EDS

UNIT II
Design Considerations of Primary Systems

IntroductIon :

The part of the electric utility system that is between the distribution substation and the distribution
transformers is called the primary system. It is made of circuits known as primary feeders or primary
distribution feeders. Figure 5.1 shows a one-line diagram of a typical primary distribution feeder. A
feeder includes a “main” or main feeder, which usually is a three-phase four-wire circuit, and
branches or laterals, which usually are single-phase or three-phase circuits tapped off the main. Also
sublaterals may be tapped off the laterals as necessary. In general, laterals and sublaterals located in
residential and rural areas are single phase and consist of one-phase conductor and the neutral. The
majority of the distribution transformers are single phase and are connected between the phase and the
neutral through fuse cutouts. A given feeder is sectionalized by reclosing devices at various locations
in such a manner as to remove the faulted circuit as little as possible so as to hinder service to as few
consumers as possible. This can be achieved through the coordination of the operation of all the fuses
and reclosers. It appears that, due to growing emphasis on the service reliability, the protection
schemes in the future will be more sophisticated and complex, ranging from manually operated
devices to remotely controlled automatic devices based on supervisory controlled or computer-
controlled systems. The congested and heavy-load locations in metropolitan areas are served by using
underground primary feeders. They are usually radial three-conductor cables. The improved
appearance and less frequent trouble expectancy are among the advantages of this method. However,
it is more expensive, and the repair time is longer than the overhead systems. In some cases, the cable
can be employed as suspended on poles. The cost involved is greater than that of open wire but much
less than that of underground installation. There are various and yet interrelated factors affecting the
selection of a primary-feeder rating. Examples are

1. The nature of the load connected

2. The load density of the area served

3. The growth rate of the load

4. The need for providing spare capacity for emergency operations

5. The type and cost of circuit construction employed

6. The design and capacity of the substation involved

7. The type of regulating equipment used

8. The quality of service required

9. The continuity of service required

 Figure 5.1.One-line diagram of a typical primary distribution feeder

The voltage conditions on distribution systems can be improved by using shunt capacitors that are
connected as near the loads as possible to derive the greatest benefit. The use of shunt capacitors also
improves the power factor involved, which in turn lessens the voltage drops and currents, and
therefore losses, in the portions of a distribution system between the capacitors and the bulk power
buses. The capacitor ratings should be selected carefully to prevent the occurrence of excessive
overvoltages at times of light loads due to the voltage rise produced by the capacitor currents.The
voltage conditions on distribution systems can also be improved by using series capacitors. But the
application of series capacitors does not reduce the currents and therefore losses, in the system.

Radial-Type Primary Feeder:

The simplest and the lowest cost and therefore the most common form of primary feeder is the radial-
type primary feeder as shown in Figure 5.2. The main primary feeder branches into various primary
laterals that in turn separates into several sublaterals to serve all the distribution transformers. In
general, the main feeder and subfeeders are three-phase three- or four-wire circuits and the laterals are
three phase or single phase. The current magnitude is the greatest in the circuit conductors that leave
the substation. The current magnitude continually lessens out toward the end of the feeder as laterals
and sublaterals are tapped off the feeder. Usually, as the current lessens, the size of the feeder
conductors is also reduced. However, the permissible voltage regulation may restrict any feeder size
reduction, which is based only on the thermal capability, that is, current-carrying capacity, of the
feeder. The reliability of service continuity of the radial primary feeders is low. A fault occurrence at
any location on the radial primary feeder causes a power outage for every consumer on the feeder
unless the fault can be isolated from the source by a disconnecting device such as a fuse,
sectionalizer, disconnect switch, or recloser.

Figure 5.2. Radial-type primary feeder

Figure 5.3 shows a modified radial-type primary feeder with tie and sectionalizing switches to provide
fast restoration of service to customers by switching unfaulted sections of the feeder to an adjacent
primary feeder or feeders. The fault can be isolated by opening the associated disconnecting devices
on each side of the faulted section. Figure 5.4 shows another type of radial primary feeder with
express feeder and backfeed. The section of the feeder between the substation low-voltage bus and the
load center of the service area is called an express feeder. No subfeeders or laterals are allowed to be
tapped off the express feeder. However, a subfeeder is allowed to provide a backfeed toward the
substation from the load center. Figure 5.5 shows a radial-type phase-area feeder arrangement in
which each phase of the threephase feeder serves its own service area. In Figures 5.4 and 5.5, each dot
represents a balanced three-phase load lumped at that location.

Loop-Type Primary Feeder:

Figure 5.6 shows a loop-type primary feeder that loops through the feeder load area and returns back
to the bus. Sometimes the loop tie disconnect switch is replaced by a loop tie breaker due to the load
conditions. In either case, the loop can function with the tie disconnect switches or breakers normally
open (NO) or normally closed.
Usually, the size of the feeder conductor is kept the same throughout the loop. It is selected to carry its
normal load plus the load of the other half of the loop. This arrangement provides two parallel paths
from the substation to the load when the loop is operated with NO tie breakers or disconnect switches.
A primary fault causes the feeder breaker to be open. The breaker will remain open until the fault is
isolated from both directions. The loop-type primary-feeder arrangement is especially beneficial to
provide service for loads where high service reliability is important. In general, a separate feeder
breaker on each end of the loop is preferred, despite the cost involved. The parallel feeder paths can
also be connected to separate bus sections in the substation and supplied from separate transformers.
In addition to main feeder loops, NO lateral loops are also used, particularly in underground systems.

Primary-Feeder Voltage Levels

The primary-feeder voltage level is the most important factor affecting the system design, cost, and
operation. Some of the design and operation aspects affected by the primary-feeder voltage level are
[2]

1. Primary-feeder length 2. Primary-feeder loading 3. Number of distribution substations 4. Rating of

distribution substations 5. Number of subtransmission lines 6. Number of customers affected by a
specific outage 7. System maintenance practices 8. The extent of tree trimming 9. Joint use of utility
poles 10. Type of pole-line design and construction 11. Appearance of the pole line

There are additional factors affecting the decisions for primary-feeder voltage-level selection, as
shown in Figure 5.8.
Usually, primary feeders located in low-load density areas are restricted in length and loading by
permissible voltage drop rather than by thermal restrictions, whereas primary feeders located in high-
load density areas, for example, industrial and commercial areas, may be restricted by thermal
limitations. In general, for a given percent voltage drop, the feeder length and loading are direct
functions of the feeder voltage level. This relationship is known as the voltage-square rule. For
example, if the feeder voltage is doubled, for the same percent voltage drop, it can supply the same
power four times the distance. However, as Lokay [2] explains it clearly, the feeder with the increased
length feeds more load. Therefore, the advantage obtained by the new and higher-voltage level
through the voltage-square factor, that is,
Primary-Feeder Loading:

Primary-feeder loading is defined as the loading of a feeder during peak-load conditions as measured
at the substation [2]. Some of the factors affecting the design loading of a feeder are

1. The density of the feeder load 2. The nature of the feeder load 3. The growth rate of the feeder load
4. The reserve-capacity requirements for emergency 5. The service-continuity requirements 6. The
service-reliability requirements 7. The quality of service 8. The primary-feeder voltage level 9. The
type and cost of construction 10. The location and capacity of the distribution substation 11. The
voltage regulation requirements

There are additional factors affecting the decisions for feeder routing, the number of feeders, and
feeder conductor size selection, as shown in Figures 5.11 through 5.13.
Present Design Practice:

The part of the electric utility system that is between the primary system and the consumer’s property
is called the secondary system. Secondary distribution systems include step-down distribution
transformers, secondary circuits (secondary mains), consumer services (or SDs), and meters to
measure consumer energy consumption.

Generally, the secondary distribution systems are designed in single phase for areas of residential
customers and in three phase for areas of industrial or commercial customers with high-load densities.
The types of the secondary distribution systems include the following:

1. The separate-service system for each consumer with separate distribution transformer and
secondary connection 2. The radial system with a common secondary main, which is supplied by one
distribution transformer and feeding a group of consumers 3. The secondary-bank system with a
common secondary main that is supplied by several distribution transformers, which are all fed by the
same primary feeder 4. The secondary-network system with a common grid-type main that is supplied
by a large number of the distribution transformers, which may be connected to various feeders for
their supplies

The separate-service system is seldom used and serves the industrial- or rural-type service areas.
Generally speaking, most of the secondary systems for serving residential, rural, and light-
commercial areas are radial designed. Figure 6.1 shows the one-line diagram of a radial secondary
system. It has a low cost and is simple to operate.
Secondary Banking

The “banking” of the distribution transformers, that is, parallel connection, or, in other words,
interconnection, of the secondary sides of two or more distribution transformers, which are supplied
from the same primary feeder, is sometimes practiced in residential and light-commercial areas where
the services are relatively close to each other, and therefore, the required spacing between
transformers is little. However, many utilities prefer to keep the secondary of each distribution
transformer separate from all others. In a sense, secondary banking is a special form of network
configuration on a radial distribution system. The advantages of the banking of the distribution
transformers include the following:

1. Improved voltage regulation 2. Reduced voltage dip or light flicker due to motor starting, by
providing parallel supply paths for motor-starting currents 3. Improved service continuity or reliability
4. Improved flexibility in accommodating load growth, at low cost, that is, possible increase in the
average loading of transformers without corresponding increase in the peak load

Banking the secondaries of the distribution transformers allows us to take advantage of the load
diversity existing among the greater number of consumers, which, in turn, induces a savings in the
required transformer kilovolt-amperes. These savings can be as large as 35% according to Lokay [7],
depending upon the load types and the number of consumers. Figure 6.2 shows two different methods
of banking secondaries. The method illustrated in Figure 6.2a is commonly used and is generally
preferred because it permits the use of a lower-rated fuse on the high-voltage side of the transformer,
and it prevents the occurrence of cascading the fuses. This method also simplifies the coordination
with primary-feeder sectionalizing fuses by having a lower-rated fuse on the high side of the
transformer. Furthermore, it provides the most economical system. Figure 6.3 gives two other
methods of banking secondaries. The method shown in Figure 6.3a is the oldest one and offers the
least protection, whereas the method shown in Figure 6.3b offers

the greatest protection. Therefore, the methods illustrated in Figures 6.2a and b and 6.3a have some
definite disadvantages, which include the following:

1. The requirement for careful policing of the secondary system of the banked transformers to detect
blown fuses. 2. The difficulty in coordination of secondary fuses. 3. Furthermore, the method
illustrated in Figure 6.2b has the additional disadvantage of being difficult to restore service after a
number of fuses on adjacent transformers have been blown.
Today, due to the aforementioned difficulties, many utilities prefer the method given in Figure 6.3b.
The special distribution transformer known as the completely self-protecting-bank (CSPB)
transformer has, in its unit, a built-in high-voltage protective link, secondary breakers, signal lights for
overload warnings, and lightning protection. CSPB transformers are built in both single phase and
three phase. They have two identical secondary breakers that trip independently of each other upon
excessive current flows. In case of a transformer failure, the primary protective links and the
secondary breakers will both open. Therefore, the service interruption will be minimum and restricted
only to those consumers who are supplied from the secondary section that is in fault. However, all the
methods of secondary banking have an inherent disadvantage: the difficulty in performing TLM to
keep up with changing load conditions. The main concern when designing a banked secondary system
is the equitable load division among the transformers. It is desirable that transformers whose
secondaries are banked in a straight line be within one size of each other. For other types of banking,
transformers may be within two sizes of each other to prevent excessive overload in case the primary
fuse of an adjacent larger transformer should blow. Today, in general, the banking is applied to the
secondaries of single-phase transformers, and all transformers in a bank must be supplied from the
same phase of the primary feeder.

Substation Location:

The location of a substation is dictated by the voltage levels, voltage regulation considerations,
subtransmission costs, substation costs, and the costs of primary feeders, mains, and distribution
transformers. It is also restricted by other factors, as explained in Chapter 1, which may not be
technical in nature.

However, to select an ideal location for a substation, the following rules should be observed [2]:

1. Locate the substation as much as feasible close to the load center of its service area, so that the
addition of load times distance from the substation is a minimum.

2. Locate the substation such that proper voltage regulation can be obtained without taking extensive
measures.

3. Select the substation location such that it provides proper access for incoming subtransmission lines
and outgoing primary feeders.

4. The selected substation location should provide enough space for the future substation expansion.
5. The selected substation location should not be opposed by land-use regulations, local ordinances,
and neighbors.

6. The selected substation location should help minimize the number of customers affected by any
service discontinuity.

7. Other considerations, such as adaptability and emergency.

Rating Of A Distribution Substation:

The additional capacity requirements of a system with increasing load density can be met by

1. Either holding the service area of a given substation constant and increasing its capacity

2. Or developing new substations and thereby holding the rating of the given substation constant
It is helpful to assume that the system changes (1) at constant load density for short-term distribution
planning and (2) at increasing load density for long-term planning. Further, it is also customary and
helpful to employ geometric figures to represent substation service areas, as suggested by Van
Wormer [3], Denton and Reps [4], and Reps [5]. It simplifies greatly the comparison of alternative
plans that may require different sizes of distribution substation, different numbers of primary feeders,
and different primary-feeder voltages. Reps [5] analyzed a square-shaped service area representing a
part of, or the entire service area of, a distribution substation. It is assumed that the square area is
served by four primary feeders from a central feed point, as shown in Figure 4.25. Each feeder and its
laterals are of three phase. Dots represent balanced three-phase loads lumped at that location and fed
by distribution transformers. Here, the percent voltage drop from the feed point a to the end of the last
lateral at c is

Reps [5] simplified the previously mentioned voltage-drop calculation by introducing a constant K
that can be defined as percent voltage drop per kilovolt-ampere-mile. Figure 4.26 gives the K constant
for various voltages and copper conductor sizes. Figure 4.26 is developed for three-phase overhead
lines with an equivalent spacing of 37 in. between phase conductors. The following analysis is based
on the work done by Denton and Reps [4] and Reps [5].
General Case: Substation Service Area with N Primary Feeders