrinai
2. Karuntogai
3. Aingurunuru
4. Padirrupattu
5. Paripadal
6. Kalittogai
7. Ahanamuru
8. Puraanuru.

· The group Pattupattu includes:

1. Tirumurugarruppadai
2. Porunararruppadai
3. Sirupanarruppadai
4. Perumbanarruppadai
5. Mullaipattu
6. Maduraikanchi
7. Nedunalvadai
8. Kurinjipattu
9. Pattinappalai
10. Malaipadukanchi

· Some scholars have included Tolkapium, the Tamil grammatical treatise by Tolkappiyar (supposed to be
the disciple of Agastya, the famous saint who is said to have crossed the Vindhyas first and propagated the
Brahmanical culture in the South), Patinenkilkanakku, the eighteen didactical texts (comprising:
1. Nladiyar
2. Nammanikkadigai
3. Inna Narpadu
4. Iniya Narpadu
5. Kar Narpadu
6. Kalavali Narpadu
7. Aintinai Aimpadu
8. Aintinai Elupadu
9. Tinaimoli Aimpadu
10. Tinaimalai Nurraimpadu
11. Kainnilai (or Innilai)
12. Kural
13. Tirikadugam
14. Charakkovai
15. Palamoli
16. Sirupanchachamulam
17. Mudumo Likkanchi
18. Eladi),

· Silappadikaram and Manimegalai, the twin epics, remnants of poems like Togadur Yattirai and Bharatam
of Perundevanar in the Sangam corpus.

· The Ettutogai and Pattupattu are together grouped as Melkanakku (the longer serials) for they consist
stanzas composed of metre which permits of a larger numbers of lines.

· On the other hand the Kilkkanakku works (the shorter serials) are so called because they consist of poems
composed in the Venba metre which permits on an average four lines for each stanza.

· There is another important characterization or division of Sangam literature, i.e., into Aham and Puram.

· The Puram category of literature idealizes love and aspects related to it.

· In Ula, a later day minor form of literature dealing with the ‘King’s sojourn through the streets of the
capital city’ the theme is partly Puram and partly Aham but it is in fact Kaikkilai (unilateral love) aspect of
Aham literature.

· The Agattiyam, composed by Agattiyar, Tolkappiyar’s real teacher and the oldest exponent of Tamil
grammar is lost, except for a few sutras not by medieval commentators. Hence, Tolkappiam is the oldest
Tamil literary work extant today.

· The Kural by Tiruvalluvar, a compound of the Dharmasastra, the Arthasastra and the Kamasutra, is
universally regarded as a work of immense importance.

· Kakkaippadiniyam, a work on poetics by Kakkaippadiniyar; Pannirupadalam, a work on the twelve different

situations in warfare by Tolkappiar and eleven others;

· Tagadur Yattirai by Panmudiyar, Arisil Kilars and other dealing with Perunjeral Irumporai’s invasion of the
capital of Adihaiman Neduman Anji;

· The Bharatam by Perundevanar are some works which are lost except for a few stanzas quoted by later
composers.

· Some other works mentioned by Adiyarkkunallar and which are lost to us are Perunarai, Perunkuruhu,
Pancha Bharatiyam (all by Narada), Isai Nunukkam by Sikandi, Indra Kaliyam, Panchamarabu and Bharata
Senapatiyam.

· All these works deal with musico Adiyarkkunallur mentions Seyirriyam, Guan Nul, Bharatam, Agattiyam,
Muruval, Jayantam, Nataka-t-Tamil Nul by Mativanan as important works on dance and drama.

· Erambam was a treatise on Mathematics mentioned by Parimelalgar.

Chronology

· The Sangam was a college or an assembly of Tamil poets held under early Pandyan patronage.

· It is generally said that three Sangams were held which lasted for 9,990 years, attended by 8,598 poets
and were patronized by 197 Pandyan kings.

· It is also believed that the available Sangam literature produced by these assemblies was compiled
between AD 300 and AD 600.

· Ettuttogai collection excluding Kallittogai and Paripadal is considered to be the most archaic, belonging to
3rd century BC – 3rd century AD.

· The twin Tamil epics of Silappadikaram and Manimekalai are composed around the sixth century AD.

Corroborative Sources

Archaeological Evidence

· The site of Kaverippatinam, also known as Puhar, Kakandi and Sampapati, has yielded a sluice, a punch-
marked silver coin, Roulettted Ware and a brick platform (a dock) – all probably contemporary with the
Sangam period.

· At Uraiyur, a Chola capital, also known as Koli and Varanam, level I, which represents the Sangam period,
yielded Black and Red Ware, Russet-Coated Painted Ware, Rouletted and supposedly Arretine Ware (of
Roman inspiration), and a dying vat besides ordinary Red and Black Pottery.

· There were shell and paste beads, terracotta gamesmen, bone points and potsherds inscribed with the
Brahmi script.

· At Akkadu in Tanjavur, “Arkatos” of Ptolemy and the second capital of the Cholas, exploration yielded the
usual pottery types and some urns.

· Kanchipuram yielded some locally made imitations of Roman amphorai.

· Excavations around Madurai at Kudal was given up for lack of results.

· The ancient port sites of Korkai, Tondi and Kodungalur also did not yield any evidence of real cities.

· Karur, the ancient Chera capital, also known as Vanji and Vanjimurram, has yielded a fairly large number
of Roman coins, some Roman Amphorai pieces, local Rouletted Ware, BRW, some with graffiti marks etc.

Foreign Accounts

· Megasthenes gives a quaint account of the Pandyan kingdom “ruled over by the Pandaiya, a daughter of
Herakles, to whom he assigned that portion of India which lies southwards and extends to the sea”.

· He is the earliest non-Indian to make any mention of a southern kingdom.

· Strabo makes references to the Pandyan embassies to the court of Augustus.

· He also refers to the change of Pandyan capital from Korkai to Madurai.

· Pliny the elder mentions many Tamil ports on the west coast.

· The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea by an anonymous author (80-96 AD) gives the most elaborate
information about the Tamil country which the author calls Damirike.

· Ptolemy wrote half a century later (150 AD) and his work marks a decided advance in the regularity and
volume of trade between the Roman Empire and India.

· The Peutingerian tables, composed in 222 AD, speak of a temple of Augustus on the west coast of
Tamilaham.

· Ptolemy’s accounts also show that the Roman trade with east, which began sometime in the reign of
Augustus had by the first quarter of the second century AD reached beyond India to indo-china and
Sumatra.

· The recent discovery of a ‘Roman factory’ of the first century AD in the proximity of Pondicherry deserves
particular mention.

· Musiri or Muziris and Tondi on the west coast of South India, Korkai and Kaveripattinam on the east were
among the chief ports of the Tamil land where foreigners crowded.

· The Chinese writer Pan Kou (1st Century AD) mentions the kingdom of Houangtche (Kanchi) in his ‘Ts’ien
Han Chou’.

· The Sri Lankan chronicle, Mahavastu, read with the Uraiperu Katturai of Silappadikaram, gives us the clue
to a crucial datum in Sangam history, i.e. the Senguttuvan-Gajabahu synchronism.

· It was Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka who was present on the occasion of the installation of a temple to Kannagi
the goddess of chastity, by the Chera king Senguttuvan.

· Gajabahu I is known to have ruled in the second half of the 2nd century AD.

Sangam Polity

The Cheras

· The Cheras ruled over an area comprising north Travancore, Cochin and South Malabar.

· The site of Vanji, the Chera capital has been located by some scholars near Musiri (Cranganore) while
many others identify it with the inland city of Karur on the Amaravati river in the Coimbatore district.

· The Cheras had the ankusha (elephant-goad) and the bow and arrow for their emblem.

· Musiri was their chief port, but there were many others e.g., Tondi (Kadalundi), Marandai, Naravu (Naura
and Nitrias of the Greek writers) and Bakare (Porkad), etc.

· The information on the geneolgoical history of the Cheras largely comes from the Padirrupattu (ten tens).

· Some sundry information is also gathered from the Purananuru and the Silappadikaram.

· One of the earliest and better known Chera rulers was Udiyanjeral (130 AD).

· The titles Vanavaramban ‘one whose kingdom is bounded by the sky’ or ‘by the sea’, and Perunjoran
Udiyan are applied to him by the poet Mudinagarayar in Puram literature.

· Udiyanjeral was famous for his lavish hospitality; and his kitchen had become a bye-word for sumptuous
feeding.

· The commentator of Puraunanuru makes out that he supplied the rival armies at Kurukshetra with food.
· Silappadikaram also records this legend.

· The poet Mamulanar records in Aham (233) that the king gave a memorial offering to the spirits at the
anniversary of the Mahabharata war, in which the heroes from whom he traced his descent, had died.

· Udiyanjera I’s royal kitchen was at Kulumur (Ptolemy’s Kourellour) which may have been the original
capital of the Cheras.

· He was married to Nallini, the daughter of Veliyan Venman, later known as Porvaikko-Perunarkilli Chola.

· Udiyanjeral was succeeded by his son Nedunjeral Adan (AD 155) who is said to have subjugated the
‘Kadambu’ clan and conquered seven kings.

· He is also praised as having set his bow on the slope of the Himalyas so that his power was known from
Cape Comorin to the Himalayas.

· This is why he is known as Imayavaramban.

· The Yavanas are said to have been punished in a strange way.

· Their arms were pinioned behind their back and ghee was poured on their head.
· The poet of Patirrupattu was rewarded with the free gift of 500 villages in Umbark Kadu (elephant forest)
and the revenue for 38 years from the southern province of the kingdom, by this king who ruled for 58
years.

· His capital is called Marandai and he fought a war with his contemporary Chola king in which both the
monarch lost their lives and their queens performed sati.

· Next in line was Pal-Yanai Selkelu-Kuttuvan or ‘Kuttuvan of many elephants’, a brother of Nedunjeral Adan.

· A fierce warrior who was the worshipper of Korraivai changed over to Brahmanism and accepted
Nedumbaratayanar as his preceptor.

· He later entered the title of Dharmaputra.

· Kuttavan was succeeded by his nephew, a son of Nedunjaral Adan known as Kalankaik Kanni Narmudijera
(the Chera with the Kalangay festoon and the fibre crown) who is said to have defeated the Atiyamanas.

· The other son of Nedunjeral Adan was Senguttuvan, ‘the righteous Kuttuva’ (AD 180).

· He was the greatest early Chera king, also known as Pirakottiya Senguttuvan or red Chera, and was a
contemporary of the poet Parnar, one of the most celebrated and longest-lived poets of the Sangam era.

· He is the hero of the fifth decade of the Patirrupattu and the real of Silappadikaram, the Tamil epic by the
Chera Prince Ilango Adigal.

· He is said to have conquered vast regions from Cape Comorin in the South to the Himalayas in the north
‘where the gods dwell’.

· From the Himalayas, he is supposed to have got a stone to make an idol of the goddess Kannagi.

· Early in his reign, he is said to have subjugated the chieftain of Mogur known as Palaiyan as well as the
chief of Kongar.

· He won a great naval victory and got the title ‘Kadal-Pirakkottiya’, i.e., who destroyed the efficacy of the
sea as a refuge.

· It was because of this naval victory that Musiri became a safe port and in Guttuvan’s days, Yavana ships
called in large numbers.
· The Mogur chief Nannan Palaiyan again rose in revolt with assistance from the Chola and Pandyan rulers,
sometime late in his reign.

· Senguttuvan repressed this revolt and, as a trophy, he wore on his chest the crest of jewels of seven
ruling princes.

· He is also said to have participated in the civil strife in the Chola kingdom, helped Parum-Killis or Nalam-
Killi, who was his brother-in-law, and placed him on the throne by defeating the rival at Nerivayil.

· The insignia that his royal decrees bore consisted of the bow, the fish, and the tiger.

· According to Silappadikaram, this monarch was the founder of the famous Pattini cult related to the
worship of goddess of chastity.

· This function was attended by king Gajabahu of Sri Lanka.

· Senguttuvan was a great patron of arts and letters and was particularly fond of Kuttu or dancing and the
drama which he patronized liberally. This great Chera king reigned for 55 years.

· Senguttuvan was succeeded by his half-brother Perunjeral (or Perumcheral) Adan (AD 180) known to
Patirrupattu as Adu-Kotpattu Charalatan.

· He was the contemporary of the great Chola king Karikal.

· We learnt from the poems Puram and Aham, that while fighting against the Cholas in the battle of Venni,
Perunjeral Adan received a wound in the back and expiated the disgrace by starving himself to death on
the battlefield with his swords in hand.

· The sixth decade in which this king is discussed was composed by Naccellaiyar and was married to this
king.

· All together, seven monarch of the line of Udiyanjeral are mentioned in the Patirruppattu while there is
evidence of another line of Cheras in the same Sangam literature.

· Establishment of this line was the result of the expansion of the Chera kingdom towards with the north
and placement of a viceroy with headquarters at Tondi.

· Olval-Ko-Perum-Cheral Irumporai may be regarded as the first of their viceroys as he is said in the
Colophone to have gone to reign at Karuvur.

· The kingdom seems to have started with Anduvan Ceral Irumporai who died along with the Chola king
Prunarkilli in the battle of Por.
· Anduvan was succeeded by his son Selvakkadungo Vali Adan was succeeded by his son Perum Cheral
Irumporai, a great warrior in whose phase Arisil Kilar has sung the eighth decade of Patirrupattu.

· Like his father, he is also said to have performed a Yajna Ali Adan.

· It is recorded that this king won a victory over the combined forces of the Cholas and Pandyas.

· He was renowned for his overthrow of the stronghold of Tagadur, the seat of the power of the Adigaiman
chieftains.

· He is also said to have subjugated a rebellious shepherd leader named Kaluvul and captured his fortress.

· The last king of this dynasty was the son of (or cousin of) Irumporai called Ilam-Cheral Irumporai, the hero
of the ninth decade of Patirruppattu.

· He is said to have fought a battle against ‘the two big kings’ (Pandya and Chola).
· Another Chola Prince of the northern line deserving mention is Yanaik-Kat-Sey Mandaranjeral Irumporai,
i.e., ‘Sey of the elephant look’ (AD 210).

· He was captured by his Pandya contemporary Nedunjeliyam, but regained his freedom in time to prevent
his enemies at home from deposing him.

· Another important Chera king was Kanaikkalirumporai who punished Muvan, a chief, by having his teeth
pulled out and fixed on the gate at Tondi as warning.

· This king was some time later captured by the Chola king Sen-Kanan and later released on request of the
poet Poigaiyar but died without water in the Chola prison itself.

· The famous Chera port Musiri or Muziris was a great centre of indo-Roman trade.

The Cholas

· Col. Gerini connected the word Chola with Sanskrit kala (black) and with kola which in the early days
designated the dark-coloured pre-Aryan population of southern India in general.

· Bhandarkar connected it with Sanskrit ‘Chora’ (thief) while it has been connected with ‘Colam’ which
means millet in Tamil.

· Killi, Valavan and Sembiyan are the other names of the Cholas.
· The Cholas adopted the tiger as their crest while figured on their banner.

· The Chola dominion came to be known as Tondaimandalam or Cholamandalam in early medieval times
with the capital at Uraiyur in Tiruchirapalli dist and subsequently at Kaveripattinam or Puhar founded by the
Chola king Perunjeral Adan.

· In the middle of the 2nd Century BC, it seems that a Chola king called Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled
over it for nearly 50 years.

· Karikala, the foremost among the Sangam Cholas, was the son of Ilanjetcenni.

· Karikala means ‘the main man with the charred legs’.

· In later times, under Sanskritic influences, the name was explained as death (kala) to ‘kali’ or death to
(‘enemies’) elephants.

· Karikala Chola was a very competent ruler and a great warrior.

· He fought a great battle at Venni in which the Pandyas and the Cheras both suffered crushing defeats. In
this battle eleven minor chieftains were also uprooted.

· He again defeated a confederacy of nine minor chieftains in a battle at Vakaipparandalai.

· Karikala maintained a powerful navy, which he used to conquer Sri Lanka, from where he brought a large
number of prisoners of war whom he used for building a huge embankment of 160 km to tame the Kaveri
river.

· This was built with the labour of 12,000 slaves brought as captives from Sri Lanka.

· He made Puhar or Kaverippumapattinam an important port and an alternative capital of the Chola
kingdom.

· The poet of Pattinappalai gives an account of the port of Puhar, state of industry and commerce under
Karikala, who also promoted the reclamation and settlement of forest land, and added to the prosperity of
the country by multiplying irrigation tanks.

· He is also credited with converting the Oliyar community from nomadism to a settled life.
· Two sons of Karikala ruled from two different capitals – Nalangilli from Puhar and Nedungilli from Uraiyur.

· The consequent civil war ended with the death of Nedungilli.

· After Nalangilli, Killivalavan came to the throne who captured Karur, the Chera capital.
· He seems to have died in a battle with the Pandyan forces.

· Another renowned Chola king was Kopperunjolan who also ruled from Uraiyur.

· There was a serious quarrel between Kopperunjolan and his two sons and the king ultimately committed
suicide, along with his friend and poet Andai.

· Perunarkilli was another Chola king who is the only one among the Sangam kings who performed the
Rajasuya sacrifice attended by Chera Mari Venko and Pandya Ugra Peruvaludi.

· Koccenganam come next as Chola king. He is generally known for his religious zeal.

· Another Chola king was Ilanjetcenni who captured two fortresses (Seruppali and Pamulur) from the
Cheras.

· Senganan, the Chola king famed in legend for his devotion to Siva, figures as the victor in battle of Por
against the Chera Kanaikkal Irumporai.

· The Chera king was imprisoned and later released.

· Senganan Chola is said to have built 70 fine temples of Siva.

· With the rise of Pallavas, the Cholas became only a marginal force in South Indian history.

The Pandyas

· The Maduraikkanji refers to Nediyon or Vadimbalamba Ninravan as the first Pandya king.

· He is credited with bringing the Pahruli river into existence and organizing the worship of the sea.

· The same text mentions Pasalai Mudukudumi as the second ruler who is mentioned as the first king in the
Velvikkudi grant.

· Palsalai Mudukudumi or Mudukudumi Peruvaludi is praised by three poets in five short poems.

· A description of the way he treated conquered territory, ploughing it with white-mouthed ass and refers to
the many big sacrifices he performed, hence the title Palsalai meaning ‘of the many (sacrificial) halls’.

· The third ruler mentioned in Maduraikkanji was one Nedunjelian, distinguished by the title
Ariyappadaikadanda meaning “he who won a victory against an Aryan army”.

· A short poem (Puram 183) ascribed to him, puts learning above birth and caste.

· He is said to have died of broken heart when the innocence of Kovalan was proved to him by Kannagi. This
story is the main theme of the epic Silappadikaram.

· His viceroy at Korkai and perhaps his son and successor was Seliyan, called Verri Verceliyan or Ilanjelian,
who wrecked terrible vengeance on the goldsmiths by sacrificing a thousand of them in one day to appease
the great goddess who had been Kannagi.

· The only other figure that stands out from the rest, the victor of Talaiyalanganam, was later than the
rulers mentioned in the silappadikaram and is known as Nedunjelian (different from Nedunjelian
Ariyappadaikadanda).
· He came to the throne as a youth and at the very beginning of his reign he had to face a hostile
combination of his two neighbouring monarchs aided by five minor chiefs at a place called
Palaiyalanganam.

· In this campaign, Mandaram Cheral Irumporai, the son of the Chera king of the elephant look was
captured.
· He is said to have performed a Vedic sacrifice.

· Ilvandikaippallittunjiya Nanmaran have pilloried in song for his liberality.

· Another king Ugrapperuvaludi subdued the chieftain of Kanapper.

· Himself a poet, he is said to have caused the Ahananuru to be made.

· Bhutappandiyan took Ollaiyur and his queen is well known by her song on the occasion of her sati.

· Under the Pandyas their capital Madurai and the Pandyan poet Korkai were great centers of trade and
commerce.

· The Pandyan dominion was very wealthy and prosperous on account of the brisk indo-Roman trade.

· The Pandyan kings sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus and Trojan.

The Sangam Government

· Clues in the texts points point more or less to a chiefdom level society with three categories of political
powers:

· Kilar (village headman), velar (hill chiefs) and Ventar (lowl and chiefs).

· An Ur-Kilar of the pristine type was a clan based headman with kinship ties with his people.

· Velir were the hill chiefs who sometimes subjugated the neighbouring Ur-Kilar for predatory exaction, but
were confined to their respective hills.

· The Ventars were the biggest chiefs who held control over larger areas through the subordination of the
Kilar who fought for and shared the booty with them.

· The Chera, Chola and Pandya, constituting the Muventar (three crowned kings), owed their superiority to
controlling the rice-producing plains and the transmarine trade set them apart from the less fortunate
chiefs called Vels, Velars or Kurunilaimannar.

· The kings in the Sangam texts are known by terms like Kon, Ko, Mannan, Vendan, Korravan or Iraivan, etc.

· Ko is shortened form of Kon which means cowherd and it is also used as a general term for ‘god’.

· Courts were known as Avai (a corrupt form of Sabha), Arasavai, Olakkam or Irukkai.

· The crowned kings acquired many titles.

· The Cheras were known by Vanavar (celestials), Villavar (hunters and bowmen), Kudavar, Kuttuvar
(westerners), Poraiyar, Malaiyar (rulers of mountain land), Puliyar (rulers of Puli Nadu), etc.

· The Cholas were known as Sennis (leaders), Sembiyam (descendants of Sibi), Valavan (rulers of the fertile
land), Killi (the chief) etc.

· The Pandyas were known as Minavar (fisherman), Kavuriya (related to the Kauravas), Panchavar (related
to the Pandavas), Tennar (Southerners), Sliyar (of the fertile land), Marar (Southerners), Valudi etc.
· The term Vendan was used only for the three supreme kings and rest were lesser kings who did not wear
a regular crown.

· The place of the king and the place of the god were both called Koyil (the adobe of Ko).

· Arasan, a general term referring to a king was Tamilized form of Rajan.

· The king’s birthday is celebrated every year and the day was called Perunal (the great day).

· The royal emblem (viz. the tiger of the Chola, the bow of the Chera and the carp of the Pandya) was
inscribed on the outer gate of the palace.

· The eldest son of the reigning king generally succeeded to the throne by right and this was known as
Murai Mudal Kattil.

· The crown Prince was known as Komahan while the younger ones were known as Ilango, Ilanjeliyan,
Ilanjeral etc.

· The right of succession was called Tayam (a general term for securing a property).

· The coronation ceremony was known as Arasu Kattil Erudal or Mudi Suttu Vila.

· The king’s power was restricted by five councils which were known as the ‘five great councils’, also known
as Aimperunkulu.

· The ‘group of five’ was a recognized body of people, composed of five divisions and constituting a council.

· These five consisted of:

1. ministers (armaichchar)
2. priests (purohitar)
3. army chiefs (senapatiyar)
4. envoys or ambassadors (dutar)
5. Spies (orrar).

· There was another institution called Enperayam which consisted of:

1. karanattiyalavar (accountants)
2. karumakarar (executive officials)
3. kanakasurram (treasury officials)
4. kadaikappalar (palace guards)
5. nagaramandar (elderly persons in the city)
6. padaittalaivar (chiefs of the infantry)
7. yanai virar (chiefs of the elephantry)
8. ivuli maravar (chiefs of the cavalry)

· The kings bestowed titles and honours on their subordinates in recognition of their performance.

· These honour were called Marayam and were of three categories viz. Etti (conferred on leading
merchants, the Vanigars), Kavidi (conferred on personal attendants who got tax-free holdings), and Enadi
(to be conferred on distinguished soldiers).

· Some other officials of the Sangam age included Mandirakkanakkar (scribes in-charge of royal
correspondence and were also known as Mandira Olai), Arakkalattu Andanar (judicial advisers), Tandira
Vinainar (executive officials doing odd clerical job), dharma Vinainar (discharging religious duties) and
Ayakkanakkar (incharge of revenue collection).

Municipal and Village Administration

· The village was the fundamental unit of administration and in connection with the management of village
affairs we come across the terms: Manaram, Podiyil, Ambalam and Avai.

· The Manaram, the Podiyil and the Ambalam seem to be synonymous terms denoting a place where the
village assembly (Avai) met to transact local business.

· The entire kingdom (big or small) was called Mandalam.

· Nachchinarkkiyar speaks of the four divisions of Tamilaham: Chera, Chola, Pandya and Tondai Mandalams.

· Below the Mandalam a major division was Nadu and we also hear of a unit called Kurram.

· According to V.R.R. Dikishitar, Nadu was a subdivision of Kurram and According to U.V.S. Iyer, Kurram was
the subdivision of Nadu.

· The Ur was a town which variously described as a big village (Perur), a small village (Sirur) or an old
village (Mudur).

· Cheri was the suburb of a town or village, while Pakkam was a neighbouring area.

· Salai was the trunk road and Teru the street in a town.

· Pattinam was a term for a coastal town and Puhar was a general term for harbour area.

· Kaverippumpattinam was the Pattinam par excellence of Tamilaham and was generally known as Pattinam
only.

· Many towns have been mentioned in the texts but the major ones were Puhar (the famous Chola port and
coastal capital), and uraiyur (the Chola inland capital also known as Koli and Varanam: it was a strongly
defended city and its outskirts had burial grounds which were full of stones and hence ‘there were many
obstacles to easy movement’.

· This description is strongly suggestive of the existence megalithic burials;

· The classical writers describe the place as noted for its cotton textiles-argaritic derived from Argaru or
Uraiyur, Korkai (the Pandyan coastal capital, situated on Tamraparni river;

· It was reputed for its pearl fisheries where the Paradavar (fisherman) dived for pearls), Kaval (meaning
salt pans, situated near Korkai;

· The Periplus talks of Colchi (Korkai) and its pearl fishiers worked by condemned criminals), Madurai (the
Pandyan inland capital), Musiri (the Chera port) and Vanji or Karur (the Chera capital), Kanchi (also known
as Kacci, Kaccimurram and Kacchippetu) the capital of Tondainadir, was another major city.

· Arikamedu was known to the Sangam literature as Virai (modern Viram Pattinam). It was one of the velar
strongholds known to Sangam literature.
· Virai, described as a harbour was probably one of the coastal town like Sopatinam (modern Marakkanam),
of the Oy clan of Velir.
· It was also the capital of the Velir chieftain Virai Veliyan Venman.

Military Organization

· Defending fortresses (Inji, Purisai or Ahappa) well developed.

· High battlement walls – Nayil

· Moat – Ahali or Kidangu

· Towered gates – Parvgal

· The fortress of Kanapper had on additional fence of impenetrable forest.

· The sufferings of a beleaguered fortress from the subject of a poem by kovur kilar.

· The traditional four fold army – Padai.

· Chariots were drawn by oxen or horses.

· Sword (Val) and shield (Kedaham or Kiduhu) were used in close combat, and the Tomaram is mentioned,
evidently as a missiles to be thrown at the enemy from a distance.

· Body-armour (tol) made of tiger-skin for the protection of the body, and a cover of leather for the forearm
were in use.

· Generally the war started with a well-known incident, viz., cattle lifting known as Atandombal in the
Tolkappiam.

· The warriors wore the heroic anklet called Virakkalal on which the heroic deeds of the wearer were
inscribed.

· In the army the van (Tusi) and the rear (Kulai) were distinguished besides the flanks (Pakkam).

· The war drum was worshipped as a Diety and crows and kites ate the bali offered.

· Before marching, the sword was taken into a procession and umbrella and drum were sent in advance as a
token of march towards the battlefield. This was known as the ceremony of Nalkol.

· The slain soldiers were believed to attain the ‘heaven of heroes’ (Virasvarga) and were often honoured by
the erection of memorial stones (Virakkal or Nadukal).

· An institution peculiar to the Sangam Tamils was the Kavalmaram.

· The kings – sovereigns as well as the feudatories – maintained with great care a tree in the courtyard of
their palaces or near the Manaram or some central place in the town or at some convenient or well-
protected spot.

· It was a totemic symbol and was believed that the tree had the power to protect the town; it was
therefore, called ‘Tutelary tree’, a Kadimaram or Kavalmaram.

· Senguttuvan destroyed Palyan’s Vembu (Margosa) and tree and transported it in a huge vehicle drawn by
elephants which were yoked to the carriage by strong ropes made of the twisted hair of the women of the
enemy land.

· Kalangaikkanni Narmudi Cheral defeated the chieftain Nannan (the rules of Puli land) and cut down his
Vahai (Albizzia Lebbek) tree.

Revenue Administration

· Land tax was called Irai or Karai.

· Tributes paid by the feudatories and war booty collected from recently conquered foes were Irai;

· Tolls and customs duties were Ulugu or Sungam.

· The duties to be paid to the king were generally known as Kadamai or Padu, and Paduvadu.

· Vari was also a generic term meaning income.

· Extra demands or forced gifts were called Iravu.

· A well known unit of territory yielding tax was a Variyam and the tax collecting authority was a Variyar.
· The rate of revenue was 1/6 of the produce.

· Kural states that the king’s revenues were derived from:

1. Uru Porul (treasure-troves and escheats or land revenue according to K.A. Nilakanta Shastri).
2. Ulgu Porul (customs and tolls).
3. Onnartteru Porul (war-booty and tributes).

· Tamilakam had an extensive trade with Rome, Egypt, Myanmar (Burma), Kadaram (Malaya) and Java
(Yava) and Ulgu was collected on all items.
· Other than Variyar (land tax collector) we hear of Alumbil Vel (assisted by Ayakkanakkar – revenue
accountant), Kavidi (finance minister), Karanattiyalavar, Ayakkarar (toll collectors) etc, as tax collecting
authorities.

Weights and Measures

· Kanam was a measure of gold, very small in size.

· Pons referred to perhaps the same measure as Kanam.

· Kasu was a kind of coin of the size of a margosa fruit and of the shape of lotus bud.

· Kasu generally meant a small copper coin.

· Silver was called Velli and rarely Ven Pon.

· Iron was also known as Pon.

· The grain from the field was measured in Ambanam.

· The Padirrupattu commentator equates Ambanam with a Marakkal.

· Nail was a much smaller measure equal to one Ulakku or two Alakkus.

· Nalikai was a measure of time.

· Usually, the grain measure was called nail and the time measure Nalikai.

· Tuni and Padakku were also cubic measures used for measuring horse gram and other grains.

· A smaller measure of a weight was a Todi which was an equivalent of a Polam.

· Kalanju was a unit of measuring gold.

· Popular unit of distance was a Kuppidu.

Sangam Society

· The stratification in Tamil Sangam society was primarily confined to the binary between the Vyarntor (the
high born) and Ilipirappalar (the low born).

· Tolkappiyam list of four categories (castes): Andanar (brahmanas), arasar (kings), vaisiyar (traders) and
velalar (farmers).
· Tamilham consisted of five Tinais or physiographical divisions viz., Kurinji (hilly backwoods), Palai (parched
zones), Mullai (Pastrol tract), Marutam (wet land), and Neital (littoral).

· The Kanavar, Kuravar and Vetar or Kadar were the inhabitants of the Kurinji-tinai and hunting and
gathering their form of subsistence.
· Palai-tinai, the inhabitants were Kalavar, Eyinar and Maravar living by plunder and cattle lifting.

· In the Mullai-tinai the inhabitants were Ayar and Idaiyar subsisting on shifting agriculture and animal
husbandry.

· Marutam-tinai were inhabited by Ulavar and Toluvar subsisting on plough agriculture.

· Neital-tinai was inhabited by Paratavar, Valavar and Minavar dependent on fishing and salt extraction.

· We get a total of eight social groups, viz.,

1. Kuravar (shifting agriculturists)
2. Vetar (hunters and food gatherers)
3. Idaiyar (cattle-keepers)
4. Kallar (plundering cattle lifting-people)
5. Ulavar (plough agriculturists)
6. Paratavar (fisherman)
7. Umnar (salt manufacturers)
8. Panar (wandering bards associated with all the tinails)

· On the basis of nature of production the agriculture zone (marutum) was called Menpulam and the rest,
excluding Neital, were collectively called Vanpulam.

· Menpulam produced paddy and sugarcane and vanpulam grew pulses and dryland grains.

· Full-time craft specialists in the poems:

1. Pon-kolavan (goldsmith)

2. Kolavan(blacksmith)

3. Kuyavam or kalace-kovan (potter).

· The basis of production relations was kinship, signified by Ilaiyarum Mutiyarum Kilaiyutan Tuvunri, which is
a stock expression in the poems referring to the labour processes in any Tinai.

· Illiyar means youngsters, Mutiyar means elders and Kilai means agnatic kin.

· The term Kilai stands as the Tamil counterpart of Jati.

· Grain was husked in hollows made in the ground (Nila-ural), and converted into flakes (Aval).

· Appam (Apupa) or rice-cake soaked in milk was a luxury.

· Mural paintings – Ovaikkalai.

· Traveling troops of dances carried their Yal (lute); Padalai (one-sided drum).

· The dances of Viralis (professional dancing-girls) took place at night.

· Different kinds of lutes like Periyal, Palai-yal and Sengottiyal are described in detail in different contexts.

· There is a full length description of a Padini, a singing women of the Panar community (Viraliyar) in the
Perunanuruppadai in which Karikal himself is described as a master of the seven notes of music.

· Woman enjoyed much freedom of movement in society and the number of women poets of the age is
sufficient indication that they were not excluded from the best education then available.

· Sati (Tippaidal – falling into flames) was common.

· The worship of Kannagi or Pattini (‘the chaste lady’) was perhaps a very early institution and was but an
extension of the worship of the goddess of chastity’.

· This become popular with Senaguttuvana’s worship of Kannagi and spread to distant places like Sri Lanka
in the South and Malva in the north.

· The images of the Pattini Devi were preserved in Tamil temples till recently.

· The courtesans are mentioned at many places in the places in the texts, especially in Aham literature.
They were called Parattaiyar or Kanigaiyar.

· Later works like the Tolkappiyam and the Kalaviyal say that the Aryans introduced the rituals and
ceremonies of marriage (Karanam).

· These works also mention the spontaneous coming together of the sexes (Kamakkuttam), they distinguish
secret marriage (Kalavu) from the open alliance contracted with the consent of parents (Karpu); last they
refer to the eight forms of marriage known to the Sanskrit Dharmasashtra and show great ingenuity in
fitting them into framework of the Tamil scheme.

· Though the Gandharva form of marriage is easily equated to Ualavu (later known as Yalor system), the
other Aryan forms do not fall in line so easily.

Sangam Age Economy

· Vanpulam included all the hill slopes, arid plains and pastures which were larger than Menpulam which
included exclusively the wet-land plains of paddy cultivation.

· Cultivable tracts in the Vanpulam were called Enal or Punam where millet and gram grew in abundance.

· The material basis of Menpulam was of advanced plough agriculture.

· Sangam texts refer to Ulavar or Toluvar as the tillers of Menpulam.

· They knew the technique of harnessing the bullocks (Erutu) at their necks with a cross-bar (Nukam) to a
ploughshare (Meli or Nanjil) which was iron-tipped for furrowing.

· Buffaloes (Erumai) were also used for ploughing.

· Tank irrigation (Ayam) and minor dam (Sirai) irrigation are mentioned.

· Many of the jobless clans of Vanpulam depended on the produce of menpulam as iravar (beggars), Kallar
(thieves) and Panar (the bards).

· The subsistence farmers of Vanpulam came to Menpulam for exchanging their hill products for paddy and
other goods.

· The coastal people came to Menpulam to exchange fish and salt for paddy.

· In short, Menpulam was the nerve centre of contemporary economic life.

· And this is the region; the early Tamil kingdoms were located in – Cholas on the Kaveri, Pandyas on the
Tambraparani and Vaigai and Cheras on the Kerala coast.

· Poems refer to the exchange of goods for goods (Notuttal).

· Kadam or Kadan meaning debt is mentioned in the texts.

· The loan of a commodity to be paid back in the same kind and quantity was in vogue and was called
Kurittumaretirppai or Kuriyetirppai.
· Avanam or Angadi were the main organized points of exchange (market place).
· Pattanam were the centres of long distance trade.

· Certain weights of gold known as Kaame and Kalanju were used as media of exchange in the Pattanam,
perhaps also in certain higher transactions.

· The institutionalization of war is clear from the description of Vetcci (cattle raid), Karanttai (cattle
recovering war), Vanji (cheiftains’s attack of a territory), kanji (defending war), Tumpai (getting ready for
war), Vakai (the killing of enemies), Untattu (social dining and drinking before and after the wars),
Perumcorruvilavu (grand rice feast) and Citucorruvilavu (small rice feast).

· In these plunder raids, often cultivated fields (Kalani or Palanam) and settlements were destroyed.

Agricultural Products

· The anthologies mention paddy (Cennel, Putunnel), wild paddy (Aivanam, Torai, Kalaivennel), ginger,
turmeric, pepper, sugarcane, cotton, horse-gram, and many other cereals of coarse variety as main
agricultural products.

· Uraiyur, a Chola capital, was famous for cotton cloth.

· Smithy was another industrial activity which indulged in making weapons of war and the place (factory)
was known as Panikkalari.

· Pattinappalai mentions how goods brought to the Chola port were piled up and customs officers stamped
each bundle with king’s tiger seal.

· Fishers and coastal traders called Paratavar imported horses, sandalwood and some kind of white snow.

· Purunanuru tells how high-piled sacks of pepper were taken by Yavanas (Romans) in exchange for gold
Padirruppattu mentions that a Chera king had warehouses for valuables coming by ship.

· From the Periplus, we know that the Chera port of Musiri imported spikenard from the Ganga, while silk,
tortoise shell and betel leaf came from South-East Asia.

· At puhar, the Chola capital, there were merchant colonies speaking different languages.

· Silappadikaram mentions how ships sailed directly from South-East Asia to the Chola coast with special
woods, silk, sandle, camphor and spices.

Important Ports

· Ptolemy lists six coastal places in TN to which he appends the word ‘emporium’.

· Three of these, Musiri, Korkai and Kavarippattinam are known from anthologies to have been chief ports of
three early kingdoms.

· Another city, called either Perimula or Perimuda, is described as “the greatest emporium of trade in India”.
It was on the Vaigai delta near Rameshwaram.

· A walled city called kapadapuram was situated around tambraparani delta.

· Akkadu village in Tanjavur has been suggested to have been the Arkatos of Ptolemy which was also the
second capital of the Cholas.

· Musiri of anthologies was known as Muziris of the Greeks.

· A subsidiary capital, Tondi has been identified with Ponnani.

· Greek records also mention Vaikkarai, Nilakanta and Netravati as ancient port towns in Kerala.
· Pantar in the South of Kerala and Puli (around Tuluva) were ports of the Sangam period.

· Kaveripumppattinam was known to Ptolemy as Khaberis (Puhar of literature).

· Vellaiyan-Irrupu (“white man’s settlement”) is located near Kaveripattinam.

· Kalaiyur, located near Kaveripattinam has yielded a structure which was identified as a dock by S.R. Rao,
Korkai, a port of the Sangam period, was a pearl market and the seat of the Pandyan vice-royalty.

· Manabalipuram may have been Ptolemy’s mélange (Mavilankai) which is said to have been an emporium.

· It is also identifiable with the port of Nirpayarrurai mentioned in Perumpanarruppadai.

· Marakanam, north of Pondicherry, appears to have been a harbour and is identified with Sopatma of the
Periplus and Eyil of Sirupanarruppadai.

· The mouth of the Vellaru was an Arab ship building port.

· The place called Agarlu in the periplus was situated near Tondi on Palk bay (different from Tondi in
Kerala).

· It exported pearls and muslins.

· The end of the peninsula, called Kodi, was one of the earliest points of the South known in the north
(Arthashastra) and was used by the Greeks as a fixed point of navigation.

· Nearby was situated Pasika mentioned in the Arthashastra as a source of pearl.

· Muthupettai, west of the Vaigai delta, was a pearl market.

· Tirucendur, South of the Tambraparani delta, has a well known temple of murukan, said in myths to
protect the Pandyas from incursions from the sea.

· This is probably the same as Sentil of Tirumurukarruppadai and is certainly one of the earliest Pandyan
sacred spots.

· Somewhere nearby was the early Pandyan capital of Kapadapuram, and also on the coast in the same
region was South Madurai.

· These are supposed to have been the first two Pandyan capitals and the sites of the first two literary
academies, Kanniyakumari (Cape Comorin) is mentioned as early as Eratosthenes which the Greeks used as
a fixed point for navigation. Ptolemy lists it among the ports.

· Bandar and Kodumanam were other ports with a wealth of seaborne imports, Bandar being noted for its
pearls and Kodumanam for rare jewels.

· Mention is made of the abundance of quartzite precious stones in the hills of the Chera country.

· Pepper, ginger, rice, sandalwood, ahil, almug, cardamom, cinnamon, turmeric, ivory and pearls, gems like
beryl (an aquamarine gem) and corundum, cotton and cotton fabrics were the main commodities, which
were in great demand in foreign countries.

· Monkeys, deer, peacocks, cheetahs, tigers and elephants were also in demand.

· Kapin (Kavi in Tamil) and Tukim (peacock, Tokai in Tamil) are Hebrew words and these were exported to
the western world.

· Similarly, Greek Oruza for rice is derived from Tamil Arisi, English ginger is derieved from Latin Zingiber
which in turn was derieved from Tamil Injiver, the Tamil Chiruttai became cheetah in English, cardamom
was from kurundam and sandal was derived from Sandana or Sandu.
· We find large hoards of Roman gold coins of the Augustan age in many parts of South India which provide
evidence of the brisk trade between Tamilaham and Rome.
· The direct trade route between Tamilaham and Arabia, Egypt and Rome had been well established by the
date of the periplus.

· Trade with Rome in the first century AD was so lucrative to the Tamils that the Pandyan king sent two
embassies to Augustus (20 BC) to win his favour.

· We have reference to the inability of others to enter the western sea where the Chera led his gold-giving
ship.

· One text mentions the ships of titan Veliyan bringing gold.

· Pliny’s reference to an Indian ship carried off to the German coast by wind is also given as evidence.

· Recent excavations on the red sea coast have brought to light graffiti in Tamil Brahmi characters,
probably the two names Chatan and Kanan.

· Inscription’s dated to the first century BC from Sri Lanka mention a Damila Vaija, Damila Navika and a
Damila Gahapati showing their association with horse trade.

· A Jataka (480) also mentions Kaveripattam in the Damila country.

Religion of Sangam Tamils

· The religion of the Sangam age was not uniform.

· Their rituals were related to animism and other forms of anthropomorphic diety worship.

· The whole philosophy of reincarnation, hero worship, ancestor worship, sati worship etc. were related to
death.

· Animism accounts for a good part of Tamil Sangam religion and comprised worship stones, water, stars
and planets.

· A mere planted log of wood called Kandu was an object of worship for it was believed that a deity resided
in that log of wood.

· Three strands of religion, clearly marked off from each other, are discernible during the Sangam period:
1. The indigenous gods and systems of worship
2. The exotic Hindu gods and systems of worship
3. The exotic non-Hindu religious faiths and functions.

· The hunters of the hill tracts worshipped murugan as the god of the hillock.
· Indra, god of Marudam, was worshipped by the agriculturists. There was a special festival instituted in
puhar in honour of Indra.

· The fishermen and the people of the coastal regions worshipped varuna, the god of the wide ocean.

· Korravai was the goddess of victory.

· Among the established gods worshipped according to rituals, the three eyed god (Siva), Murugan, Tirumal,
Balram and Indra seem to have been the more important.

· The temple was called nagar, koil, kottam, purai or devlayam.

· The popularity and prevalence of the Brahmanical Velvi (Yajna) the Sraddha and panda to the dead,
fasting etc. are well attested to by the Sangam literature.
· References are not lacking to the performance of Vedic sacrifices and the sacrificial posts, the Yupas,
those of Pandya king Mudukudumi Peruvaludi being the best known.

· The word Yakacalai is used for Yajnasala.

· Vishnu sleeping on the coils of Ananta in Kanchipuram is mentioned in the Perumbanarruppadai.

· Shiva as Ardhanarisvara (half-man half-woman), his bull Nandi, his Ganas, in fact the whole gamut of
Saivite legends are found together in the invocatory verse of the Purananuru.

· Siva, Balarama, Krishna, and Subrahmanya (better known as Murugan in Tamil) are mentioned together in
one poem.

· The birth of Subramanya from Kali and his warlike achievements like the destruction of the Asura called
Sura are favourite themes of the poets.

· The worship of this deity was attended by primitive dances known as Velanadal.

· The reference to the worship of the deity of the forest (Kaduraikadavul), often identified with Durga, may
be another survival of a similar nature.

· Though Buddhism and Jainism must have found a footing in the land, there are few references to them in
this literature.

· Ascetics wearing orange robes and carrying a Tridanda (Mukkol) are referred to.
· Tapas – austerities.
· There are references both to cremation and burial urns, and to judge only from the trend of these
references, cremation and burial appear to have been alternative modes of disposal, and the Manimekalai
furnishes evidence that both these and other methods of disposal survived together up to a relatively late
age, say the sixth or seventh century AD.

· Some light on the funerary rites of the time is thrown by the references to the wife offering a Pindam (rice-
ball) to her dead husband who was supposed to eat it at the instance of a Pulaiyan, before his pyre was
kindled.

· Indra, Yama, Varuna and Soma (Kubera) are mentioned as the guardians of the four directions: the east,
the South, the west and the north respectively.

· Gods on the basis of caste are also mentioned in the Silappadikaram.

· Brahma (the four faced one), the thirty-three Devas and the eleven Ganas are also mentioned in
Tirumuruarruopadai.

· Umai, Tirumal, Kalaimaga, Aylrani (wife of Indra) were some of the goddesses worshipped.

· There seem to be parallel names in Tamil and in Sanskrit for the same gods – Murugan and Subrahmanya,
Tirumal and Vishnu, Siva and Rudra.

· Among the temples in the Sangam age there is specific mention of quite a large number.

· The temple was called Nagar, in latter-day inscription’s we also read of Vinnagara, meaning the temple of
‘Vishnu’.

· Kottam, Koil, Nagar, Il or Griha meant place of residence; hence the expression Vishnugriha also meant
‘temple for Vishnu’.

· The name ‘Siva’ is rarely mentioned in the Sangam literature; but many of his attributes (namely, the
three-eyed one, the one that destroyed the three aerial forts, he that holds the Trisula, he that is seated
under the Baniyan tree) are given in many contexts.
· Siva, of course had his temple and Kari Kilar advising Pandyan Palyagasalai Mudukudumipperuvaludi, says
that his royal umbrella should be lowered when he comes round the temple of the three-eyed one.

· The temple of Indra is mentioned in Silappadikaram and in Manimekalai.

· The festival of Indra was held all pomp by Chola king in puhar and Manimekalai calls it “the festival of the
thousand-eyed one”. His temple was called Vajrakkottam, for Vajra is the divine weapon of Indra.
· The commencement of the festival of Indra (Vira Kalkol) was proclaimed by the beat of drums placed on
elephant’s back.

· Tirumal as Tirumal and as Kannan is quite often mentioned and was worshipped and associated with
Valigaon (Baladeva) and with Kaman.

· Synthesis of the non-Aryan Tamil and the Aryan Vedic deities had begun during this period.

· The culture of Sangam age, as a whole, is a synthesis of the Tamil and Aryan cultures.

Harshavardhana
Harshavardhana was an Indian emperor who belonged to Pushibhukti family. He was born
around 580 AD and is believed to be the son of Prabhakar Vardhan, the founder
of VardhanDynasty. At the height of his glory his kingdom spanned the Punjab, Bengal, Orissa and the
entireIndo-Gangetic plain north of the Narmada river. He ascended the throne after his elder
brother Rajya Vardhanagot murdered by Sasanka, King of Gauda. At this time he was just 16 years of age.
After his accession to the throne he merged the two kingdoms of Thanesar and Kannaujand
shifted his capital to Kannauj.

Harsha was a secular ruler and respected all the religions and faiths. In his early life he used to be a sun-
worshipper but later he became the follower of Shaivism and Buddhism. According to the Chinese
pilgrimXuanzang, who visited the kingdom of Harsha in 636 AD, Harsha built many Buddhist Stupas. He was
also a great patron of the Nalanda University.
He was the first to establish the Sino-Indian diplomatic relationships.
He was a good scholar and a noted author. He wrote three plays in Sanskrit
namely Ratnavali,Priyadarsika and Nagananda. We can find well-documented record of his reign in
the work of his court poet Banabhatta. Bana wrote Harsha Charita, the first historical poetic work in
Sanskrit language. Work of the Chinese traveler, Xuanzang also provides a deep insight into the life
during Harshavardhana's rule.

He ruled India for almost forty years, and died in 647 AD, leaving behind no heir to the throne. After his
death his empire disintegrated.
Gautamiputra Satakarni
Gautamiputra Satakarni was the famous ruler of Sattavahana dynasty, under whom the empire
regained a dazzling recovery.
The Sattavahanas who are mentioned in the Puranas as the Andhra were the original inhabitants of
Western Deccan. They however extended their sway over Eastern Deccan in the later years.
The founder of the Sattavahana dynasty according to Puranas was Simukawho ousted the last
Kanva king Susharman from the throne and established the dominion of the Sattavahanas.
Since the ascension of Simuka to the throne for the next half-century, the Sattavahanas witnessed a series
of decline owing to the Scythian invasion. But the Sattavahanas had experienced an incredible recovery
under Gautamiputra Satakarni, the celebrated king of the Sattavahana Dynasty.He is also regarded the
greatest of the Sattavahanas since his prosperity even excelled his predecessors. The exploits and
achievements of Gautamiputra Satakarni were commemorated in the Nasik Prasasti, incised 20 years after
the death of Gautamiputra by his mother Devi Gautami Balasri. Another important source about the reign of
Gautamiputra Satakarni is the Nasik Prasasti.
The time period of Gautamiputra`s reign is a controversial subject and till date historians have failed to
provide authentic information about that. Satakarni was the contemporary of Saka Kshatrapas, Nahapana
and also defeated him in the eighteenth year of his reign. However Gautamiputra ruled till 130 A.D.
Gautamiputra Satakarni was described in the Nasik Prasasti as "Saka-Yavana Pallava
Nisudana", the destroyer of the Sakas, Pahlavas and the Yavanas.
The first sixteen years of his reign was devoted to the great preparation of the struggle against the Saka
power under Nahapana. The coins of Nahapana engraved by the name of Gautamiputra, testifies his
success against the Sakas. Nahapana had seized the Western Deccan from Sattavahanas.

To take avenge Gautamiputra carried out a valiant struggle against the Sakas for two long years and finally
killed Saka chief Nahapana and his governor Rishavadatta. The legend of the Saka-Sattavahana struggle
during Gautamiputra is also known from a gatha in Nirukti. Nahapana defended his capital Brigukachchha
from the Sattavahana invasion for two years but the accumulated wealth being exhausted, Nahapana
became weak, defeated and finally was killed. Gautamiputra later uprooted the Yavanas and the Pahlavas
from Deccan. Gautamiputra not only recovered his paternal land Maharashtra, the original homeland of the
Sattavahanas, but also annexed the Saka kingdom in Gujarat, Berar, Saurashtra, Malwa and North Konkan.
The overthrow of the Sakas by Gautamiputra constituted the Sattavahanas as a formidable power in South.
The idea of Digvijay began to haunt the Gautamiputra`s vision. From the Nasik Prasasti it is known that
apart from the countries conquered from Nahapana, Gautamiputra extended his sway over the districts
watered by the rivers of Rishika, Godavari and also the regions of Hyderabad and Berar. The conquests of
Satakarni are known from the Nasik Prasasti. The territories conquered by Gautamiputra include Asika or
Maharashtra, Muluka or northern Maharashtra, Surutha or Kathiawar, Kukura or Western Rajputana, Anupa
or Narmada Valley, Vidarbha or Berar, Akara, Avanti or western Malwa, Aparanta or Konkan. The Nasik
Prasasti also delineated that Gautamiputra was the master of the extensive land lying to the south of the
Vindhya Mountain, extending from the Western Ghats to the Eastern Ghats and also included the
Travancore region. However there is still a keen controversy among the historians whether the region of
Andhra, the second home of the Sattavahanas and Southern Kosala were part of Gautamiputra`s territory.
The mighty conqueror Gautamiputra Satakarni also earned enough prosperity as an able and benevolent
ruler. As a ruler Gautamiputra had a strong sense of public duty. To stabilise a strong administrative
establishment he introduced twin foundations of Sastric Laws and humanism, on which his administration
was based. He emphasised on the taxation system and levied taxes in conformity with justice. He worked
for the well-being and upliftment of the poor and the downtrodden section of his Empire.
As a king he witnessed the ill effects of narrow casteism, which had crept up in the society
during the contemporary era. Hence he was a great patron and a promoter of Varnasrama
dharma. At the same time he stopped the growth of sub castes due to the intermingling of four
social orders.
But Dr. Gopalachariya however thinks that sub-castes existed during that period. According to him, due to
the multiplication of vocations, it was not practically possible for Gautamiputra to stop the growth of sub-
castes. A sophisticated and learned king, Gautamiputra Satakarni was a staunch Brahmanist but he was
benign to other religious sects also.
Such a tough and powerful king like Gautamiputra Satakarni towards the end of his reign suffered
overthrows in Kardamaka Sakas. They snatched away most of the districts conquered by Gautamiputra
from Nahapana, the king of the Kshatrapa Sakas. After the fall of the Kshatrapa Sakas, a sister branch of
Kshatrapas, the Kardamakas emerged. The Geography of Ptolemy and the Girnar inscription of Rudramana
also corroborate the fact.
Gautamiputra Satakarni the illustrious ruler of the Sattavahana Dynasty was successful in unifying the
major parts of India under the authority of the Sattavahana Empire. Gautamiputra was considered the
destroyer of the Sakas, Pahlavas and the Yavanas. Under Gautamiputra, the Sattavahana Empire attained a
successful recovery and thriving prosperity. Being a benevolent ruler Gautamiputra was tolerant towards
the other religious groups and introduced administrative reforms for the successful administration of the
vast Empire. Gautamiputra Satakarni, hence can be regarded the greatest among the Sattavahanas.

Mudra- Rakshasa, Sanskrit Drama

Mudra-Rakshasa is a Sanskrit drama of Visakhadatta.
Mudra-Rakshasa is a Sanskrit drama of Visakhadatta. This is said to be a drama, which has an
historical interest, for Chandragupta, the Sandracottus of Greek writers, is a leading character
in it. The date of its production is apparently the eleventh or twelfth century A.D.
The purpose of the play is to reunite Rakshasa, the hostile minister of Nanda, the late king of Palibothra, to
the individuals by whom, or on whose behalf, his sovereign was murdered, that is the Brahman Chanakya,
and the prince Chandragupta.
By means of this analysis Rakshasa is provided by the device of Chanakya, an object of suspicion to the
prince with whom he took refuge, and is consequently dismissed by him. In this abandoned condition he
discovers the forthcoming danger of a dear friend whom Chanakya is about to put to death. With the aim to
save his friend he surrenders himself before the enemies. On the contrary the enemies offer him with the
rank and power of prime minister, and the parties are finally friends.
The author of the play is called in the prelude Visakhadatta. He was not a poet of the sphere of
Bhavabhuti or Kalidasa but he has a vigorous perception of character and a manly strain of
sentiment. He is the Messenger of the Hindus.

The Pallavas of Kanchi

In the last quarter of the 6th century A.D. the Pallava king Sinhavishnu rose to power and conquered
the area between the rivers Krishna and Cauveri. His son and successor Mahendravarman was a
versatile genius, who unfortunately lost the northern parts of his dominion to
the Chalukya king, PulekesinII. But his son, Narsinhavarman I, crushed the power of Chalukyas.
The Pallava power reached its glorious heights during the reign of Narsinhavarman II, who is well known for
his architectural achievements. He built many temples, and art and literature flourished in his
times. Dandin, the great Sanskrit scholar, lived in his court.
However, after his death, the Pallava Empire began to decline and in course of time they were reduced to a
mere local tribal power. Ultimately, the Cholas defeated the Pallava king Aparajita and took over
their kingdom towards the close of the 9th century A.D.
The ancient history of India has seen the rise and downfall of several dynasties, which have left their
legacies still resounding in the golden book of Indian history. With the end of the 9th century A.D., the
medieval history of India started with the rise of empires such as the Palas, the Senas, thePratiharas and
the Rashtrakutas, and so on.
SANSKRIT sCHOLARS)
1. Bhaṭṭikāvya or "Bhatti's Poem" is one of the boldest experiments in classical literature: written in
Sanskrit in the 7th century CE, in the formal genre of "great poem" (mahākāvya) it incorprates two of
the most powerful Sanskrit traditions, the Ramayana and Panini's grammar, and several other minor
ones, in one rich mix of science and art, both as a poetic retelling of the adventures of Rama and a
compendium of examples of grammar and rhetoric.As literature, it stands comparison with the best of
Sanskrit poetry.
2. Pāṇini was an Ancient Indian Sanskrit grammarian from Pushkalavati, Gandhara (fl.
4thcentury BCE.He is known for his Sanskrit grammar, particularly for his formulation of the 3,959
rules of Sanskrit morphology in the grammar known as Ashtadhyayi (अअअअअअअअअअअ Aṣṭādhyāyī,
meaning "eight chapters"), the foundational text of the grammatical branch of the Vedanga, the
auxiliary scholarly disciplines of Vedic religion.
3. The work of the very early Indian grammarians has been lost; for example, the work of
Sakatayana (roughly 8th c. BCE) is known only from cryptic references by Yaska (ca. 6th-5th c. BCE)
and Panini. One of the views of Sakatayana that was to prove controversial in coming centuries was
that most nouns are etymologically derivable from verbs.
4. Yāska ( अअअअअ) was a Sanskrit grammarian who preceded Pānini (fl. 4th c. BC), assumed to have
been active in the 5th or 6th century BC.He is the author of the Nirukta, a technical treatise on
etymology, lexical category and the semantics of words. He is thought to have succeeded Śākaṭāyana,
an old grammarian and expositor of the Vedas, who is mentioned in his text.
5. The Aindra (of Indra) school of Sanskrit grammar is one of the eleven schools of grammar
mentioned in Panini's Ashtadhyayi. It is named after Indra in allusion to Lord Indra, the king of Gods in
Hindu mythology.
6. Panini's grammar consists of four parts:
 Śivasūtra: phonology (notations for phonemes specified in 14 lines)
Aṣṭadhyāyī: morphology (construction rules for complexes)
Dhātupāṭha: list of roots (classes of verbal roots)
Gaṇapāṭha: lists classes of primitive nominal stems
7. Kātyāyana is known for two works:
--------The Varttika, an elaboration on Pāṇini grammar. Along with the Mahābhāsya of Patañjali,this
text became a core part of the vyākarana (grammar) canon. This was one of the six Vedangas, and
constituted compulsory education for Brahmin students in the following twelve centuries.
--------He also composed one of the later Sulba Sutras, a series of nine texts on the geometry of altar
constructions, dealing with rectangles, right-sided triangles, rhombuses, etc.
8. Varttikakara is a Sanskrit word literally meaning a "Commentator".
9. Sureśvara is the commentator of the Advaita Vedanta school. His famous commentaries
include the Bŗhadāraņyakopanişad-bhāşya-vārttika and the Taittirīya-vārttika.
10.Patañjali is the compiler of the Yoga Sutras, an important collection of aphorisms on Yoga
practice, and also the author of the Mahābhāṣya, a major commentary on Panini's Ashtadhyayi.
However, whether these two works are that of the same author or not remains in some doubt.

Famous Mughal Monuments in India

India is the treasure trove of historical monuments spread across its length and breath. Explore some of the
greatest architectural monuments and be treated by fascination and glory that leaves the travelers in
immense astonishment.

Taj Mahal :

Described as a 'tear on the face of eternity', Taj Mahal is undoubtedly one of the world's most marvelous
monuments ever built for love. Over looking the Yamuna river, Taj is located in the historic city of Agra in
India. It was built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan as a memorial for his second wife- Mumtaz Mahal, who
died giving birth to their 14th child in 1631. Taj is a world Heritage Site and comes in the list of the eight
wonder of world. Presenting the finest example of the Mughal architecture, it is the most extravagant
monument, built at the cost of 32 million rupees. In total some 20,000 people from India ans Central Asia to
produce the exquisite marble screens and pietra dura made with thousand of semi precious stones.

Fatehpur Sikri :

The ghost city of Fatehpur Sikri, 40 kms southwest of Agra, was the short lived capital of the Mughal Empire
for approximately 12 years. The magnificent town was built by the Mughal Emperor Akbar. Akbar visited
Sikri to consult the Sufi saint Shaikh Salim Chisti, who predicted the birth of his son. When the prophecy
come true, Akbar named his prince as Salim and built his new capital here. The complex of monuments and
temples presents the greatest example of Indo Islamic architecture. Some of the major attractions of
Fatehpur Sikri are Diwan-i-khas, Buland Darwaza, Panch Mahal, Khwabagh, and Anup Talao. Fatehpur Sikri
is adorned with largest mosque in Jama Masjid, also known as Dargah Mosque.

Agra Fort :

The city of Agra is most famous for Taj Mahal, but it is also famous for the Agra Fort, which is among the
finest Mughal Forts in India. Situated on the banks of river Yamuna, it is 2 kms from north west of Taj Mahal.
It is great monument of red sandstone built by Mughal Emperor Akbar between the years 1565 and
1573.Earlier the fort was built primarily as a military structure but later on Shah Jahan transferred into the
palace and later it became the gilded prison for eight years after his son Aurangzeb seized power in 1658.
The special attractions of the Mahal are Jahangiri Mahal, Diwan-i-Am, Diwan-i-Khas, Anguri Bagh and an
ornamental bath housed inside the palace of mirrors or Sheesh Mahal.

Humayun's Tomb :

Humayun's Tomb is the Delhi's first Mughal mausoleum, located on the Lodhi's road, 2 kms from Purana
Quila. It was built in the mid 16th century by Haji Begum, the Persian born senior wife of second Mughal
emperor Humayun. It was added in the list of World Heritage Site in the year 1993. Constructed of red
sand, inlaid with black and white marble, Humayun's tomb is must visit on the tour to capital city of Delhi.
The octagonal structure is adorned with the double dome that soars to a height of 38 m- the inner shell
forms the vaulted ceiling. There are many other small monuments inside the Tomb. Chief among them are
lack-and-yellow marble tomb of Humayun's wife and the tomb of Humayun's barber.

The successors of Aurangzeb