Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Introduction
Physical Structure and Modes of Operation

A simplified structure of the npn transistor.

Physical Structure and Modes of Operation

A simplified structure of the pnp transistor.

Physical Structure and Modes of Operation

Mode EBJ CBJ

Active Forward Reverse

Cutoff Reverse Reverse
Saturation Forward Forward
Operation of The npn Transistor Active Mode

Current flow in an npn transistor biased to operate in the active mode, (Reverse current components due to drift of thermally generated
minority carriers are not shown.)
Operation of The npn Transistor Active Mode

Profiles of minority-carrier concentrations in the base and in the emitter of an npn transistor
operating in the active mode; vBE  0 and vCB  0.
Operation of The npn Transistor Active Mode
The Collector Current v BE

VT
iC I S e
The Base Current
v BE

iC IS VT
iB e
 

Physical Structure and Modes of Operation

 vBE 
 
1 1  VT
 i I 
iC  iB  iC  IS e 
   C
iE E
 1
Equivalent Circuit Models

Large-signal equivalent-circuit models of the npn BJT operating in the active mode.
The Constant n

The Collector-Base Reverse Current

The Structure of Actual Transistors

The pnp Transistor

Current flow in an pnp transistor biased to operate in the active mode.

The pnp Transistor

Two large-signal models for the pnp transistor operating in the active mode.
Circuit Symbols and Conventions

C C

B B

E E
Circuit Symbols and Conventions
Example 4.1 VCC 15 IC1  0.001   100 VBE 0.7 VEE 15 VT  0.025

Design circuit such that

VC  5 IC2  0.002

VC C VC 3
RC  RC  5  10
IC2
C
B Since VB E=0.7V at IC=1mA, the value of V BE at IC=2mA is

VB E 0.7  VT ln

E 2
 VB E 0.717
 1

VE  VB E VE  0.717

 IC2 3
  IE  IE  2.02  10
1 

v BE VE  ( VEE) 3
RE  RE  7.071 10
VT IE
iC I S e IC2 5
IB  IB  2  10

Example 4.1
Example 4.1
IC2 5
IB  IB  2  10

Summary of the BJT I-V Relationships in the Active Mode

vBE vBE vBE

VT
iC IS VT
iC IS VT
iC IS e iB e iE e
   

Note : for pnp transitor, replace vBE for vE B

iE
iC   iE iB  1     iE
1

iC   iB iE    1  iB

   iE  VT 25mV
1
Exercise 4.8
Exercise 4.9
The Graphical Representation of the Transistor Characteristics
The Graphical Representation of the Transistor Characteristics

Temperature Effect (10 to 120 C)

Dependence of ic on the Collector Voltage

The iC-vCB characteristics for an npn transistor in the active mode.

Dependence of ic on the Collector Voltage
Dependence of ic on the Collector Voltage – Early Effect

v BE

VT  v CE
VA – 50 to 100V IC I S e  1  
 VA

(a) Conceptual circuit for measuring the iC-vCE characteristics of the BJT. (b) The iC-vCE characteristics of a practical BJT.
Dependence of ic on the Collector Voltage – Early Effect
Nested DC Sweeps
Example
Example
Example
Monte Carlo Analysis – Using PSpice
Monte Carlo Analysis – Using PSpice
Monte Carlo Analysis – Using PSpice
Monte Carlo Analysis – Using PSpice

Probe Output
Ic(Q), Ib(Q), Vce
The Transistor As An Amplifier

(a) Conceptual circuit to illustrate the operation of the transistor of an amplifier.

(b) The circuit of (a) with the signal source vbe eliminated for dc (bias) analysis.

The Collector Current and The Transconductance

The Base Current and the Input Resistance at the Base

The Emitter Current and the Input Resistance at the Emitter

The Transistor As An Amplifier

Linear operation of the transistor under the small-signal condition: A small signal vbe with a triangular waveform is superimpose din the
dc voltage VBE. It gives rise to a collector signal current ic, also of triangular waveform, superimposed on the dc current IC. Ic = gm vbe,
where gm is the slope of the ic - vBE curve at the bias point Q.
Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit Models

Two slightly different versions of the simplified hybrid- model for the small-signal operation of the BJT. The equivalent circuit in
(a) represents the BJT as a voltage-controlled current source ( a transconductance amplifier) and that in (b) represents the BJT as a
current-controlled current source (a current amplifier).
Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit Models

Two slightly different versions of what is known as the T model of the BJT. The circuit in (a) is a voltage-controlled current source
representation and that in (b) is a current-controlled current source representation. These models explicitly show the emitter resistance
re rather than the base resistance r featured in the hybrid- model.
Signal waveforms in the circuit of Fig. 4.28.
Fig. 4.30 Example 4.11: (a) circuit; (b) dc analysis; (c) small-signal model; (d) small-signal analysis performed directly on the
circuit.
Fig. 4.34 Circuit whose operation is to be analyzed graphically.
Fig. 4.35 Graphical construction for the determination of the dc base current in the circuit of Fig. 4.34.
Fig. 4.36 Graphical construction for determining the dc collector current IC and the collector-to-emmiter voltage VCE in the circuit of
Fig. 4.34.
Fig. 4.37 Graphical determination of the signal components vbe, ib, ic, and vce when a signal component vi is superimposed on the dc
voltage VBB (see Fig. 4.34).
Fig. 4.38 Effect of bias-point location on allowable signal swing: Load-line A results in bias point QA with a corresponding VCE which
is too close to VCC and thus limits the positive swing of vCE. At the other extreme, load-line B results in an operating point too close to
the saturation region, thus limiting the negative swing of vCE.
Fig. 4.44 The common-emitter amplifier with a resistance Re in the emitter. (a) Circuit. (b) Equivalent circuit with the BJT replaced
with its T model (c) The circuit in (b) with ro eliminated.
Fig. 4.45 The common-base amplifier. (a) Circuit. (b) Equivalent circuit obtained by replacing the BJT with its T model.
Fig. 4.46 The common-collector or emitter-follower amplifier. (a) Circuit. (b) Equivalent circuit obtained by replacing the BJT with
its T model. (c) The circuit in (b) redrawn to show that ro is in parallel with RL. (d) Circuit for determining Ro.
A General Large-Signal Model For The BJT:
The Ebers-Moll Model  vBE 
 
 VT 
iDE ISE  e  1

 vBC 
 
 VT 
iDC ISC  e  1

ISC > ISE (2-50)

An npn resistor and its Ebers-Moll (EM) model. ISC and ISE are the scale or saturation
currents of diodes DE (EBJ) and DC (CBJ).

More General – Describe Transistor in any mode of operation.

Base for the Spice model.
Low frequency only
A General Large-Signal Model For The BJT:
The Ebers-Moll Model

 vBE 
 
 VT 
IDE ISE  e  1

 vBC 
 
 VT 
IDC ISE  e  1

F forwarded of the transistor source (close to 1)

R reverse  of the transistor source (0.02 - 0.5

 A General Large-Signal Model For The BJT:
The Ebers-Moll Model – Terminal Currents

 F ISE  R  ISC IS

iE iDE   R  iDC iC iDC   R  iDE

iB 1   F iDE  1   R iDC

 vBE   vBC  F
   
IS  F
VT   VT  1  F
iE  e  1  IS  e  1
F

 vBE   vBC  R
    R
IS  VT  IS  VT  1  R
iC  e  1   e  1
F R

 vBE   vBC 
   
IS  VT  IS  VT 
iB  e  1   e  1
F R
A General Large-Signal Model For The BJT:
The Ebers-Moll Model – Forward Active Mode

vBE Since vBC is negative and its magnitude

IS Is usually much greater than VT the
 IS  
VT 1
e 1  Previous equations can be approximated
F 
iE
F
  as

vBE

 IS   1
VT 1
iC IS e  
 R 

vBE

IS
 IS  
VT 1 1
e  
R 
iB
F
 F 
A General Large-Signal Model For The BJT:
The Ebers-Moll Model – Normal Saturation

Col l ector current wi l l be  forced  IB  forced   F

In saturati on both j uncti ons are forwarded bi ased. T hus VB E and VB

are posi ti ve and thei r val ues greater than V T.
M aki ng these approxi m ati ons and substi tuti ng
iB IB and iC  forced  IB

resul ts i n two equati ons that can be sol ved to obtai n V BE and V BC.
The saturatui on vol tage can be obtai ned as the di fference between th

 
 1  forced
 1 

 R 
VC Esat VT ln 
 forced
 1 
 F 
 
A General Large-Signal Model For The BJT:
The Ebers-Moll Model – Reverse Mode

Note that the currents indicated have positive values.

Thus, since ic = -I2 and iE = -I1, both iC and IE will be
I1 negative. Since the roles of the emitter and collector are
interchanged, the transistor in the circuit will operate in
the active mode (called the reverse active mode) when the
emitter-base junction is reverse-biased. In such a case

I1 = beta_R . IB
IB I2
This circuit will saturate (reverse saturation mode) when
the emitter-base junction becomes forward-biased.

I1/IB < beta_R

A General Large-Signal Model For The BJT:
The Ebers-Moll Model – Reverse Saturation

We can use the EM equations to find the expression of VECSat

 1  1   I1    1  
   
 F  IB    F 
VECsat  V T ln
 
 
1     
I1 1 
  IB   R  
   

From this expression, it can be seen that the minimum VECSat is obtained when
I1 = 0. This minimum is very close to zero.

The disadvantage of the reverse saturation mode is a relatively long turnoff time.
A General Large-Signal Model For The BJT:
The Ebers-Moll Model – Example
For the circuit below, let
RB  1000 VI  5 VC C 5 VB C 0.6
 R  0.1  F  50

Calculate approximate values ofe VE for th e following cases:

RC = 1K, 10K, 100K

From VB C = 0.6 VB  0.6

VI  VB 3
IB  IB  4.4  10
RB

a) for RC = 1 K, assume that the transitor is in the reverse active mode. thusRC  1000

4
I1   R IB I1  4.4  10

VE  VC C I1 RC VE  4.56
A General Large-Signal Model For The BJT:
The Ebers-Moll Model – Example
b) For RC = 10K, assum e reverse acti ve m ode RC  10000

4
I1   R IB I1  4.4  10

VE  VC C  I1 RC VE  0.6

Since VE = VB, the B JT is still in the reverse active m ode.

b) For RC = 100K, assum e reverse saturation m ode RC  10000

Since VE Csat is liekly to be very sm a ll, we can assum e V E = 0, and

VC C  0 4
I1  I1  5  10
RC
a better estim ate for V E is to use the equation below (4.115) VT  25

 1  1   I1    1  
  IB    
F    F  
VEC sat  VT ln VEC sat 3.5 mV
 
1
I1   1 
  

  IB    R  

Since I1   R IB the BJT is saurated

A General Large-Signal Model For The BJT:
The Ebers-Moll Model – Transport Model npn BJT

The transport model of the npn BJT. This model is exactly equivalent to the Ebers-Moll model. Note that the saturation currents of the
diodes are given in parentheses and iT is defined by Eq. (4.117).
Basic BJT Digital Logic Inverter.

vi high (close to power supply) - vo low

vi low vo high

Basic BJT digital logic inverter.

 Basic BJT Digital Logic Inverter.

Sketch of the voltage transfer characteristic of the inverter circuit of Fig. 4.60 for the case RB = 10 k, RC = 1 k,  = 50, and VCC =
5V. For the calculation of the coordinates of X and Y refer to the text.
 The Voltage Transfer Characteristics

(a) The minority-carrier concentration in the base of a saturated transistor is represented by line (c). (b) The minority-carrier charge
stored in the base can de divided into two components: That in blue produces the gradient that gives rise to the diffusion current across
the base, and that in gray results in driving the transistor deeper into saturation.
Complete Static Characteristics, Internal Impedances,
and Second-Order Effects – Common Base

Avalanche

Saturation

Slope

The ic-vcb or common-base characteristics of an npn transistor. Note that in the active region
there is a slight dependence of iC on the value of vCB. The result is a finite output resistance
that decreases as the current level in the device is increased.
Complete Static Characteristics, Internal Impedances,
and Second-Order Effects – Common Base

The hybrid- model, including the resistance r, which models the effect of vc on ib.
Complete Static Characteristics, Internal Impedances,
and Second-Order Effects – Common-Emitter

Common-emitter characteristics. Note that the horizontal scale is expanded around the origin to show the saturation region in some
detail.
Complete Static Characteristics, Internal Impedances,
and Second-Order Effects – Common-Emitter

An expanded view of the common-emitter characteristics in the saturation region.

The Transistor Beta
Transistor Breakdown
Internal Capacitances of a BJT
IC
Cde F Base charging or Diffusion capacitance
VT

Cje0 Base Emitter Junction capacitance

Cje
m
 VBE
1   m - 0.2 - 0.5 grading coefficient
 V0e

C0
C
m Collector Base Juntion Capacitance
 VCB
 1  
 V0c


C Cde  Cje

rx
The Cut-Off Frequency
The Spice BJT Model and Simulation Examples
The Spice BJT Model and Simulation Examples
The Spice BJT Model and Simulation Examples
The Spice BJT Model and Simulation Examples
.model Q2N2222-X NPN( Rc=1
Is=14.34f Cjc=7.306p
Xti=3 Mjc=.3416
Eg=1.11 Vjc=.75
Vaf=74.03 Fc=.5
Bf=200 Cje=22.01p
Ne=1.307 Mje=.377
Ise=14.34f Vje=.75
Ikf=.2847 Tr=46.91n
Xtb=1.5 Tf=411.1p
Br=6.092 Itf=.6
Nc=2 Vtf=1.7
Isc=0 Xtf=3
Ikr=0 Rb=10)
*National pid=19
case=TO18 88-09-07 bam creation
The Spice BJT Model and Simulation Examples
BJT Modeling - Idealized Cross Section of NPN BJT
 The Spice BJT Model and Simulation Examples
T2
P RI : 65 0t A WG 40
12VREG S EC : 50 t AW G3 2
RX MIXER LP BP 12VREG O N AM ID ON
C1
0. 01uF T1 C2 + C3 R1 P C1 40 8- 77 P OT C O RE
C101 0. 1uF 1K
BI FXFMR 100uF J1
T1 0. 47uF T2
C4 D1 S5 C102 R2
B IF IL AR X FM R 1N4148 0. 47uF 10K HEADPHONES
2K 12 OHM
2 x 1 0t A WG 32 O N (LO-Z)
A MI DO N FT 37 -6 1 0. 1uF C5 L1 82mH L2 82mH C6
DET_AUD + R3 2K/SPKR
10K PHJACK
C7 C15
T3 10uF NP 10uF 10uF
0. 01uF R4 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14 +
TRI XFMR D2 R5 0. 047uF 0. 068uF 0. 1uF 0. 068uF 0. 047uF 0. 068uF Q1
3. 2K C8 R6
1K 2N2222A
1N4148 0. 01uF 10K
RF
PREAMP R7
RCVR FILTER R8
1KPOT
Q2
2N2222A
560 C16 0. 022uF F -L P = 2. 5K Hz / F- BP = 8 00 Hz C17 R9
RX_BFO Q3 100

RX_I N
C19 6. 8pF C20 56pF
Q4
RX 2N2222A
GAIN 10uF NP
C21 180pF C23 180pF 2N2222A T3 RX AUDIO AMP
C18
C22
L3 T RI FI LA R XF MR R11 R12
BAL
120pF
8-80pF C24 R10 1mH 3 x 1 0t A WG 32 O N MODULATOR
L4 8-80pF 1K R13
L5
4. 7
A MI DO N FT 37 -6 1 51K
2. 0uH R14 27K
2. 0uH 10K + TX VFO D3
C25 1N4148
10uF T4
L 4, L 5 T RI FI LA R XF MR CARRIER
2 6t A WG 32 O N R15 3 x 1 2t A WG 32 O N BALANCE
A MI DO N T3 7- 6 75 C26
0. 01uF
A MI DO N FT 37 -6 1
R16
12VREG
T4 100 POT
C27 + C28 R17 DSB
0. 1uF 1K TRI XFMR
100uF D4
R18 R19 1N4148
L? 100uH 10K 2K
L6 100uH
8VREG
8VREG C29
+ R20
R21 C? 10K

+
C?
49.9K/ 1% 0. 01uF 0. 01uF C31 C33 Q5
C32 10uF L7
0. 01uF 0. 01uF 10uF R22
+ 2N2222A
10uF
C34
1mH
R24 10K C30 R23 0. 01uF
5KPOT 100
12VREG
2.75 KHz LOW PASS FILTER Q6
C36 2N2222A
BANDSPREAD C35 E1 10uF NP L8 47mH L9 47mH C37 C38
D 5: 0. 01uF R26 T5 Q7 R25
1 8- 36 pF VF0 / BFO 47
TO C44
2N2222A 100 S1 0. 01uF

( 6 - 1. 5V ) LO-Z C39 C40 C41 C42 C43 10uF NP TX AUDIO AMP

R27
6 .9 5 - C45 27.4K/ 1% MIC 0. 1uF 0. 033uF 0. 22uF 0. 047uF 0. 1uF 0. 033uF
R29 R30
L10 1mH R31 7 .3 5 MH z 0. 01uF L11 Q8 600/ 3K
DSB CW
E2 R33
MAIN 2N2222A R32
1K
T5 TX_O N
R34
TUNE C50 P RI : 36 0t A WG 40 10K 27K
+
51K
1K
1. 00M/1% 5. 6uH
100K POT 56pF R35 C49 R37 S EC : 80 0t A WG 40 C46 R36
R28 C48 15.0K/ 1% Q9 L12 1K
0. 01uF
C47 O N AM ID ON 10uF
D5 C51 2N2222A RX_O N
3-36pF 12VREG P C1 40 8- 77 P OT C O RE
1000pF 0. 01uF 10K
R38 42pF Q10 1mH
33.2K/ 1% 2N2222A D6
1N4148 TX_O N R39 TX_O N
47
C52 C53
2-22pF T 6: C55
L SB O /S L15 R40
P RI : 36 t AW G 32
L13 0. 1uF L14
TX_O N R41 C54 100uH 100uH 100uH
0. 022uF
1000pF
R42
D7 S EC : 4t A WG 3 2 RF
RX_O N 1N4148
33K
15K O N AM ID ON T 50 -6 9: 1 DRIVERS
S2 3. 2K R44
U SB O /S D8 R43 330 L16
C EN TE R = ZE RO O / S C56 1N4148 TX_O N
10K
0. 01uF R45 C57 5uH C58
1. 00K/ 1% 1mH 0. 1uF 0. 1uF
R46 T6
R47
E3 C59 DRV_COLL
2. 2K 1K
TX_VFO C60 C61

PTT L17 100uH 0. 022uF

DSB
C63
Q12
12V REG TX_O N 2N2222A
Q11 C62
E4 0. 01uF 2N2222A 8- 80pF 0. 01uF
82pF
L18 100uH R48 Q13 C64 C65 RX_I N
RX_O N 2N2222A 0. 01uF 0. 01uF
R49 R50 R51 R52 R53
RCVR
KEY 470-1/ 2W 220 47 TBD 220 39
ATTEN
C66 C67 R54 39-200
J2 0. 01uF 0. 01uF 1500 C68
AS REQD
2N2222A
Q14
CONTROL CKT TO ADJ 0. 01uF
S3

1N4002 GAIN 1mH

J3
12VREG
0. 01uF L19 0dB 20dB
F2 1ASB R55 C69 C70 TX_O N

D10
13 VDC (BATT) D9
RX_O N

1N5822 D12 R58 2K C71 15K R56 D14 R57 R60 R61
F3 PWR 1N4002
R59 D11 20 C72 0. 1uF 15K
1ASB 0. 1uF
ON/OFF 10-1/ 2W R62 Q15 1N4148 36 36
1N4002 120pF J5
J4 S7 Q16
R64
12VREG
Q17
8V REGULATOR 20 2N2222A T8
BI FCHOKE 1. 0uH 1. 0uH R63
BNC
2N2222A 1. 0 R65 10-1/ 2W 2N2222A C73 L20 L21 20
16 VDC R66 T7 0. 01uF T9 ANTENNA
8VREG
UNREG C78 50 OHMS
C75 Q18 10-1/ 2W 0. 1uF
C74
+ C82 + C76 R68 C83 + C77 C79 C80 C81
2N2222A 47uF 47uF 5uH 470pF 1000pF 470pF
I -L IM =
220uF 0. 1uF 0 .4 2A DRV_COLL
0. 1uF 0. 1uF
1. 0 R67 C84
1K
C86 3: 1: 1 0. 01uF
Q20
2N2222A
R69 82pF
C85 R70 Q21
T 9: LOW-PASS
R71 75.0/ 1% T 7: 8-80pF 20 2N2222A P RI : 2 x 8t A WG 26 RF FILTER
S EC : 7t A WG 2 6
Q19 P RI : 36 t AW G 32
2N2222A O N AM ID ON T 68 -6
470-1/ 2W
R72 R73 S EC : 2 x 9t A WG 32 R74 C88
357/ 1% 475/ 1% O N AM ID ON T 50 -2
Q22 C89 R76 T 8: BI FI LA R CH O KE
2N2222A D16
6. 2V/ 1W TX_O N
2KPOT
2K 0. 1uF
2 x 8 t AW G2 6 ON
0. 1uF 0. 01uF A MI DO N FT 50 -6 1
R75 220 C90 D17 C87 L22 22uH
R77
1N4148
12V REGULATOR 475/ 1% D18
0. 1uF
12V REG
C91 8. 2V/ 1W BIAS (THERMAL COUPLING)
C92
D19 0. 01uF + C93 C94
6. 2V/ 1W (SET FOR 47uF 0. 1uF Tit le
0. 1uF Ic=1.5mA PUSH-PULL N5FC 2N2222 DSB/ CW TRANSCEIVER

QUIESCENT) POWER AMP DESIGNED BY Size Document Number Rev

1.5W PEP M . NORT HRUP C {Doc} --

N5F C Date: Sunday, March 08, 1998 Sheet 1 of 2