POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Department of Library and Information Science
Sta. Mesa, Manila

ECOLOGY
GROUP 2
PREPARED BY:

BUENAVISTA, JULIA ELLINE A.

CORONACION, CLEDWYN CLARK G.

GAYOL, ANGEL ROSE M.

LOMIWES, CLEA Z.

LUNA, CARLO N.

MAYLAS, PRINCESS HANNA C.

RODRIGUEZ, RINA ANGELA R.

TABARNO, JOCELLE P.

BLIS 4-1

SUBMITTED TO:

PROF. ESTER T. DIZON

 BASIC LAWS IN THE ECOSYSTEM
Carlo N. Luna

Law of Minimum/Liebig’s Law of Minimum

Liebig's law of the minimum, often simply called Liebig's law or the law of the minimum,
is a principle developed in agricultural science by Carl Sprengel (1828) and later
popularized by Justus von Liebig. It states that growth is controlled not by the total
amount of resources available, but by the scarcest resource (limiting factor). The law
has also been applied in biological populations and ecosystem models for factors such
as sunlight or mineral nutrients.

An organism requires minimum quantity of a particular nutrient for its proper growth and
if it is depicted below the critical minimum level, the organism will fail to grow or will
grow abnormally.

For example, if the soil is deficient in any one nutrient, it will make the other nutrient
metabolically inactive and the proper growth of the plant will get restricted.

Law of Limiting Factor/Blackman’s Law of Limiting Factor

Blackman proposed the law of limiting factors in 1905. According to this law, when a
process depends on a number of factors, its rate is limited by the pace of the slowest
factor. Blackman's law of limiting factors determines the rate of photosynthesis.

Suppose a leaf is exposed to a certain light intensity which can utilize 5 mg. of CO2 per
hour in photosynthesis. If only 1 mg. of CO2 enters the leaf in an hour, the rate of
photosynthesis is limited due to CO2 factor. But as the concentration of the CO2
increases from 1 to 5 mg./hour the rate of photosynthesis is also increased along the
line AB.In this case CO2 acts as a limiting factor.

A biological process is controlled by a number of factors and the deficiency of any of

these factors will affect the process on the whole.

For example, photosynthesis by plants. Photosynthesis is dependent on right amount of

water, carbon dioxide, chlorophyll, intensity of solar radiation and temperature of
chloroplast. A deficiency of any of these factors will affect the rate of photosynthesis.

Law of Tolerance/Shelford’s Law of Tolerance

Shelford's Law of Tolerance is a principle developed by American zoologist Victor

Ernest Shelford in 1911. It states that an organism's success is based on a complex set
of conditions and that each organism has a certain minimum, maximum, and optimum
environmental factor or combination of factors that determine success.
The law states that, it is not only that the minimum amount of a material can be a
limiting factor, but also the excess amount of the same material can be limiting to the
growth and development of an organism.

For example, all the soil nutrients are equally important for the growth and development
of plants, but anything in excess might limit the uptake of the other nutrient, restricting
the proper growth.

Every organism thus, has an ecological minimum and maximum for every factor and the
range between two limits is known as limit or zone of tolerance. Thus, every
environmental factor has two zones: (a) Zone of tolerance (b) Zone of intolerance

Zone of tolerance

This zone is favorable for the growth and development of organism. Zone of tolerance
can be sub-divided into the following:

Optimum zones: - It is the most favorable zone for growth and development of an
organism.

Critical minimum zone: -It is the lowest minimum limit below which growth and
development of the organism ceases.

Critical maximum zone: - It is the highest maximum limit above which growth and
development of the organism ceases.

Zone of intolerance:

Tolerance with respect to various factors differs from species to species. Organisms
that have a wide range of tolerance for all factors have a better chance of survival and
hence, are widely distributed.

REFERENCE:

http://www.publishyourarticles.net/knowledge-hub/education/3-laws-proposed-to-
explain-the-effect-of-different-limiting-factors-on-living-organisms/5641/
 ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM
Angel Rose M. Gayol

LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamics is the study in the change of energy that accompanies any

kinds of transportation of matter. Phenomena as diverse as the burning of fuels and the
growth and the reaction of the complex mechanism of a living cell involve the
absorption, emission, redistribution and transportation of energy which maybe present
as heat, light, electricity and mechanical energy of motion or the chemical energy within
all substance. Several laws of nature have emerged from the studies of
thermodynamics.

The first law of thermodynamics states that during the process, energy is
conserved, energy neither is created nor destroy.

The second law of thermodynamics states that during any process, any system
tends to become less ordered (less organized, more chaotic, more mixed up). The
second deals with universe as a whole. Disorders in the universe as a whole has
increased with time. When studies a living system and its living surroundings, one finds
that the increase in disordered of surroundings is always greater that the decrease in
order in the living portion.

Food Chain

The series of stages that energy goes through in the form of food is called a food
chain. It can also be defined as the general sequence of who eats whom. However, if
we analyze in term of trophic level it would be better to consider the term food web. The
food web is defined as a network of many interlink food chains composed of primary
producers, consumers and decomposers.
Forest Food Web

Food wed – network of many interlinked food chains, encompassing primary

producers, consumers, decomposer and detrivores.

Types of Food Chain

Two major pathways of energy flow through ecosystem:

 GRAZING FOOD CHAIN – is one which goes from green to grazing herbivores
and finally to carnivores.
 DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN – is one which goes from dead organic matter to
microorganisms and then to detritus feeding organisms.

REFERENCE:

Cruz, Liwayway Memije (2000). Ecology. Booklore Publishing Corp.

 ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM
Cledwyn Clark G. Coronacion

Ecological Pyramid

An ecological pyramid (also trophic pyramid, eltonian pyramid, energy pyramid, or

sometimes food pyramid) is a graphical representation designed to show
the biomass or bio productivity at each trophic level in a given ecosystem.

 Biomass - is an industry term for getting energy by burning wood, and

other organic matter.
 Trophic Level - The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in
a food chain.

Pyramid of Biomass

An energy pyramid of biomass shows the relationship between biomass and trophic
level by quantifying the biomass present at each trophic level of an energy
community at a particular time.

Pyramid of Productivity

An 'ecological pyramid of productivity' is often more useful, showing the production or

turnover of biomass at each trophic level. Instead of showing a single snapshot in
time, productivity pyramids show the flow of energy through the food chain.
Biogeochemical Cycle

In Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle or substance turnover or cycling of

substances is a pathway by which a chemical substance moves through both the biotic
(biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere) components
of Earth.

A cycle is a series of change which comes back to the starting point and which can be
repeated.

The most well-known and important biogeochemical cycles, for example,

 the carbon cycle,

 the nitrogen cycle,
 the oxygen cycle,
 the phosphorus cycle,
 the sulfur cycle,
 the water cycle,
 and the rock cycle.

Biogeochemical cycles describe the movements of substances on the entire globe,

the study of these is inherently multidisciplinary.

Nitrogen Cycle Carbon Cycle

Oxygen Cycle Phosphorus Cycle

 Sulfur Cycle Nutrient Cycle

Rock Cycle Food Cycle

What is Climate Change?

Climate change refers to significant, long-term changes in the global climate.

The global climate is the connected system of sun, earth and oceans, wind, rain and
snow, forests, deserts and savannas, and everything people do, too. The climate of a
place, say New York, can be described as its rainfall, changing temperatures during the
year and so on.

But the global climate is more than the “average” of the climates of specific places.

A description of the global climate includes how, for example, the rising temperature of
the Pacific feeds typhoons which blow harder, drop more rain and cause more damage,
but also shifts global ocean currents that melt Antarctica ice which slowly makes sea
level rise until New York will be under water.

It is this systemic connectedness that makes global climate change so important and so
complicated.
What is Global Warming?

Global warming is the slow increase in the average temperature of the earth’s
atmosphere because an increased amount of the energy (heat) striking the earth from
the sun is being trapped in the atmosphere and not radiated out into space.

The earth’s atmosphere has always acted like a greenhouse to capture the sun’s heat,
ensuring that the earth has enjoyed temperatures that permitted the emergence of life
forms as we know them, including humans.

Without our atmospheric greenhouse the earth would be very cold. Global warming,
however, is the equivalent of a greenhouse with high efficiency reflective glass installed
the wrong way around.

So much heat is being kept inside greenhouse earth that the temperature of the earth is
going up faster than at any previous time in history. NASA provides an excellent course
module on the science of global warming.
(Source: NASA)
 SOURCE OF ENERGY IN THE BIOSPHERE
Rina Angela R. Rodriguez

The Biosphere
The biosphere is the layer around the planet where all living things exist. It contains all
the various ecosystems and all the water, minerals, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and
other nutrients that living things need in order to survive. The biosphere is the “Skin of
Life” extending only a few kilometers above the sea level and only a few meters into the
soil.
It surrounds the earth like a cellular blanket regulating the temperature by allowing the
sun’s ray to enter and by allowing heat back into the space.

RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

Renewable energy is generated from natural resources—such as sunlight, wind, rain,
tides and geothermal heat—which are renewable (naturally replenished). Renewable
energy technologies range from solar power, wind power, hydroelectricity/micro hydro,
biomass and biofuels for transportation.

A renewable resource is a substance of economic value that can be replaced or

replenished in the same or less amount of time as it takes to draw the supply down.
Some renewable resources have essentially an endless supply, such as solar energy,
wind energy and geothermal pressure, while other resources are considered renewable
even though some time or effort must go into their renewal, such as wood, oxygen,
leather and fish. Most precious metals are considered renewable as well; even though
they are not naturally replaced, they can be recycled because they are not destroyed
during their extraction and use.

A renewable resource is different from a non-renewable resource, as once a

nonrenewable resource is used, it is depleted and cannot be recovered. As the human
population continues to rise, the demand for renewable resources increases.

NON RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

A nonrenewable resource is a resource of economic value that cannot be readily
replaced by natural means on a level equal to its consumption. Most fossil fuels, such
as oil, natural gas and coal are considered nonrenewable resources in that their use is
not sustainable because their formation takes billions of years.

Fuels created from nonrenewable resources are still the primary source of all the power
generated in the world, due to their affordability and high energy content. Usually,
nonrenewable resources are formed from organic carbon material which, over the
course of billions of years, is heated and compressed enough to change form into crude
oil and natural gas. Crude oil and natural gas are then used to manufacture everyday
forms of fuel, including gasoline, diesel fuel, heating oil and propane.

The term nonrenewable resource also refers to minerals and metals from the earth,
such as gold, silver, and iron, which are similarly formed as a long-term result of
geological processes such as plate tectonics. These resources are often costly to mine,
as they are usually deep within the Earth's crust, but they are much more abundant than
fossil fuels. Some types of groundwater are considered to be a nonrenewable resource,
if the aquifer is unable to be replenished at the same rate at which it's drained. Also,
nuclear materials such as uranium are nonrenewable resources.

Energy Sources
Ecology is concerned with the sources of energizing ecological system and its
transformation of this energy in living organisms. It is appropriate to think in terms of
“energy flow” and not “cycle” as in minerals and nutrients. Energy moves in various
directions, but it does not spontaneously return to its original state, hence it does not
really cycle.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VARIOUS ENERGY SOURCES

Fuel Resource
 Petroleum
Essentially a complex mixture of hydrocarbons with small amount of atmospheric
substances; recovered from onshore and from tar offshore fields, tar sand, and oil
shale; also found in deep sea.
Abundant and accessible. Deposits are widespread in sedimentary areas. Highly
versatile high-grade fuel is obtained by refining and processing; petroleum and its by
product are used for transportation, heating, lightning, cooling, lubricating, medical
products, animal, protein, fertilizer, etc.
Non-renewable, requires considerable capital investment. Cause pollution through cost
production sand and oil shale is higher than from conventional sources.
 Natural Gas
A combustible gaseous mixture that in gas fields (“non-associated gas”) contains largely
methane and in wet state with petroleum (“associated gas”) contains other
hydrocarbons. Found in natural gases field; in coalmines, in geopressure zones;
obtained and as a by-product of coke making.
Relatively cheap and abundant, clean and virtually sulfur-free. Versatile; use as few
material for petrochemicals.
Non-renewable except when produced from organic waste or algae. Expensive to
transport when liquefied. Risky to handle because of vapor clouds and danger of fire.
 Coal
A combustible mineral substance containing expensive and essentially carbon, with
small amount of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and other constituents; classified as
anthracite, bituminous and lignite.
Very abundant. Deposits are widespread in sedimentary areas. High-coal contains 70-
80% of the energy per unit of weight of oil. Some kind of low in sulfur. Lignite can be
used to produce a high-grade smokeless fuel through the briquetting process.
Non-renewable. Deep mining can be dangerous and hazardous to health. Surface
stripping damages the land and creates problem of soil erosion and unproductive land
unless remedial work is undertaken, which may be expensive.
 Peat
Compressed and carbonized elements such as uranium and thorium results in the
release of enormous quantities of energy. Plutonium is produced in nuclear reactors.
Uranium is found in rocks and seawater; also as by product of minerals, such as gold,
phosphate, oil shale.
Moderate widespread in many parts of the world. Can be used locally for domestic
purposes and for electricity generation. Low cost if no transport involved.
Can be more costly than coal to produce on a commercial basis. Non-renewable.
 Waste Product
Agricultural and municipal waste provides steam when burned; animal waste van be
dried and used directly as a fuel and converted to methane by fermentation and to oil or
gas by methods of decomposition.
Easily obtained and renewable. Can be processed to produce cattle feed. Solves
problems of wastes disposal of related environmental pollution.
Organic municipal waste produces low-grade fuel. Large scale of agricultural organic
waste could be costly. Technical problems are still to be solved. Can only be a
complement of energy.
 Wood
A traditional source.
Provides heat for domestic purposes. Methanol can be produced from wood,
renewable. Less polluting than other fuels.
Provides less heat per unit of weight than other fuels such as coal and oil. Inefficient
conversion causes smoke pollution. Other industrial uses, such as construction and
paper production may yield a higher return than its use for energy. Forests are far from
industrial centers.

Non Fuel Resources

 Hydropower
Waterpower used to supply energy.
Clean method of electricity production. Can be cheap of cost.
May involved high initial construction cost. Growing shortage of natural sites. Damming
the water may cause changes in the environment backwater sedimentation are rapid
silting.
Geothermal
Energy supplied from the heat of the earth’s interior hot spring, hot rocks.
Abundant. Can generate electricity and provides heat for domestic, agricultural and
industrial purposes. Can be used to desalinate water. Can generate electricity
economically in relatively small power units. Can provide base load of 8,000 hours per
year, not subject to seasonal variations.
Found principally in areas of tectonic activity. Environmental pollution possible; release
of sulfur components; highly mineralized hot water containing materials may have to be
reinjected into the field; thermal pollution may be created when used to generate
electricity. Hot water and steam must be used from geopressure zones and hot rocks
not yet developed.
 Tidal
Generated from the flow of tides.
Non polluting and renewable.
Possible only in areas where different tied level is high enough to generate electricity.
Output is complicated and costly.
 Wind
Power from force of wind.
Traditionally used in many rural areas. Non polluting. Small wind generators can supply
electric energy in isolated regions.
Variation in energy output according to duration and force of wind. Storage of electricity
when wind velocity changes is expensive. For large scale production suitable sites with
adequate wind power are hard to find. Can only be complementary to other sources of
energy.
 Solar Energy
Sunlight affects rains, winds, and ocean currents; provides energy for plant and animal
life through photosynthesis.
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
Alternative energy is a term used for an energy source that is an alternative to using
fossil fuels. Generally, it indicates energies that are non-traditional and have low
environmental impact.
Alternative energy encompasses all those things that do not consume fossil fuel. They
are widely available and environment friendly. They cause little or almost no pollution.
There have been several alternative energy projects running in various countries to
reduce our dependence on traditional fossil fuels.
 Solar Energy
Solar is the first energy source in the world. It was in use much earlier before humans
even learn how to light a fire. Many living things are dependent on solar energy from
plants, aquatic life and the animals. The solar is mostly used in generating light and
heat. The solar energy coming down to the planet is affected by the orbital path of the
sun and its variations within the galaxy. In addition, it is affected by activity taking place
in space and on the sun. It was this energy that is believed to have been responsible for
the breaking of ice during the ice age, which creates the separation of lands and sea.
Solar energy is one the alternative energy source that is used most widely across the
globe. About 70% of the sunlight gets reflected back into the space and we have only
30% of sunlight to meet up our energy demands. While solar energy is used for
producing solar energy, it is also used for drying clothes, used by plants during the
process of photosynthesis and also used by human beings during winter seasons to
make their body temperature warm. Solar energy can be extracted either by Solar
Thermal or using Photovoltaic (PV) Cells.
There are two kinds of solar energy the active solar energy and the passive solar
energy. Passive solar energy basically uses duration, position and sun’s rays intensity
to its advantage in heating a particular area. It also uses it to induce airflow from an
area to the next. Active solar energy uses electrical technology and mechanical
technology like collection panels in capturing, converting and storing of energy for future
use.
Solar energy does not create any pollution and is widely used by many countries. It is
renewable source of power since sun will continue to produce sunlight all the years.
Solar panels, which are required to harness this energy can be used for long time and
require little or no maintenance. Solar energy proves to be ineffective in colder regions
which don’t receive good sunlight. It cannot be used during night and not all the light
from sun can be trapped by solar panels. Solar energy advantages are much more than
its disadvantages which make it as a viable source of producing alternative energy.
 Wind Energy
This is one of the energy sources that have been in use for a very long time and for
centuries. It was used in powering sailing ships, which made it possible for explorers to
sail around their trade routes in distant lands. A single windmill can power the crop
irrigation, and the family energy needs, water pumping and electric lights. However, in
the present time there are several windmills that are used to generate required energy
mostly for industrial uses. Many of the wind turbines can capture much power all at
once before feeding it to the power grid. This is commonly know as wind farms and has
been in use for many years all round the world. It is only the United States that is going
slow in terms of accepting this alternative energy source.
Wind power is renewable source of energy and reduces our alliance on foreign
countries for supply of oil and gas. It does not cause any air pollution and have created
several jobs in last few decades. Advancement in technologies has brought down the
cost of setting up wind power plant. Wind energy can only be used in areas which
experience high winds which mean that it cannot be used as a source to extract energy
anywhere on earth. They sometimes create noise disturbances and cannot be used
near residential areas. These disadvantages have made the use of wind energy to
particular regions only.
 Geothermal Energy
‘Geo’ means Earth and ‘thermal’ means energy. Geothermal energy means energy
drawn or harnessed from beneath the earth. It is completely clean and renewable.
Geothermal energy has been in used since last several years. The earth contains a
molten rock called magma. Heat is continuously produced from there. The temperature
increases about 3 degrees Celsius, for every 100 meters you go below ground. Below,
10,000 meters the temperature is so high, that it can be used to boil water. Water
makes its way deep inside the earth and hot rock boils that water. The boiling water
then produces steam which is captured by geothermal heat pumps. The steam turns the
turbines which in turn activates generators.
Geothermal energy can be found anywhere on the earth. Most countries tap this energy
to generate electricity, using thermal mass flow meters, and power millions of homes.
The areas which have high underground temperatures are the ones which are the ones
which are prone to earthquakes and volcanoes. The United States produces more
Geothermal electricity than any other country in the world. Most hot water geothermal
reservoirs are located in the western states, Alaska, and Hawaii. Geothermal energy is
totally renewable as earth will continue to produce heat as long as we are all are here. If
these resources are tapped and are utilized effectively, they can provide solution to the
world’s power problems.
Geothermal energy produces no pollution, reduces our alliance on fossil fuels. It also
results in significant cost savings as no fuel is required to harness energy from beneath
the earth. These advantages make geothermal energy as one the best alternative
energy source. But, geothermal has its downsides too. It is suitable to particular region
and cannot be harnessed everywhere. The earth may release some harmful gases
while releasing the heat which may prove adverse from mankind. Also, the areas where
this energy is harnessed are prone to earthquakes and volcanoes. Apart from that,
setting up of geothermal power stations requires huge installation cost.
 Hydroelectric Energy
Solar energy is produced by sun and wind energy is produced by moving of winds. The
heat caused by sun drives the wind. The movement of winds is then captured by wind
turbines. Both wind and sun cause water to evaporate. The water vapor then turns into
rain or snow and flows down to sea or oceans through rivers or streams. The energy of
the moving water can then be captured and called as hydroelectric power. Hydroelectric
power stations capture the kinetic energy of moving water and give mechanical energy
to turbines. The moving turbines then convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
through generators. Dams around the world have been built for this purpose only.
Hydropower is the largest producer of alternative energy in the world.
There are different types of hydropower plants. The selection of hydropower plant
depends on many volume and flow of water. Hydropower is renewable, constant,
predictable and controllable source of energy. They emit no greenhouse gases and are
environment friendly. On the negative side, they may cause adverse effect on aquatic
life, reduce flow of water which may affect agriculture, require huge costs to build and
may cause havoc if they get breakdown.
 Biomass Energy
This is the process by which an alternative energy is generated through conversion of
biological materials and wastes into forms that can be used as energy sources for
heating, power generation and transportation. Those carbon based substances or
materials converted over a long period of time to fossil fuels are not regarded as
biomass. However, in their original state they are regarded as biomass. This is because
of the separation of the carbon they previously contained from the carbon cycle. This
makes them figure differently affecting carbon dioxide levels in air.
Biomass energy has been around since ancient times when people use to burn wood or
coal to heat their homes or prepare food. Wood still remains the most common source
to produce biomass energy. Apart from wood, the other products that are used to create
biomass energy include crops, plants, landfills, municipal and industrial waste, trees and
agricultural waste. Biomass is renewable source of energy as we would be able to
produce it as long as crops, plants and waste exist. It does not create any greenhouse
gases and is can be easily extracted through the process of combustion. Another
advantage of biomass is that it helps to reduce landfills. Biomass is comparatively
ineffective as compared to fossil fuels. They release methane gases which can be
harmful to the environment.
 Ocean Energy
The earth promises many power sources. Just like the geothermal and solar energy,
which have long been used in heating homes and lighting as well when harnessed.
Even in the last century these forms of energy was in use. Due to massive size of
oceans, this energy can be used on much wider scale than other alternative sources of
energy. The waves produced by the ocean and tides that hit the sea shore has
enormous potential in them. If they are harnessed with full capacity they can go a long
way in reducing world’s energy problems. There are 3 ways i.e. Tidal energy, Wave
energy and Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) via which ocean energy can be
harnessed.
Tidal power basically involves using kinetic energy from the incoming and outgoing
tides. The difference in high tides and low tides are also important in this respect. There
is a lot of energy that can be harnessed from waves for use. It is another form of
hydropower. The rise and fall of ocean tides are captured by tidal energy generators
which turn turbines. The movement of turbines is responsible for producing electricity. In
short, tidal energy generator captures the kinetic motion of the tides and converts them
into electrical energy. The main advantage of tidal energy is that it is completely
renewable and are much more predictable than wave energy.
 Hydrogen Energy
Hydrogen is the most abundant element available on earth but it is rarely alone. Even
water contains two third of hydrogen. It is usually available with other elements and
have to separate before we can make use of it. Hydrogen has tremendous potential and
can be used to power up homes, vehicles and even space rockets. It takes a lot of
energy to separate hydrogen from other elements and therefore it proves to quite
expensive to extract it.
The main benefit of hydrogen energy is that it is clean source of fuel and does not leave
any waste elements behind except water. There are no harmful emissions and is
environment friendly. It is completely renewable and can be produced over and over
again on demand. Hydrogen can also be used to make bombs like the ones used by
America on Hiroshima and Nagasaki which makes it highly inflammable. Dependency
on fossil fuels still remains as we need them to extract hydrogen from other elements.
Also, it is quite expensive to produce and store.
REFERENCES:

Cruz, Liwayway Memije (2000). Ecology. Booklore Publishing Corp.

Investopedia, LLC (2017). Renewable Resource. Retrieved on July 11, 2017 from
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/renewable_resource.asp

Investopedia, LLC (2017). Nonrenewable Resource. Retrieved on July 11, 2017 from
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/n/nonrenewableresource.asp

Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences (2017). Renewable and Alternative Energy.
Retrieved on July 8, 2017 from
http://extension.psu.edu/natural-resources/energy/what
 SOURCE OF ENERGY IN THE BIOSPHERE
Clea Z. Lomiwes
APPLICATION

1. Fossil fuels and the environment

Revolutionary Energy Use. Early Fossil-fuel Era and Industrial Revolution

(Coal and Steam)

The period from 1750 to 1914 was a pivotal moment in human history. Historians
have named it the era of the “modern revolution” (or industrial revolution). The
most important event was the revolutionary transformation in the use of energy
by humans. Until the 19th, the energy basis of human society had been biomass
energy, mainly the burning of wood to produce heat. But when fossil fuel (coal)
was introduced as an energy source a “revolution” occurred in a few decades
with unprecedented global changes. Until the 1750s, the economy all over the
world was almost exclusively an organic economy, harvesting energy and
materials from the earth's surface ecosystems. Food, fuel, shelter, motive power,
clothing, and virtually every other necessities of life were obtained from plants,
animals, falling rivers, and blowing winds. The growth potential of organic
economies remained sharply constrained by the limited ability, when of the
energy regime reached its limits.

Fossil minerals (coal in the beginning, oil and natural gas-methane later) in the
late 1700s were initiated in England for the first time. Coal-powered technologies
magnified the energy needed and the industrial revolution was born. Coal's
impact was particularly dramatic in the industrial sector, but fossil fuels were also
changing people's domestic lives in important ways. By 1914, petroleum, a
second major fossil fuel, began to be extensively used as well with more energy
efficiency and then natural gas was the third important fossil fuel that produced
equally substantial energy stocks for consumption.

The Industrial Revolution began in the textile industry in England, where a series
of inventions created new demands for laborers. Between 1733 and 1793,
inventors produced new machines that led to the growth of the factory system,
which brought workers and machines together in one place to manufacture
goods. By the late 1700s, steam (produced from coal) began to replace water as
a source of power (Thomas Newcomen and James Watt). Steam engines gave a
boost to coal and iron and transport industries that were essential to the
Industrial Revolution.
During the Industrial Revolution, advances were made in transportation and
communication. In Britain a mining engineer, George Stephenson, developed the
first steam-powered locomotive, opening the way for the building of railroads.
Railroads and steam-powered ships improved transportation around the world.
Colonies supplied raw materials and bought finished goods.

The Late Fossil-fuel Era (Petroleum Oil, Natural Gas)

The use of coal was pivotal but slowly was replaced by oil (petroleum) and
natural gas (CH4, methane) which are more efficient in energy production and
transport and less damaging to the environment. The cross-over happened in the
mid-1960s and marked the beginning of the Age of Oil. Also, natural gas after the
1960s increased substantially and consumption as a fuel and exceeds now coal.
Also, natural gas and petroleum are used as feedstock materials for the chemical
industry.

Energy consumption after 1918 increased by a large percentage (electricity and

vehicle use). A second spurt in energy use started about the time of World War
II. Developed and underdeveloped countries all over the world increased their
energy consumption because of substantial needs for electricity and motorcar
fuels. Between 1950 and 2000 there is a substantial increase of energy
consumption, despite the increase in oil prices. China, India and other developed
countries became industrial powers.

Modern human societies are based on very high paced consumption of fossil
energy which has been constantly growing over the last century. It is a fact that
85% of global energy use at present is relying on fossil fuels and the substitution
with renewable energy sources is very slow and financially difficult to achieve.
Most scientists remain skeptical to the fact that humans can preserve their
modern lifestyle following the same high rate of energy consumption as USA and
Europe. In the last decades China, India and almost all developing countries
follow similar western style consumption of fossil fuels. This explains the
desperate search for alternative and sustainable energy sources and changes in
energy consumption.

The post-industrial economic growth in the majority of countries is associated

with the absolute dependence on fossil fuels. The ongoing depletion of fossil
energy stocks (despite the discovery of new oil fields) indicated that human
societies had to decrease fossil energy consumption and to redirect their efforts
for renewable energy sources.
 The problem of fossil energy use and the future of the planet are interconnected
(global warming, rising levels of oceans, biodiversity, population growth,
infectious diseases, etc). The enormity of the challenge for the humanity means
that all countries should do their part to encourage the societal and technological
shift towards sustainable and improved energy systems. Humans can no longer
afford to ignore the clarion call of the future. Instead humans must plan ahead
and strive toward energy sustainability and security. The drive to create a new
energy system can only be beneficial to the future of the human race and planet
Earth. This new and cleaner energy system (renewable) will assist in reducing
the rapid rise in greenhouse gas emissions that is now accepted as the most
important contributor to global warming.

2. Alternative energy and the environment

 Solar power
The sun provides a tremendous resource for generating clean and sustainable
electricity without toxic pollution or global warming emissions.

The potential environmental impacts associated with solar power — land use and
habitat loss, water use, and the use of hazardous materials in manufacturing —
can vary greatly depending on the technology, which includes two broad
categories: photovoltaic (PV) solar cells or concentrating solar thermal plants
(CSP).

The scale of the system — ranging from small, distributed rooftop PV arrays to
large utility-scale PV and CSP projects — also plays a significant role in the level
of environmental impact.

Land Use

Depending on their location, larger utility-scale solar facilities can raise concerns
about land degradation and habitat loss. Total land area requirements varies
depending on the technology, the topography of the site, and the intensity of the
solar resource. Estimates for utility-scale PV systems range from 3.5 to 10 acres
per megawatt, while estimates for CSP facilities are between 4 and 16.5 acres
per megawatt.

Unlike wind facilities, there is less opportunity for solar projects to share land with
agricultural uses. However, land impacts from utility-scale solar systems can be
minimized by siting them at lower-quality locations such as brownfields,
abandoned mining land, or existing transportation and transmission corridors.
Smaller scale solar PV arrays, which can be built on homes or commercial
buildings, also have minimal land use impact.

Water Use

Solar PV cells do not use water for generating electricity. However, as in all
manufacturing processes, some water is used to manufacture solar PV
components.

Concentrating solar thermal plants (CSP), like all thermal electric plants, require
water for cooling. Water use depends on the plant design, plant location, and the
type of cooling system.

CSP plants that use wet-recirculating technology with cooling towers withdraw
between 600 and 650 gallons of water per megawatt-hour of electricity produced.
CSP plants with once-through cooling technology have higher levels of water
withdrawal, but lower total water consumption (because water is not lost as
steam). Dry-cooling technology can reduce water use at CSP plants by
approximately 90 percent. However, the tradeoffs to these water savings are
higher costs and lower efficiencies. In addition, dry-cooling technology is
significantly less effective at temperatures above 100 degrees Fahrenheit.

Many of the regions in the United States that have the highest potential for solar
energy also tend to be those with the driest climates, so careful consideration of
these water tradeoffs is essential.

Hazardous Materials

The PV cell manufacturing process includes a number of hazardous materials,

most of which are used to clean and purify the semiconductor surface. These
chemicals, similar to those used in the general semiconductor industry, include
hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrogen fluoride, 1,1,1-
trichloroethane, and acetone. The amount and type of chemicals used depends
on the type of cell, the amount of cleaning that is needed, and the size of silicon
wafer. Workers also face risks associated with inhaling silicon dust. Thus, PV
manufactures must follow U.S. laws to ensure that workers are not harmed by
exposure to these chemicals and that manufacturing waste products are
disposed of properly.
 Thin-film PV cells contain a number of more toxic materials than those used in
traditional silicon photovoltaic cells, including gallium arsenide, copper-indium-
gallium-diselenide, and cadmium-telluride. If not handled and disposed of
properly, these materials could pose serious environmental or public health
threats. However, manufacturers have a strong financial incentive to ensure that
these highly valuable and often rare materials are recycled rather than thrown
away.

Life-Cycle Global Warming Emissions

While there are no global warming emissions associated with generating

electricity from solar energy, there are emissions associated with other stages of
the solar life-cycle, including manufacturing, materials transportation, installation,
maintenance, and decommissioning and dismantlement. Most estimates of life-
cycle emissions for photovoltaic systems are between 0.07 and 0.18 pounds of
carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour.

Most estimates for concentrating solar power range from 0.08 to 0.2 pounds of
carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour. In both cases, this is far less than
the lifecycle emission rates for natural gas (0.6-2 lbs of CO2E/kWh) and coal
(1.4-3.6 lbs of CO2E/kWh).

 Wind power
Harnessing power from the wind is one of the cleanest and most sustainable
ways to generate electricity as it produces no toxic pollution or global warming
emissions. Wind is also abundant, inexhaustible, and affordable, which makes it
a viable and large-scale alternative to fossil fuels.

Despite its vast potential, there are a variety of environmental impacts associated
with wind power generation that should be recognized and mitigated.

Land Use

The land use impact of wind power facilities varies substantially depending on
the site: wind turbines placed in flat areas typically use more land than those
located in hilly areas. However, wind turbines do not occupy all of this land; they
must be spaced approximately 5 to 10 rotor diameters apart (a rotor diameter is
the diameter of the wind turbine blades). Thus, the turbines themselves and the
surrounding infrastructure (including roads and transmission lines) occupy a
small portion of the total area of a wind facility.
A survey by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory of large wind facilities in
the United States found that they use between 30 and 141 acres per megawatt of
power output capacity (a typical new utility-scale wind turbine is about 2
megawatts). However, less than 1 acre per megawatt is disturbed permanently
and less than 3.5 acres per megawatt are disturbed temporarily during
construction. The remainder of the land can be used for a variety of other
productive purposes, including livestock grazing, agriculture, highways, and
hiking trails. Alternatively, wind facilities can be sited on brownfields (abandoned
or underused industrial land) or other commercial and industrial locations, which
significantly reduces concerns about land use.

Offshore wind facilities, which are currently not in operation in the United States
but may become more common, require larger amounts of space because the
turbines and blades are bigger than their land-based counterparts. Depending on
their location, such offshore installations may compete with a variety of other
ocean activities, such as fishing, recreational activities, sand and gravel
extraction, oil and gas extraction, navigation, and aquaculture. Employing best
practices in planning and siting can help minimize potential land use impacts of
offshore and land-based wind projects.

Wildlife and Habitat

The impact of wind turbines on wildlife, most notably on birds and bats, has been
widely document and studied. A recent National Wind Coordinating Committee
(NWCC) review of peer-reviewed research found evidence of bird and bat deaths
from collisions with wind turbines and due to changes in air pressure caused by
the spinning turbines, as well as from habitat disruption. The NWCC concluded
that these impacts are relatively low and do not pose a threat to species
populations.

Additionally, research into wildlife behavior and advances in wind turbine

technology have helped to reduce bird and bat deaths. For example, wildlife
biologists have found that bats are most active when wind speeds are low. Using
this information, the Bats and Wind Energy Cooperative concluded that keeping
wind turbines motionless during times of low wind speeds could reduce bat
deaths by more than half without significantly affecting power production [6].
Other wildlife impacts can be mitigated through better siting of wind turbines. The
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services has played a leadership role in this effort by
convening an advisory group including representatives from industry, state and
tribal governments, and nonprofit organizations that made comprehensive
recommendations on appropriate wind farm siting and best management
practices.

Offshore wind turbines can have similar impacts on marine birds, but as with
onshore wind turbines, the bird deaths associated with offshore wind are
minimal. Wind farms located offshore will also impact fish and other marine
wildlife. Some studies suggest that turbines may actually increase fish
populations by acting as artificial reefs. The impact will vary from site to site, and
therefore proper research and monitoring systems are needed for each offshore
wind facility.

Public Health and Community

Sound and visual impact are the two main public health and community concerns
associated with operating wind turbines. Most of the sound generated by wind
turbines is aerodynamic, caused by the movement of turbine blades through the
air. There is also mechanical sound generated by the turbine itself. Overall sound
levels depend on turbine design and wind speed.

Some people living close to wind facilities have complained about sound and
vibration issues, but industry and government-sponsored studies in Canada and
Australia have found that these issues do not adversely impact public health [9].
However, it is important for wind turbine developers to take these community
concerns seriously by following “good neighbor” best practices for siting turbines
and initiating open dialogue with affected community members. Additionally,
technological advances, such as minimizing blade surface imperfections and
using sound-absorbent materials can reduce wind turbine noise.

Under certain lighting conditions, wind turbines can create an effect known as
shadow flicker. This annoyance can be minimized with careful siting, planting
trees or installing window awnings, or curtailing wind turbine operations when
certain lighting conditions exist.

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) requires that large wind turbines, like
all structures over 200 feet high, have white or red lights for aviation safety.
However, the FAA recently determined that as long as there are no gaps in
lighting greater than a half-mile, it is not necessary to light each tower in a multi-
turbine wind project. Daytime lighting is unnecessary as long as the turbines are
painted white.
 When it comes to aesthetics, wind turbines can elicit strong reactions. To some
people, they are graceful sculptures; to others, they are eyesores that
compromise the natural landscape. Whether a community is willing to accept an
altered skyline in return for cleaner power should be decided in an open public
dialogue.

Water Use

There is no water impact associated with the operation of wind turbines. As in all
manufacturing processes, some water is used to manufacture steel and cement
for wind turbines.

Life-Cycle Global Warming Emissions

While there are no global warming emissions associated with operating wind
turbines, there are emissions associated with other stages of a wind turbine’s life-
cycle, including materials production, materials transportation, on-site
construction and assembly, operation and maintenance, and decommissioning
and dismantlement.

Estimates of total global warming emissions depend on a number of factors,

including wind speed, percent of time the wind is blowing, and the material
composition of the wind turbine. Most estimates of wind turbine life-cycle global
warming emissions are between 0.02 and 0.04 pounds of carbon dioxide
equivalent per kilowatt-hour. To put this into context, estimates of life-cycle global
warming emissions for natural gas generated electricity are between 0.6 and 2
pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour and estimates for coal-
generated electricity are 1.4 and 3.6 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per
kilowatt-hour.

 Geothermal energy

The most widely developed type of geothermal power plant (known as

hydrothermal plants) are located near geologic “hot spots” where hot molten rock
is close to the earth’s crust and produces hot water.

In other regions enhanced geothermal systems (or hot dry rock geothermal),
which involve drilling into the earth’s surface to reach deeper geothermal
resources, can allow broader access to geothermal energy.
Geothermal plants also differ in terms of the technology they use to convert the
resource to electricity (direct steam, flash, or binary) and the type of cooling
technology they use (water-cooled and air-cooled). Environmental impacts differ
depending on the conversion and cooling technology used.

Water Quality and Use

Geothermal power plants can have impacts on both water quality and
consumption. Hot water pumped from underground reservoirs often contains high
levels of sulfur, salt, and other minerals. Most geothermal facilities have closed-
loop water systems, in which extracted water is pumped directly back into the
geothermal reservoir after it has been used for heat or electricity production. In
such systems, the water is contained within steel well casings cemented to the
surrounding rock. There have been no reported cases of water contamination
from geothermal sites in the United States.

Water is also used by geothermal plants for cooling and re-injection. All U.S.
geothermal power facilities use wet-recirculating technology with cooling towers.
Depending on the cooling technology used, geothermal plants can require
between 1,700 and 4,000 gallons of water per megawatt-hour. However, most
geothermal plants can use either geothermal fluid or freshwater for cooling; the
use of geothermal fluids rather than freshwater clearly reduces the plants overall
water impact.

Most geothermal plants re-inject water into the reservoir after it has been used to
prevent contamination and land subsidence (see Land Use below). In most
cases, however, not all water removed from the reservoir is re-injected because
some is lost as steam. In order to maintain a constant volume of water in the
reservoir, outside water must be used. The amount of water needed depends on
the size of the plant and the technology used; however, because reservoir water
is “dirty," it is often not necessary to use clean water for this purpose. For
example, the Geysers geothermal site in California injects non-potable treated
wastewater into its geothermal reservoir.

Air Emissions

The distinction between open- and closed-loop systems is important with respect
to air emissions. In closed-loop systems, gases removed from the well are not
exposed to the atmosphere and are injected back into the ground after giving up
their heat, so air emissions are minimal. In contrast, open-loop systems emit
hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, ammonia, methane, and boron. Hydrogen
sulfide, which has a distinctive “rotten egg” smell, is the most common emission.

Once in the atmosphere, hydrogen sulfide changes into sulfur dioxide (SO2).
This contributes to the formation of small acidic particulates that can be absorbed
by the bloodstream and cause heart and lung disease [6]. Sulfur dioxide also
causes acid rain, which damages crops, forests, and soils, and acidifies lakes
and streams. However, SO2 emissions from geothermal plants are
approximately 30 times lower per megawatt-hour than from coal plants, which is
the nation’s largest SO2 source.

Some geothermal plants also produce small amounts of mercury emissions,

which must be mitigated using mercury filter technology. Scrubbers can reduce
air emissions, but they produce a watery sludge composed of the captured
materials, including sulfur, vanadium, silica compounds, chlorides, arsenic,
mercury, nickel, and other heavy metals. This toxic sludge often must be
disposed of at hazardous waste sites.

Land Use

The amount of land required by a geothermal plant varies depending on the

properties of the resource reservoir, the amount of power capacity, the type of
energy conversion system, the type of cooling system, the arrangement of wells
and piping systems, and the substation and auxiliary building needs. The
Geysers, the largest geothermal plant in the world, has a capacity of
approximately 1,517 megawatts and the area of the plant is approximately 78
square kilometers, which translates to approximately 13 acres per megawatt.
Like the Geysers, many geothermal sites are located in remote and sensitive
ecological areas, so project developers must take this into account in their
planning processes.

Land subsidence, a phenomenon in which the land surface sinks, is sometimes

caused by the removal of water from geothermal reservoirs. Most geothermal
facilities address this risk by re-injecting wastewater back into geothermal
reservoirs after the water’s heat has been captured.

Hydrothermal plants are sited on geological “hot spots," which tend to have
higher levels of earthquake risk. There is evidence that hydrothermal plants can
lead to an even greater earthquake frequency. Enhanced geothermal systems
(hot dry rock) can also increase the risk of small earthquakes. In this process,
water is pumped at high pressures to fracture underground hot rock reservoirs
similar to technology used in natural gas hydraulic fracturing. (See How Natural
Gas Works for more information.) Earthquake risk associated with enhanced
geothermal systems can be minimized by siting plants an appropriate distance
away from major fault lines. When a geothermal system is sited near a heavily
populated area, constant monitoring and transparent communication with local
communities is also necessary.

Life-Cycle Global Warming Emissions

In open-loop geothermal systems, approximately 10 percent of the air emissions

are carbon dioxide, and a smaller amount of emissions are methane, a more
potent global warming gas. Estimates of global warming emissions for open-loop
systems are approximately 0.1 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-
hour. In closed-loop systems, these gases are not released into the atmosphere,
but there are a still some emissions associated with plant construction and
surrounding infrastructure.

Enhanced geothermal systems, which require energy to drill and pump water into
hot rock reservoirs, have life-cycle global warming emission of approximately 0.2
pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour.

To put this into context, estimates of life-cycle global warming emissions for
natural gas generated electricity are between 0.6 and 2 pounds of carbon dioxide
equivalent per kilowatt-hour and estimates for coal-generated electricity are 1.4
and 3.6 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour.

 Biomass for electricity

Biomass power plants share some similarities with fossil fuel power plants: both
involve the combustion of a feedstock to generate electricity. Thus, biomass
plants raise similar, but not identical, concerns about air emissions and water use
as fossil fuel plants. However, the feedstock of biomass plants can be
sustainable produced, while fossil fuels are non-renewable.

Sources of biomass resources for producing electricity are diverse; including

energy crops (like switch grass), agricultural waste, manure, forest products and
waste, and urban waste. Both the type of feedstock and the manner in which it is
developed and harvested significantly affect land use and life-cycle global
warming emissions impacts of producing power from biomass.
  Hydroelectric power
Hydroelectric power includes both massive hydroelectric dams and small run-of-
the-river plants. Large-scale hydroelectric dams continue to be built in many
parts of the world (including China and Brazil), but it is unlikely that new facilities
will be added to the existing U.S. fleet in the future.

Instead, the future of hydroelectric power in the United States will likely involve
increased capacity at current dams and new run-of-the-river projects. There are
environmental impacts at both types of plants.

Land Use

The size of the reservoir created by a hydroelectric project can vary widely,
depending largely on the size of the hydroelectric generators and the topography
of the land. Hydroelectric plants in flat areas tend to require much more land than
those in hilly areas or canyons where deeper reservoirs can hold more volume of
water in a smaller space.

At one extreme, the large Balbina hydroelectric plant, which was built in a flat
area of Brazil, flooded 2,360 square kilometers—an area the size of Delaware—
and it only provides 250 MW of power generating capacity (equal to more than
2,000 acres per MW). In contrast, a small 10 MW run-of-the-rive plant in a hilly
location can use as little 2.5 acres (equal to a quarter of an acre per MW).

Flooding land for a hydroelectric reservoir has an extreme environmental impact:

it destroys forest, wildlife habitat, agricultural land, and scenic lands. In many
instances, such as the Three Gorges Dam in China, entire communities have
also had to be relocated to make way for reservoirs.

Wildlife Impacts

Dammed reservoirs are used for multiple purposes, such as agricultural

irrigation, flood control, and recreation, so not all wildlife impacts associated with
dams can be directly attributed to hydroelectric power. However, hydroelectric
facilities can still have a major impact on aquatic ecosystems. For example,
though there are a variety of methods to minimize the impact (including fish
ladders and in-take screens), fish and other organisms can be injured and killed
by turbine blades.
Apart from direct contact, there can also be wildlife impacts both within the
dammed reservoirs and downstream from the facility. Reservoir water is usually
more stagnant than normal river water. As a result, the reservoir will have higher
than normal amounts of sediments and nutrients, which can cultivate an excess
of algae and other aquatic weeds. These weeds can crowd out other river animal
and plant-life, and they must be controlled through manual harvesting or by
introducing fish that eat these plants. In addition, water is lost through
evaporation in dammed reservoirs at a much higher rate than in flowing rivers.

In addition, if too much water is stored behind the reservoir, segments of the river
downstream from the reservoir can dry out. Thus, most hydroelectric operators
are required to release a minimum amount of water at certain times of year. If not
released appropriately, water levels downstream will drop and animal and plant
life can be harmed. In addition, reservoir water is typically low in dissolved
oxygen and colder than normal river water. When this water is released, it could
have negative impacts on downstream plants and animals. To mitigate these
impacts, aerating turbines can be installed to increase dissolved oxygen and
multi-level water intakes can help ensure that water released from the reservoir
comes from all levels of the reservoir, rather than just the bottom (which is the
coldest and has the lowest dissolved oxygen).

Life-cycle Global Warming Emissions

Global warming emissions are produced during the installation and dismantling of
hydroelectric power plants, but recent research suggests that emissions during a
facility’s operation can also be significant. Such emissions vary greatly
depending on the size of the reservoir and the nature of the land that was flooded
by the reservoir.

Small run-of-the-river plants emit between 0.01 and 0.03 pounds of carbon
dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour. Life-cycle emissions from large-scale
hydroelectric plants built in semi-arid regions are also modest: approximately
0.06 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour. However, estimates
for life-cycle global warming emissions from hydroelectric plants built in tropical
areas or temperate peat lands are much higher. After the area is flooded, the
vegetation and soil in these areas decomposes and releases both carbon dioxide
and methane. The exact amount of emissions depends greatly on site-specific
characteristics. However, current estimates suggest that life-cycle emissions can
be over 0.5 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour.
 To put this into context, estimates of life-cycle global warming emissions for
natural gas generated electricity are between 0.6 and 2 pounds of carbon dioxide
equivalent per kilowatt-hour and estimates for coal-generated electricity are 1.4
and 3.6 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour.

 Hydrokinetic energy
Hydrokinetic energy, which includes wave and tidal power, encompasses an
array of energy technologies, many of which are still in the experimental stages
or in the early stages of deployment.

While actual impacts of large-scale operations have not been observed, a range
of potential impacts can be projected. For example, wave energy installations
can require large expanses of ocean space, which could compete with other
uses—such as fishing and shipping—and cause damage to marine life and
habitats. Some tidal energy technologies are located at the mouths of
ecologically-sensitive estuary systems, which could cause changes in hydrology
and salinity that negatively impact animal and plant life.

In addition, while estimates for life-cycle global warming emissions for wave and
tidal power are preliminary, published research suggests that they would be
below 0.05 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour. To put this into
context, estimates of life-cycle global warming emissions for natural gas
generated electricity are between 0.6 and 2 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent
per kilowatt-hour and estimates for coal-generated electricity are 1.4 and 3.6
pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour.

3. Nuclear energy and the environment

Energy from Nuclear Power (Uranium-235). Is Nuclear Power a Renewable

Energy Source?

Nuclear power stations use of sustained nuclear fission (of Uranium -235) to
generate heat and electricity. Worldwide, nuclear power plants provide about 6%
of the world's energy and 13-14% of the world's electricity. The U.S., France, and
Japan together accounting for about 50% of nuclear power generated electricity.
In 2007, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA, Vienna) reported that
there were 439 nuclear power reactors in operation in the world, in 31 countries.
Also, more than 150 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion have been built.

For years there was an ongoing debate about the use of nuclear energy.
Proponents were argued that nuclear power can be considered as a sustainable
energy source that reduce carbon dioxide emissions and climatic changes. While
opponents believe that nuclear power poses many threats to people and the
environment, as well as problems of weapons proliferation and international
safety. The nuclear power stations became very important after the 1973 oil crisis
and the significant increase of the price of petroleum which threatened the
energy production in many industrialized countries. Some local opposition to
nuclear power emerged in the 1960s. Also, members of the scientific community
began to express their concerns. These concerns related to nuclear accidents,
nuclear proliferation, high cost of nuclear power plants, nuclear terrorism and
radioactive waste disposal. In the early 1970s, there were large protests about a
proposed nuclear power plant in Wyhl, Germany (was cancelled in 1975). The
success of the anti-nuclear protests inspired opposition to nuclear power in other
parts of Europe and North America.

Since their development, the economics of new nuclear power plants is a

controversial subject among scientists and environmentalists. Nuclear power
plants typically have high capital costs for building the plant, but low fuel costs.
Therefore, comparison with other power generation methods is strongly
dependent on economic assumptions as well as for energy storage solutions for
intermittent power sources.

The debate changed dramatically the last decades with the global warming issue
caused by CO2 by the conventional electricity generation and vehicular use of
oil. The argument is that nuclear power can be considered as non-polluting
energy production. Scientists argue that with the use of nuclear power humans
can mitigate global warming and reduce substantially the emissions of CO2 until;
other renewable and non-pollution energy sources are invented. Life cycle
analyses (LCA) of CO2 emissions show nuclear power as comparable to
renewable energy sources. Emissions from burning fossil fuels are many times
higher.

According to the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic

Radiation, UNSCEAR, regular nuclear power plant operation including the
nuclear fuel cycle causes radioisotope releases into the environment amounting
to 0.0002 mSv (milli-Sievert) per year of public exposure as a global average.
This level is very small compared to variation in natural background radiation. As
of a 2008 report, the remaining legacy of the worst nuclear power plant accident
(Chernobyl) is 0.002mSv/yr in global average exposure.
 The dramatic climatic change on Earth brought the solution of nuclear energy to
the forefront in the last decade. However, the 2011 nuclear accident at Japan's
Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant and other problems with safety in various
nuclear facilities raised questions among commentators over the future of
nuclear power. Although some countries commissioned new nuclear power
stations (Finland, China, India) Germany decide to close its nuclear power
stations after 2020. The crisis at Japan's Fukushima nuclear plants has prompted
leading energy-consuming countries to re-evaluate their nuclear energy
programs for the future. Although nuclear power is considered a low carbon
power generation source, its legal inclusion with renewable energy power
sources has been the subject of great debate. Nuclear fission is not regarded as
renewable by the U.S. Department of Energy.

James Lovelock has argued in his book “The Revenge of Gaia” that the climate
crisis can be reversed by using the nuclear power for electricity because is the
only energy source that does not produce ant CO2. Some scientists have very
strong arguments against nuclear energy and support the opinion that the use of
nuclear power station will not solve the problem of energy demand. The cost of
nuclear fuel, nuclear waste, terrorism, nuclear proliferation and decommissioning
are negative aspects.

A thorough study of the antinuclear movements in Germany and the USA

described the main arguments of popular organizations in these two highly
industrialised countries against nuclear power. France in the other hand derives
over 75% of its electricity from 58 nuclear power stations. This is due to a long-
standing policy of the French government and with the understanding of a large
percentage of the population based on energy security.

REFERENCES:

Vlachogianni, T. , & Valavanidis, A. (2013). Energy and Environmental Impact on the

Biosphere Energy Flow, Storage and Conversion in Human Civilization. American
Journal of Educational Research, 1(3), 68-78.

Union of Concerned Scientists: Science for a healthy planet and safer world. Retrieved
July 09, 2017, from http://www.ucsusa.org/clean-energy/renewable-
energy/environmental-impacts#bf-toc-1
 ECOLOGY OF POPULATION
Jocelle P. Tabarno

A. Characteristics of Population

1. Density and Patterns of Distribution

Density

Density is the number of individual per unit of space. Individuals are affected by
density. Trees in crowded areas may die because of lack of water, nutrients and light.
Some birds may be denied access to nest site due to limited space. Density could also
affect the spread of diseases, parasites and death.

Two Types of Density

1. Crude Density - is the number or biomass per unit total space.

2. Specific or Ecological Density – is the number or biomass per unit of habitat.

Population Distribution

Population distribution means the pattern of where people live. World population
distribution is uneven. Places which are sparsely populated contain few people. Places
which are densely populated contain many people. Sparsely populated places tend to
be difficult places to live. These are usually places with hostile environments e.g.
Antarctica. Places which are densely populated are habitable environments e.g.
Europe.

Individual in a population maybe distributed according to three patterns.

1. Random Distribution – is a type of distribution, which is relatively rare in nature
occurring the environment is uniform and there is a tendency to aggregate.
Organisms have an unpredictable distribution. This is typical of species in which
individuals do not interact strongly. The spider shows an example of random
sampling on a first floor.
2. Clumped Distribution – is the most common pattern. The three reason for this
type of distribution are: the physical and chemical condition suitable for growth
are typically “patchy” rather than uniform; some part of the habitat offer more
protections to prey organisms; and the dispersal of seeds, larvae and other
representatives forms of each new generation is often limited. Organisms are
clustered together in groups. This may reflect a patchy distribution of resources
in the environment. An example for this is one that is exhibited by the insects.
3. Uniform Distribution – is the even spacing brought about by the severe
competition and positive antagonism among the individual. Organisms are evenly
spaced over the area they occupy. This is typical of species in which individuals
compete for a scarce environmental resource, such as water in a desert.

2. Age and Sex Ratio

Age Distribution

Population can be divided into three ecological periods according to

Bodemheimer: prereproductive (juvenile period), reproductive and
postreproductive. The relative length of each period depends largely on the life
history of the organism.

Primitive man had a much shorter postreproductive period. In modern

man, the three ages are relatively equal in lengths, about a third of his life was
falling in each class. Many of the plants and animals exhibit very long
prereproductive period. Insects have extremely long prereproductive period and
very short reproductive period and without postreproductive period.

Age Pyramid

Age pyramid is a special type of bar chart showing the age and sex
distribution of the population. The three types of age pyramid which represents a
large, moderate and small percentage of young individuals in the population.
(Left) a pyramid with a broad base indicating a high percentage of young
individuals; (Middle) a bell-shaped polygon, indicating a moderate proportion of
young to old; and (Right) an Urn-shaped figure, indicating a low percentage of
young individuals. The latter is the characteristic of a senile or declining
population.
 3. Natality and Mortality

Natality or Birthrate

Natality is the greatest factor that influences population increase. It is in

the inherent ability of population to increase.

Maximum Natality – is the absolute or theoretical maximum production of

new individual under ideal condition.

Ecological Natality – is the population increase under actual or

environmental condition.

Mortality or Deathrate

Mortality is usually expressed as the probability of dying.

Minimum Mortality – is the loss of the individual under ideal condition.

Ecological Mortality – is the loss of individual under given environmental

condition.

REFERENCE:

Cruz, Liwayway Memije (2000). Ecology. Booklore Publishing Corp.

 POPULATION GROWTH
Princess Hanna C. Maylas

Population Growth - how the size of the population is changing over time.

Population growth as it is defined in the Business Dictionary is “An increase in the

number of people that reside in a country, state, county, or city. To determine whether
there has been population growth, the following formula is used: (birth rate +
immigration) - (death rate + emigration). Businesses and governmental bodies use this
information to make determinations about investing in certain communities or regions.”

Biotic Potential

Biotic potential is the ability of a population of living species to increase under ideal
environmental conditions – sufficient food supply, no predators, and a lack of disease.
An organism’s rate of reproduction and the size of each litter are the primary
determining factors for biotic potential. Significant differences in biotic potential exist
between species – many large mammals, like humans or elephants, will only produce
one offspring per year and some small organisms, like insects, will produce thousands
of offspring per year. Organisms do not tend to fulfill their biotic potential because most
species do not live under ideal environmental conditions. At some point, population
growth will be hindered by predators, disease, changes in environment, a lack of
available food, or a combination of these factors. Humans have a lower biotic potential
than most other organisms and yet, human population continues to grow steadily. We
have mechanisms for preventing and treating diseases, the ability to grow and produce
food, and humans lack natural predators.

Population Growth Curves

The following points highlight the two main types of population growth curves.
The types are: 1. J – Shaped Curve 2. S – Shaped or Sigmoid Curve.

Type #1. J – Shaped Curve: Exponential Growth

In the case of J-shaped growth form, the population grows exponentially, and after
attaining the peak value, the population may abruptly crash. This increase in population
is continued till large amount of food materials exist in the habitat. After some time, due
to increase in population size, food supply in the habitat becomes limited which
ultimately results in decrease in population size. For example, many insect populations
show explosive increase in numbers during the rainy season, followed by their
disappearance at the end of the season.

The following equation exhibits J-shaped growth:

dN/dt = rN

Here dN/dt represents rate of change in population size, r is biotic potential and N
stands for population size.

Type # 2. S – Shaped or Sigmoid Curve: Logistic Growth

When a few organisms are introduced in an area, the population increase is very slow in
the beginning, i.e., positive acceleration phase or lag phase, in the middle phase, the
population increase becomes very rapid, i.e., logarithmic phase, and finally in the last
phase the population increase is slowed down, i.e., negative acceleration phase, until
an equilibrium is attained around which the population size fluctuates according to
variability of environment.

The level beyond which no major increase can occur is referred to as saturation level or
carrying capacity (K). In the last phase the new organisms are almost equal to the
number of dying individuals and thus there is no more increase in population size.

The S-shaped sigmoid growth form is represented by the following equation:

dN/dt = rN (K – N/K) = rN (1 – N/K)

where, dN/dt is the rate of change in population size, r is biotic potential, N is population
size, K – N/K or 1 – (N/K) is for environmental resistance.
Environmental Resistance

Business Dictionary defined it as “Factors in an environment such as predators,

competition, climate, and food availability that keep its various populations from
reaching their maximum growth potential.” The factors affecting population size and
growth include biotic factors such as food, disease, competitors, and predators and
abiotic factors such as rainfall, floods, and temperature.

Carrying Capacity

For a given region, carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals of a given
species that an area's resources can sustain indefinitely without significantly depleting
or degrading those resources. Determining the carrying capacities for most organisms is
fairly straightforward. For humans carrying capacity is much more complicated. The
definition is expanded to include not degrading our cultural and social environments and
not harming the physical environment in ways that would adversely affect future
generations.

For populations which grow exponentially, growth starts out slowly, enters a rapid
growth phase and then levels off when the carrying capacity for that species has been
reached. The size of the population then fluctuates slightly above or below the carrying
capacity. Reproductive lag time may cause the population to overshoot the carrying
capacity temporarily. Reproductive lag time is the time required for the birth rate to
decline and the death rate to increase in response to resource limits. In this scenario,
the population will suffer a crash or dieback to a lower level near the carrying capacity
unless a large number of individuals can migrate to an area with more favorable
conditions. An area's carrying capacity is not static. The carrying capacity may be
lowered by resource destruction and degradation during an overshoot period or
extended through technological and social changes.

Survivorship Curve

A survivorship curve is a graph showing the number or proportion of individuals

surviving to each age for a given species or group (e.g. males or females). Survivorship
curves can be constructed for a given cohort (a group of individuals of roughly the same
age) based on a life table.
Survivorship Curves

Show graphically the relative survival

rates of individuals at different
ages. There are 3 types of
survivorship curves:

Type I individuals survive well early in life and generally live many years. At an
advanced age, the death rate increases dramatically. Examples include large
mammals.

Type II individuals have a death rate that is relatively constant at any age. Examples
include lizards, hydra, and some small mammals.

Type III individuals initially have a rather low chance of survival. Those that do
survive may live to an advanced age. Examples include many fish and other marine
organisms.

REFERENCES:

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/population-growth.html

https://populationeducation.org/content/what-biotic-potential

http://www.biologydiscussion.com/population/population-growth/population-growth-
curves-ecology/51854

https://www.wou.edu/las/physci/ch371/lecture/popgrowth/carrying.htm
http://stmary.ws/HighSchool/science/APBio/Populations/survivorship_curves.htm
 POPULATION DISPERSAL
Julia Elline A. Buenavista

Population Dispersal

It is the process by which groups of living organisms expand the space or range within
which they live. Dispersal operates when individual organisms leave the space that they
have occupied previously, or in which they were born, and settle in new areas. Natal
dispersal is the first movement of an organism from its birth site to the site in which it
first attempts to breed. Adult dispersal is a subsequent movement when an adult
organism changes its location in space. As individuals move across space and settle
into new locations, the population to which they belong expands or contracts its overall
distribution. Thus, dispersal is the process by which populations change the area they
occupy.

Emigration

It is the movement of people from one country to another to establish permanent or

temporary residence, usually with the aim of finding work. Emigration may be
permanent or temporary, even seasonal. In seasonal emigration the time of stay is
limited by contract or other terms of hire; for example, the emigrant may be allowed to
stay for the gathering of the harvest. In addition to emigration for economic reasons,
population movements take place for political, ethnic, and religious reasons. In the
second half of the 20th century the principal waves of emigration have been from
Western Europe to the USA, Canada, Australia, and several other countries—primarily
permanent emigration—and from developing countries to Western Europe— usually
temporary emigration by laborers who work for low wages.

Immigration

It is a category of population dispersal covering one-way movement into

the population area. It is also defined as the international movement of people into a
destination country of which they are not natives or where they do not
possess citizenship in order to settle or reside there, especially as permanent
residents or naturalized citizens.
Migration

It is a category of population dispersal covering one-way movement into

the population area.

Patterns of migration.

Wide variation between different organisms. The general pattern is that the fundamental
niche of the species includes two different types of habitats, each of which is favorable
at different times. Migration moves the species between the two habitats. The variation
comes in the time scale over which this occurs such as daily and seasonal movements.

Migration is the movement of individuals of a species from one place to another.

Emigration is migration seen as the exit of individuals from one region (to another where
they will settle permanently or temporarily). Immigration is migration seen as the settling
in one region (permanently or temporarily) of individuals coming from another region.
Therefore, individuals emigrate "from" and immigrate "to".

Migration, immigration and emigration affects the size of the population because these
are the main factors that make populations grow such as births and immigration
however the main factors that make populations decrease in number are deaths and
emigration.