Rhetorical Devices in Writing

Here are examples of rhetorical devices with a definition and an example:

 Alliteration - the recurrence of initial consonant sounds - rubber baby buggy bumpers
Assonance - takes place when two or more words, close to one another repeat the same
vowel sound, but start with different consonant sounds.
For instance, in the following sentence:
“Men sell the wedding bells.”
 "Hear the mellow wedding bells" by Edgar Allen Poe
 "Try to light the fire"
 "I lie down by the side fo my bride"/"Fleet feet sweep by sleeping geese"/"Hear the lark and
harden to the barking of the dark fox gone to ground" by Pink Floyd
 "It's hot and it's monotonous." by Sondheim
  "The crumbling thunder of seas" by Robert Louis Stevenson

Allusion - a reference to an event, literary work or person - I can’t do that because I am not
Superman. Achilles’ Heel, 15 minutes of fame, Big Brother, Watergate,
snow white
Ethos is an appeal to ethics, and it is a means of convincing someone of the character or
credibility of the persuader.
Pathos is an appeal to emotion, and is a way of convincing an audience of an argument by
creating an emotional response.
Logos is an appeal to logic, and is a way of persuading an audience by reason.

Read more at http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-ethos-logos-and-

pathos.html#7ZhSVwIb7bJ7wO1I.99
 Amplification - repeats a word or expression for emphasis - Love, real love, takes time.
 Analogy - compares two different things that have some similar characteristics - He is flaky
as a snowstorm.
 Anaphora - repeats a word or phrase in successive phrases - "If you prick us, do we not
bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh?” (Merchant of Venice, Shakespeare)
 Antanagoge - places a criticism and compliment together to lessen the impact - The car is
not pretty but it runs great.
 Antimetabole - repeats words or phrases in reverse order - “ask not what your country can
do for you — ask what you can do for your country.” (J F Kennedy)
 Antiphrasis - uses a word with an opposite meaning - The Chihuahua was named Goliath.
 Antithesis - makes a connection between two things - “That's one small step for a man, one
giant leap for mankind.” (Neil Armstrong)
 Appositive - places a noun or phrase next to another noun for descriptive purposes - Mary,
queen of the land, hosted the ball.
 Enumeratio - makes a point with details - Renovation included a spa, tennis court, pool and
lounge.
 Epanalepsis - repeats something from the beginning of a sentence at the end - My ears
heard what you said but I couldn’t believe my ears.
 Epithet - using an adjective or adjective phrase to describe - mesmerizing eyes
 Epizeuxis - repeats one word for emphasis - The amusement park was fun, fun, fun.
 Hyperbole - an exaggeration - I have done this a thousand times.
 Litotes - makes an understatement by denying the opposite of a word that may have been
used - The terms of the contract are not disagreeable to me.
 Metanoia - corrects or qualifies a statement - You are the most beautiful woman in this
town, nay the entire world.
 Metaphor - compares two things by stating one is the other - The eyes are the windows of
the soul.
 Metonymy - a metaphor where something being compared is referred to by something
closely associated with it - The knights are loyal to the crown.
 Onomatopoeia - words that imitate the sound they describe - plunk, whiz, pop
 Oxymoron - a two word paradox - near miss, seriously funny
 Parallelism - uses words or phrases with a similar structure - I went to the store, parked the
car and bought a pizza.
 Simile - compares one object to another - He smokes like a chimney.
 Understatement - makes an idea less important that it re

The Direct Method

In this method the teaching is done entirely in the target language. The
learner is not allowed to use his or her mother tongue. Grammar rules are
avoided and there is emphasis on good pronunciation. [More]

Grammar-translation

Learning is largely by translation to and from the target language. Grammar

rules are to be memorized and long lists of vocabulary learned by heart.
There is little or no emphasis placed on developing oral ability. [More]

Audio-lingual

The theory behind this method is that learning a language means acquiring
habits. There is much practice of dialogues of every situations. New
language is first heard and extensively drilled before being seen in its written
form. [More]

The structural approach

This method sees language as a complex of grammatical rules which are to

be learned one at a time in a set order. So for example the verb "to be" is
introduced and practised before the present continuous tense which uses "to
be" as an auxiliary.

Suggestopedia
The theory underlying this method is that a language can be acquired only
when the learner is receptive and has no mental blocks. By various methods
it is suggested to the student that the language is easy - and in this way the
mental blocks to learning are removed. [More]

Total Physical Response (TPR)

TPR works by having the learner respond to simple commands such as

"Stand up", "Close your book", "Go to the window and open it." The method
stresses the importance of aural comprehension. [More]

Communicative language teaching (CLT)

The focus of this method is to enable the learner to communicate effectively

and appropriately in the various situations she would be likely to find herself
in. The content of CLT courses are functions such as inviting, suggesting,
complaining or notions such as the expression of time, quantity, location.
[More]

The Silent Way

This is so called because the aim of the teacher is to say as little as possible
in order that the learner can be in control of what he wants to say. No use is
made of the mother tongue. [More]

Community Language Learning

In this method attempts are made to build strong personal links between the
teacher and student so that there are no blocks to learning. There is much
talk in the mother tongue which is translated by the teacher for repetition by
the student. [More]

Immersion

This corresponds to a great extent to the situation we have at our school.

ESL students are immersed in the English language for the whole of the
school day and expected to learn math, science, humanities etc. through the
medium of the target language, English.

Immigrant students who attend local schools find themselves in an

immersion situation; for example refugee children from Bosnia attending
German schools, or Puerto Ricans in American schools. Click here for many
links to information about bilingual/immersion programs.
Task-based language learning

The focus of the teaching is on the completion of a task which in itself is

interesting to the learners. Learners use the language they already have to
complete the task and there is little correction of errors.

(This is the predominant method in middle school ESL teaching at Frankfurt

International School. The tasks are subsumed in a major topic that is studied
for a number of weeks. In the topic of ecology, for example, students are
engaged in a number of tasks culminating in a poster presentation to the
rest of the class. The tasks include reading, searching the internet, listening
to taped material, selecting important vocabulary to teach other students
etc.)

The Natural Approach

This approach, propounded by Professor S. Krashen, stresses the similarities

between learning the first and second languages. There is no correction of
mistakes. Learning takes place by the students being exposed to language
that is comprehensible or made comprehensible to them. [More]

The Lexical Syllabus

This approach is based on a computer analysis of language which identifies

the most common (and hence most useful) words in the language and their
various uses. The syllabus teaches these words in broadly the order of their
frequency, and great emphasis is placed on the use of authentic materials.

critical period the ability to acquire language is biologically linked to age. The hypothesis claims
that there is an ideal time window to acquire language in a linguistically rich environment, after which
further language acquisition becomes much more difficult and effortful.
The critical period hypothesis states that the first few years of life is the crucial time in which an
individual can acquire a first language if presented with adequate stimuli. If language input does not
occur until after this time, the individual will never achieve a full command of language—
especially grammatical systems.

natural order hypothesis is the idea that children learning their first language acquire
grammatical structures in a pre-determined, 'natural'order, and that some are acquired earlier
than others. This idea has been extended to account for second language acquisition in
Krashen's theory of language acquisition.

FIVE LEARNING HYPHOTHESES OF KRASHEN

Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the
hypotheses in Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists
and language practitioners.
According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language
performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired
system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process very similar
to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It
requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication
- in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in
the communicative act.

The "learned system" or "learning" is the product of formal instruction and it

comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about'
the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen
'learning' is less important than 'acquisition

Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning

and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is
the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the
acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system
performs the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a
planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are
met: that is, the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her
disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness, and he/she
knows the rule.

It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second

language performance. According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is - or
should be - minor, being used only to correct deviations from "normal" speech
and to give speech a more 'polished' appearance.

Krashen also suggests that there is individual variation among language

learners with regard to 'monitor' use. He distinguishes those learners that use
the 'monitor' all the time (over-users); those learners who have not learned or
who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those
learners that use the 'monitor' appropriately (optimal users). An evaluation of
the person's psychological profile can help to determine to what group they
belong. Usually extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists
are over-users. Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of
the "monitor".
The Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings (Dulay & Burt,
1974; Fathman, 1975; Makino, 1980 cited in Krashen, 1987) which suggested
that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is
predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be
acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the
learners' age, L1 background, conditions of exposure, and although the
agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the studies,
there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a
Natural Order of language acquisition. Krashen however points out that the
implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program
syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects
grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.

The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires
a second language – how second language acquisition takes place. The Input
hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this
hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order'
when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her
current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage
'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible
Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the
same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests
that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring
in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate
for his/her current stage of linguistic competence.

Finally, the fifth hypothesis, the Affective Filter hypothesis, embodies

Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but
non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include:
motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with
high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety
are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low
motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the
affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input
from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it
impedes language acqui sition. On the other hand, positive affect is
necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.

holonymic agency, where the participant role is occupied by a complete being. Although not articulated
explicitly in either paper, much of what Mrs Verloc does and most of what Lok does is, in experiential
terms, carried out through the intercession of their body parts. For instance, it is Mrs Verloc’s hand,
never ‘Mrs Verloc’, which acts in key Goal-directed processes in the passage like ‘Her right hand
skimmed lightly the end of the table’ and ‘a clenched hand [was] holding a carving knife’. By contrast,
Lok’s nose and ears seem to do most of the work for him: ‘His nose smelled this stuff’, ‘His ears
twitched’ and so on. Although these meronyms do different stylistic jobs in their respective narrative
contexts, this type of agency is a recurring feature in the transitivity profile of many types of prose
fiction.

What are "Holonyms and Meronyms"?-- HOLONYMS ---- [Holo- Whole; -Onym: Name] - Holonym is a word
that denotes a thing that is complete in itself and whose part, member or substance is represented by
another word. Holonym [singular] | Holonyms [plural] | Example: 'Bird' is a holonym of 'Feather'. Derived
terms related to 'Holonyms': Holonymous- Words that are Holonyms are said to be Holonymous. Holonymy-
The state of being a Holonym is called Holonymy. MERONYMS ---- [Mero- Part; -Onym: Name]- Meronym is
a word that denotes a constituent part, member or substance of something that is complete in itself.
Meronym [singular] | Meronyms [plural] | Example: 'Feather' is a meronym of 'Bird'. Derived terms related
to 'Meronyms': Meronymous- Words that are Meronyms are said to be Meronymous. Meronymy- The state of
being a Meronym is called Meronymy. Sample This: Holonyms and Meronyms - A - Holonym / Meronym --
Example A1 -- Holonym -- air-conditioner; Meronyms -- blower / compressor / condenser coil / control panel
/ cooling coil / evaporator coil / expansion valve / fan / motor / temperature sensing bulb / thermostat |
Holonym / Meronym -- Example A2 -- Holonym -- airplane (aeroplane); Meronyms -- aileron / altimeter /
black box / cabin / cargo / cockpit / cowling / elevator / fin / flap / flight deck / fuselage / galley / hatch /
jet engine / leading edge / nose / propeller / rudder / seat / slat / tail / trailing edge / undercarriage / wing |
Holonym / Meronym -- Example A3 -- Holonym - airport; Meronyms -- airplane / airstrip / air terminal /
control tower / hangar / lounge / taxiway / terminal | Holonym / Meronym -- Example A4 -- Holonym -
algae; Meronyms -- cell membrane / cell wall / chloroplast / cytoplasm / flagellum / nucleolus / nucleus /
starch vacuole | Holonym / Meronym -- Example A5 -- Holonym - atom; Meronyms -- electron / neutron /
proton | Other Examples: Holonym / Meronym -- Example A6 - 'abacus' is the holonym of 'wire'; wire' is a
meronym of 'abacus' | Holonym / Meronym -- Example A7 - 'album' is the holonym of 'photograph';
'photograph' is a meronym of 'album' | Holonym / Meronym -- Example A8 --'asparagus' is the holonym of
'spear'; 'spear' is a meronym of 'asparagus' | Holonym / Meronym -- Example A9 -- 'atmosphere' is the
holonym of 'stratosphere'; 'stratosphere' is a meronym of 'atmosphere'

Discourse analysis is sometimes defined as the analysis of language 'beyond

the sentence'. Discourse analysis is a broad term for the study of the ways in
which language is used in texts and contexts, or texts' surrounding and
defining discourse.

"Text analysis" is a broad term covering various processes by which text and
natural language documents can be modified so that they can be organized
and described.

PHONETICS – study of speech

Morphology-study of form

Phonics - Phonics instruction helps children learn the relationships between

the letters of written language and the sounds of spoken language. Children
are taught, for ...