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Athletic Participation and Its Impact on the Development of High School Girls
Hattie N. Burford
Abstract
Females who compete in interscholastic athletics during their high school career may experience
several unique benefits. This study and literature review aims to understand the impact of
interscholastic athletics on the development of high school girls. The publications discussed in
this review are references for the research study being proposed. Ideas and findings taken from
the publications are related to female self-esteem and femininity, social ties, character and
values, educational goals, test scores, and grade averages. The findings are used to review the
work that has been done in this area of research. The studies that were reviewed were the effects
of athletic participation on both male and female students, and the mechanisms that may link
participation to academic success. The results show that participation in interscholastic athletics
promotes female students’ development, and improves achievement in specific content areas.
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Table of Contents
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………..2
Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………………...…3
Athletic Participation and Its Impact on the Development of High School Girls…………….4
Statement of Problem……………………………………………………………………………..4
Literature Review…………………………………………………………………………...…….5
Self-Identity……………………………………………………………………………………6
Socialization…………………………………………………………………………………....8
Value System…………………………………………………………………….…………….9
Educational Achievement……………………………….……………………….………...….11
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………….13
Statement of Hypothesis…………………………………………………………………………14
References………………………………………………………………………………………..15
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Athletic Participation and Its Impact on the Development of High School Girls
The role of interscholastic athletics in high schools has received much interest over
the last several decades. Researchers, as well as the general public, have discussed the
relational networks through acquiring interpersonal skills. In recent years, competitive sport
for females has become increasingly legitimized in terms of mass participation, expanded
programs, and budgetary allocations (Spreitzer, Snyder, & Kivlin, 1978). This shift in social
norms now allows us to look deeper into the benefits of interscholastic athletics for young
female athletes.
There has been a consistent discussion about the belief that participation in sports
socializes students in ways that promote educational success (Broh, 2002). Sports
participation has been argued to develop a strong work ethic, self-esteem, maturity in
working with others, and perseverance. These are skills that are considered consistent with
educational values and thus help students achieve in and out of the classroom (Broh, 2002).
Though academic achievement may have many definitions, the research on the topic will
focus on female students’ grade point average (GPA), along with scores on math, science,
Statement of Problem
school girls will be examined with the use of literature and research. Participation in athletics
development, and social ties among students, parents, and school staff. These are instruments
that play a role in the positive effect of academic achievement (Broh, 2002).
Furthermore, female high school students who participate in athletics reap the
benefits of success in science, mathematics, and engineering during their sophomore and
senior years of high school (Hanson & Kraus, 1998). The problem to be studied will explore
the mechanisms that link participation to the development and academic achievement of high
school girls. The mechanisms to be explored will be self-esteem and femininity, social ties,
Literature Review
The review of related literature on this topic will be utilized as a guide for the
research bring proposed. The literature review is broken into three subsections that discuss
the mechanisms that link participation to the development of high school girls, and a fourth
subsection that discusses the direct effect of participation to academic achievement. The
athletics, the value system of an athlete that resembles that of the educational system, and the
The number of female participants in high school sports has increased a significant
amount over the last several decades. Female participation increased from .25 million in
1970-1971 to 2.36 million in 1995-96 (Hanson & Kraus, 1998). According to the National
Federation of State High School Associations, a survey taken in 2014-2015 showed that
female participation in high school sports increased to 3.29 million. The change in the
number of females engaging in interscholastic sport has essentially been attributed to Title IX
of the Education Amendments of 1972 (Troutman & Dufur, 2007). This amendment
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prohibited any institution receiving federal funding from practicing gender discrimination in
educational programs or activities (Troutman & Dufur, 2007). With interscholastic sports
becoming a more prominent pursuit for females, there has been an abundance of research that
explores the effects of participation in sports in the development and academic success of
female students. Recent studies have discovered that young females who participate in
interscholastic sports experience some unique benefits (Troutman & Dufur, 2007).
Self-Identity
Though a significant increase of female participation in sports can be seen in the last 30
years, there are still many questions about which sports are “socially acceptable”, how young
female participants respond to the general attitudes towards the female athlete, and how female
athletes’ self-identity is affected. According to Spreitzer, Snyder, and Kivlin (1978), the order of
sports that enhance feminine qualities ranks swimming most desirable, followed by tennis,
gymnastics, softball, basketball, and track in descending order. Despite established negative
perceptions of female athletes, college women who were seriously involved in sports tended to
report higher morale, life satisfaction, and overall happiness than their nonathletic counterparts
Our findings do not reveal negative associations between female sports participation
Females’ social involvement in sports allows them to come together; creating a sense
of unity, identification, and personal identity (Hanson & Kraus, 1998). Self-confidence in a
student’s abilities comes from the feeling of recognition and accomplishment often resulting
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from success in sports. The increase in self-esteem and a feeling of recognition compels them
to achieve success in other areas, such as academics (Hanson & Kraus, 1998). Repeated
successful experiences in sports, such as learning new skills or winning a competition, are
thought to develop self-confidence and maturity, which also carry over into educational
male dominated extracurricular activity (Videon, 2002). In the Unites States, sports are
stereotypes of dominance and aggression (Hanson & Kraus, 1998). The traditional gender
aggressive, independent, and analytic (Hanson & Kraus, 1998). These are the characteristics
that are thought to be important for success in subjects such as science (Hanson & Kraus,
1998). Meanwhile, girls are encouraged to be passive, dependent, and nurturing, which
interscholastic athletics is a resource that gives young females an edge in academic subjects
Nonetheless, the past research that has indicated girls’ experienced role conflict
between expectations for being a female and being an athlete may be obsolete (Videon,
2002). The transformation in cultural ideals suggest that previous findings may not reflect the
experiences of more recent cohorts of female athletes. These changes are evident in the
increase of the positive visibility of athletic women (Videon, 2002). For example, NBC
declared the 1996 Summer Olympics “the year of the woman” and world renown Mia Hamm
and the 1999 World Cup women’s soccer team drew attention from all sectors of society
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(Videon, 2002). Additionally, contemporary research suggests that participation in sports has
Socialization
Most sports are a collective activity in which all individuals share wins and losses
(Videon, 2002). As more employers emphasize the importance of teamwork, these skills will
become increasingly more valuable (Videon, 2002). Therefore, the peer groups and social ties
that are formed through participation in sports enhance the female athletes’ potential
Young girls’ friendship circles are generally small, intense, and based on building and
independence, and achievement, which are not traits that are encouraged in girls’
athletes a higher peer status, primarily consisting of college-oriented, high achievers that in
turn, facilitates higher academic performance (Broh, 2002). This “leading crowd” hypothesis
is supported by evidence that athletes are more likely to be associated with a college-oriented
peer group than are nonathletes (Broh, 2002). The social interaction between college-oriented
adolescents and mutual influence contributes to the symmetry of their future plans (Snyder &
Spreitzer, 1977). Snyder and Spreitzer (1977) found that education expectations of close
friends is a slightly better predictor of education expectations than grade average for
adolescent girls.
Not only do female athletes benefit from peer influences, but also from the
connection to adults, specifically parents and teachers. The increased opportunities for these
specific social interactions, create and strengthen female students’ ties to their parents and
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teachers. These interactions act as a source of social control that encourages students to
comply with school norms and expectations, and in turn, generates greater success in school
(Broh, 2002). According to research done by Broh (2002), playing sports significantly
increases how often students talk with their parents about school related issues, and increases
students’ contact with teachers outside of class. Playing interscholastic sports is positively
related to how much parents have contact with the school, as well as with other parents. The
creation and intensification of these social ties can be advantageous to students’ educational
Value System
Females who participate in interscholastic sports have a stronger sense of control over
their lives, and a value system that is concordant with the American educational system
(Broh, 2002). By learning to live by and believe in this value system, female student athletes
are more likely to be considered to have a strong work ethic, and a valued character. The
emphasis in sports on the goals of winning and success, together with the values of hard
work, deferred gratification, planning, competition, and organization, are thought to prepare
student athletes for success in other areas such as academics (Hanson & Kraus, 1998).
Moreover, participation in sports allows young females to practice the attitudes, skills, and
values that are important for future success (Hanson & Kraus, 1998). Unlike the mentality in
men’s sports, female athletic contests place a greater emphasis on improving one’s own
ability, cooperation, and feeling good, which lead to greater character development among
In the past, the world of competition in sports and other areas of life have excluded
women (Hanson & Kraus, 1998). The goal attainment section of sports functions as a
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valuable resource for young women who are wanting to expand their opportunities. Women
who are athletes have been found to be considered more achievement oriented, independent,
self-confident, and inner controlled than those who are not (Hanson & Kraus, 1998).
Girls are called on less in mathematics and science classes, and women scientists are
seldom included in key networks and power groups in science occupations. This
perceived failure to act in ways that follow the male tradition of science. Young girls
who are given an early opportunity to be involved in a male domain like sports may
well be less intimidated and more prepared for this male culture in science classrooms
However, it is noted that the effects of sports on science achievement may be more
indirect through course taking and attitude than that of anything else (Hanson & Kraus,
1998).
believes that sports promote citizenship, sportsmanship, pride in the community, and teach
(Yeung, 2015). These are all qualities of young females that are sought after in today’s
society to become responsible and productive adults. This is considered the spillover effect of
athletics that has been labeled by Broh (2002) as the “developmental model”, which enables
female athletes to become “well rounded”, and achieve academic success (Yeung, 2015).
Also, research indicates that involvement in interscholastic sports is particularly relevant for
leadership and academic achievement. The leadership quality that he describes is naturally
learned from sports, and teaches valuable teamwork and facilitation skills, of which may be
useful in group activities in the classroom. According to research done by Yeung (2015),
athletic leaders score significantly better than nonleaders in reading, Math I, science, and
vocabulary.
The gains to athletic leadership are larger than the gains of athletic participation,
suggesting leadership has a benefit over and above the benefit of athletic
valuable teamwork, time management, and organization skills that improve their level
These findings are relevant when we are considering female participants in sports that
Educational Achievement
Hanson and Kraus (1998) found that many girls begin to lose interest and do less well
in science (defined as science, mathematics, and engineering) in the high school years. A
theme that is shared to many explanations for this gender gap is that science is a male domain
with rules and expectation that create obstacles for women, much like the sports arena in the
United States (Hanson & Kraus, 1998). However, Hanson and Kraus (1998) argue that young
women who compete well in one of these domains, learn to develop skills, networks, and
Young women’s participation in sports had a significant positive effect on the access
and attitudes towards science in their sophomore and senior years of high school (Hanson &
Kraus, 1998). Broh in 2002 found that participation in interscholastic sports is positively
associated with students’ math and English grades. In line with Hanson and Kraus’s findings,
sports further boost students’ achievements in the classroom and on standardized math tests
(Broh, 2002). Furthermore, students who participate in sports have better attendance records,
lower rates of discipline referrals, are more likely to be in a college preparatory curriculum,
and aspire to, enroll in, and graduate from college (Videon, 2002). Another study found that
females who engaged in interscholastic high school sports had higher odds of completing
that sports participants have moderately better outcomes than do their nonparticipating peers.
Girls have significantly better educational outcomes, fewer unexcused absences, take more
core courses, have higher grade point averages, and have higher expectations to go to college
than boys do (Videon, 2002). However, Videon (2002) found that the beneficial effect of
sports participation is significantly less for female athletes’ unexcused absences and
academic expectations than for male athletes. Additionally, Videon (2002) found suggestive
evidence that athletics may have a more positive impact on boys’ grades than girls’.
female athletes tend to have higher grade averages and higher educational goals (Spreitzer,
Snyder, & Kivlin, 1978). Spreitzer, Snyder, and Kivlin (1978) also compared the differences
in the effects of participation in sports and music, and found that girls involved in both had
higher grade averages and educational goals than girls involved in solely sports, or solely
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music. Additionally, their study showed that athletes tended to report slightly higher
educational goals, but had slightly lower grade averages. This study was significant to
highlight that sports participation and music participation are two separate entities in their
Conclusion
In today’s society young females’ self-esteem, social groups, work ethic, and outlook
about how to support and service young women in these areas. However, there is evidence
that participation in interscholastic sports not only benefits young females in the classroom,
but benefits young females in the classroom by providing them with increased self-esteem,
From the literature presented, the discussion of a female athlete’s self-identity has
been a large concern in the past due to the traditionally male dominated athletic arena, along
with the negative perception of female athletes. However, more recent literature proved that
contemporary culture now idolizes female athletes, boosting their self-confidence in different
areas of their lives. The literature also presented findings that participation increases females’
social groups, creating a network in the educational system that encourages academic growth.
From previous research conducted, there was significant indication that the values
learned from athletics create a spillover effect on academic achievement. Lastly, research
expectations, and scores on standardized tests were also discussed in the literature with
Statement of Hypothesis
The data supports the inference that young female students who participate in
hypothesized that female athletes who participate in interscholastic sports will experience
increased self-esteem, a larger social network, learned values associated with greater
character and work ethic, and greater academic achievement. This hypothesis will be proven
after comparing the self-esteem, social ties, and character development in relation to
References
Hanson, S. L., & Kraus, R. S. (1998). Women, Sports, and Science: Do Female Athletes Have an
Advantage? Sociology of Education, 71(2), 93-110. doi:10.2307/2673243
Spreitzer, E., Snyder, E. E., & Kivlin, J. E. (1978). A summary of some research studies
concerning the female athlete. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, 3(1), 14-19.
doi:10.2307/3345984
Troutman, K. P., & Dufur, M. J. (2007). From high school jocks to college grads: Assessing the
long-term effects of high school sport participation on females educational attainment.
Youth & Society, 38(4), 443-462. Doi:10.1177/0044118x06290651
Videon, T. M. (2002). Who plays and who benefits: gender, interscholastic athletics, and
academic outcomes. Sociological Perspectives, 45(4), 415-444.
doi:10.1525/sop.2002.45.4.415
Yeung, R. (2015). Athletics, athletic leadership, and academic achievement. Education and
Urban Society, 47(3), 361-387. doi:10.1177/0013124513495277