Psicología Educativa. Volumen 21 #1. Año 2015 - (PG 3 - 28)

1
Psicología Educativa 21 (2015) 1-2
Psicología Educativa
www.elsevier.es/psed
EDITORIAL
A la memoria de Keith Rayner (1943-2015), un extraordinario psicólogo cognitivo

contemporáneo
Keith Rayner (1943-2015), an outstanding contemporary cognitive psychologist
ca, movimientos oculares, procesamiento de imágenes e investiga-

ción visual.
Su docencia siempre osciló entre la psicología cognitiva, la psico-
logía de la lectura, la psicolingüística y la asignatura de percepción y
atención en todas las universidades donde impartió su docencia. Ésta
se inicia en 1973 en la Universidad de Rochester, donde obtuvo la
plaza de profesor [Assistant Professor] en Education, Psychology, and
Visual Science hasta 1978. Entre 1981-1991 fue profesor de Psicología
en la Universidad de Massachussetts, asumiendo, además, la direc-
ción del Center for Cognitive Science entre 1981 y 1983. Durante el
curso 1984-85 se tomó un año sabático durante el cual fue profesor
visitante en la universidad de Oxford, Inglaterra. Entre 1991 y 2008
obtuvo la plaza de profesor en la Universidad de Massachusetts y
desde 2008 era profesor emérito de esa misma universidad. Final-
Sólo unas semanas antes de cerrar el presente número recibíamos la mente, en 2008 se trasladó a la Universidad de California, en San
triste noticia de que Keith Rayner, uno de los psicólogos contempo- Diego, donde obtuvo la plaza de profesor de psicología Atkinson Fa-
ráneos más importantes e influyentes en el mundo, había fallecido mily hasta su fallecimiento, la distinción más alta que se concede en
en San Diego, California, EE.UU., el 21 de enero de 2015, como conse- esta universidad. También era el Director del Laboratorio de Movi-
cuencia de un mieloma múltiple, a la edad de 71 años. Dada la rele- mientos Oculares [Eyetracking Laboratory] adscrito al Departamento
vancia de su figura, hemos considerado pertinente hacerle desde de Psicología de la Universidad de Massachussetts. En el ámbito pro-
aquí un pequeño homenaje. fesional cabe destacar también su participación activa en muchas
Como otros tantos científicos de su tiempo que emigraron a organizaciones profesionales de la psicología como American
Copyright © 2015. Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid. All rights reserved.
EE.UU., Keith era de origen europeo. Nació en Europa (Dover, Ingla- Psychological Association, American Psychological Society, Society of
terra), un 20 de junio de 1943. Su familia se trasladó a EE. UU., a Salt Experimental Psychology, Experimental Psychology Society (Reino
Lake City, Utah, en 1949. Allí Keith Rayner inició sus estudios de Unido), Psychonomic Society, Society for the Scientific Study of Rea-
Psicología en la Universidad de Utah (1968), especializándose más ding o European Society of Cognitive Psychology. Más información
tarde en Psicologia Educativa (Máster) en esta misma universidad puede consultarse en las páginas http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
en 1970. Más tarde, en 1974, se doctoró en Psicología Cognitiva, Psi- Keith_Rayner_(psychologist) o en http://raynerlab.ucsd.edu/.
cología Educativa y Psicolingüística en la Cornell University, con la Su legado es impresionante. Cuenta con más de cuatrocientos ar-
tesis titulada The Perceptual Span and Peripheral Cues in Reading. tículos en revistas prestigiosas y con una influencia decisiva en los
A partir de ese momento Keith Rayner tuvo una carrera meteórica investigadores especializados en estos temas. De hecho, dentro de las
en el campo de la investigación cognitiva, dejándonos un enorme muchas y variadas menciones que recibió a lo largo de su vida tiene
legado de publicaciones. Destacó en el campo de la Psicología Expe- en su haber una de las más curiosas, como la de figurar como el autor
rimental especializada en promover lo que hoy sabemos sobre la más citado en la Web of Science en Psicologia y en la lista de Psycho-
lectura, sobre movimientos oculares y la cognición, recibiendo nu- logy and Psychiatry, durante el periodo de 2003 a 2007. Fue editor de
merosos premios y honores. Su trabajo se ha centrado fundamental- revistas tan prestigiosas como Journal of Experimental Psychology:
mente en la comprensión de los procesos cognitivos que subyacen a Learning, Memory, and Cognition (1990-1995), Psychological Review
la lectura mediante el estudio de los movimientos oculares, tanto en (2004-2010). También formó parte del Consejo Editorial de una larga
niños como en adultos. En realidad, ha sido el pionero en el estudio lista de revistas tan prestigiosas como Journal of Educational Psycho-
de los movimientos oculares, desarrollando y describiendo la mayor logy (1983-1989), Developmental Neuropsychology (1985-1989), Per-
parte de las técnicas de medida que se utilizan actualmente sobre ception & Psychophysics (2000-2004), British Journal of Psychology
movimientos oculares. Desde este punto de vista, ha promocionado (2000-2005), European Journal of Cognitive Psychology (2001-2003),
infinidad de estudios que han versado sobre lectura, psicolingüísti- Visual Cognition (2006-2014), Psychological Review (2011-2014), Jour-
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pse.2015.04.001
1135-755X/ © 2015 Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid. Producido por Elsevier España, S.L. Todos los derechos reservados.
Psicología, E. (Ed.). (2015). Psicología educativa. volumen 21 nº 1. año 2015. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com
Created from pucesp on 2018-10-21 18:11:57.
2 Editorial / Psicología Educativa 21 (2015) 1-2
nal of Research in Reading (2013), School Psychology Review (2013), sentence processing, junto con Clifton y Frazier en1994 (Erlbaum).
Cognitive Psychology (1999-2005), Memory & Cognition (1981-1989), Otros textos, en cambio, se centraron en la influencia cultural rela-
Reading Research Quarterly (1978-1981; 1985-1989, 2007-2012), cionada con los movimientos oculares: Cognitive and cultural influen-
Journal of Memory and Language (1985-1989, 1996-2014), Journal of ces on eye movements, junto con Shen, Bai y Yan en 2008 (Tianjin
Experimental Psychology: HPP (1982-1989, 2000-2003), Journal of Ex- People’s Press/Psychology Press) o también sobre las particularida-
perimental Psychology: LMC (1996-2004), Journal of Experimental des de los movimientos oculares en niños, Children’s eye movements
Child Psychology (1983-1985), Brain & Cognition (1982-1989), Psycho- in reading: A commentary, junto con Ardoin y Binder en 2013 (School
nomic Bulletin & Review (1996-2004), Psychological Science (2000- Psychology Review – Special Issue).
2003, 2012-2014), Journal of Educational Psychology (1983-1989), Entre sus últimas publicaciones, aún en prensa, algunas figuran
Developmental Neuropsychology (1985-1989), Perception & Psycho- en manuales que saldrán en breve, como el capítulo escrito con
physics (2000-2004), British Journal of Psychology (2000-2005), Euro- Schotter, The work of the eyes in reading, del libro editado por
pean Journal of Cognitive Psychology (2001-2003), Visual Cognition A. Pollatsek y R. Treiman, The Oxford Handbook of Reading, el escrito
(2006-2014) o Psychological Review (2011-2014). Las investigaciones con Leinenger, Reading, incluido en el libro editado por A. Kingsto-
que actualmente dirigía se orientaban a la búsqueda de los procesos ne, The MIT Handbook of Attention o con Leinenger y Schotter, Theo-
cognitivos implicados en la comprensión lectora, la relación entre ries of Reading (SAGE Encyclopedia). Otra de sus publicaciones pós-
movimientos oculares y la legibilidad de los textos (apoyada ésta por tumas es la escrita con Leinenger (in press), What we know about
Microsoft Corporation) o visualización y sistemas tutoriales inteli- skilled, beginning, and older readers from monitoring their eye
gentes (General Electric Foundation). movements: Implications for teaching reading, capítulo del libro
En su haber también cuenta la autoría o coautoría de infinidad de editado por J. A. León e I. Escudero, Trends in Reading Research (John
libros especializados, algunos de los cuales se consideran imprescin- Benjamin Publications). Este capítulo recoge la conferencia inaugu-
dibles en este área de la ciencia psicológica, especialmente en el de- ral que Keith Rayner dictó en el Congreso Trends in Reading Re-
sarrollo de teorías sobre lectura, como fue el publicado en 1989 con search, que se celebró en Madrid en septiembre de 2013 y que fue
Pollatsek, The psychology of reading (Prentice-Hall, reeditado en 1995 organizado por la UNED y la UAM. El valor de este trabajo es aún
por Erlbaum), en 1990 con Balota y Flores d’Arcais, Comprehension mayor habida cuenta de la dificultad que Keith tenía para moverse,
processes in reading (Erlbaum) o el más reciente, en 2012, con Po- pues se había sometido a un trasplante de médula reciente, a pesar
llatsek, Ashby y Clifton,The psychology of reading (Psychology Press). de lo cual visitó Madrid, honrándonos con su presencia durante una
También destacan otros libros monográficos, centrados en los diver- semana repleta de sabiduría y de buenas emociones.
sos paradigmas de investigación basados en los movimientos ocula- Ofrezcamos desde aquí este pequeño homenaje a su memoria.
res, como Eye movements in reading: Perceptual and language proces-
ses (publicado en 1983 por Academic Press), Eye movements and
visual cognition: Scene perception and reading (publicado en 1992 por José A. León
Springer), Eye movements and information processing during reading, Editor de Psicología Educativa
con Radach y Kennedy en 2004 (Psychology Press), o Perspectives on joseantonio.leon@uam.es
3
Peer-victimisation in multi-cultural contexts: A structural model of the effects on

self-esteem and emotions
Antonio J. Rodríguez-Hidalgoa*, Rosario Ortega-Ruiza,b, and Claire P. Monksb
University of Córdoba, Spain
a
University of Greenwich, England

b
article information abstract
Manuscript received: 04/06/2014 This study examined a structural model which integrated personal and cultural victimisation in order to
Revision received: 28/01/2015 identify the effects of victimisation on emotions and personal and cultural self-esteem. A sample of 1,185
Accepted: 24/02/2015 adolescents from 13 secondary schools in England (n = 322) and Spain (n = 863) was recruited. Participants
completed a battery of self-report questionnaires. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) conducted
Keywords:
regarding the initial model and then Strucutural Equations Modelling (SEM). Cultural victimisation had an
Peer-victimisation
indirect negative effect on cultural self-esteem and in consequence on emotional state, mediated by
Bullying
Multi-cultural personal victimisation and the negative impact it produced on personal self-esteem. Only for the cultural
Discrimination majority did the percentage of their presence constitute a mediator variable between being a victim of
Schools cultural victimisation and the effect on cultural self-esteem. The results are discussed in relation to the
extant literature and the implications for the intervention/prevention work to deal with victimisation and
discrimination in multi-cultural schools.
© 2015 Published by Elsevier España, S.L.U. on behalf of Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid. This is an
open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Victimización entre iguales en contextos multiculturales: un modelo estructural

de sus efectos sobre la autoestima y las emociones
resumen
Palabras clave:
Victimización entre iguales El estudio examina un modelo estructural que integra la victimización personal y cultural con el fin de
Bullying identificar los efectos de la victimización en las emociones y la autoestima personal y cultural. Participó
Multiculturalidad una muestra de 1.185 adolescentes de 13 escuelas secundarias en Inglaterra (n = 322) y España (n = 863).
Discriminación Los participantes cumplimentaron una batería de cuestionarios de autoinforme. Se llevó a cabo un análisis
Escuelas factorial confirmatorio (CFA) sobre el modelo inicial y luego un modelado de ecuaciones estructurales
(SEM). La victimización cultural tuvo un efecto negativo indirecto sobre la autoestima cultural y en conse-
cuencia sobre el estado emocional, mediado por la victimización personal y el impacto negativo que pro-
duce en la autoestima personal. Sólo para la cultura mayoritaria el porcentaje de su presencia constituye
una variable mediadora entre ser una víctima de la persecución cultural y el efecto en la autoestima cultu-
ral. Los resultados se discuten en relación a la literatura existente y a las implicaciones para el trabajo de
intervención/prevención para hacer frente a la victimización y a la discriminación en las escuelas multi-
culturales.
© 2015 Publicado por Elsevier España, S.L.U. en nombre de Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid. Este es
un artículo Open Access bajo la licencia CC BY-NC-ND (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
*Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Antonio

J. Rodríguez-Hidalgo. Departamento de Psicología. Universidad de Córdoba. Facultad
de Ciencias de la Educación. Av. San Alberto Magno, S/N. 14071 Córdoba. Spain.
E-mail: ajrodriguez@uco.es
4 A. J. Rodríguez-Hidalgo et al. / Psicología Educativa 21 (2015) 3-9
Bullying or victimisation occurs when an individual is the target victimisation had fewer friends than non-victims. Whereas, there
of repeated aggression, an inequality of power (social, physical, or in was a positive relationship between personal multi-victimisation
abilities) is perceived by those involved, and there is an intention to and ethnic-cultural multi-victimisation. However, it was not possible
cause harm to the victim or it is perceived as such by the victim to describe the meaning of these relations. Based on these findings,
(Hazler, Miller, Carney, & Green, 2001; Olweus, 1996). the researchers concluded that the integrated study of these variables
Over the past three decades there has been a considerable amount is necessary by means of the development of new theoretical models
of research into school bullying which has noted that it is experienced supported by empirical data.
by a number of children and adolescents and can have damaging To date, very few studies of cultural victimisation and discrimination
effects (see Smith, 2011). It has not been until recently that research have proposed theoretical models based on empirical data regarding
into school bullying has focussed directly on the ethnic or cultural the effects of these experiences. The research of Thijs and Verkuyten
background of those involved. Many of the studies which have (2008) and Verkuyten and Thijs (2006) is a notable exception, although
looked at this have focussed on whether there are differences in the they examined victimisation and discrimination beyond the
experiences of victimisation between children and adolescents from educational context and not only caused by bullying among pupils.
cultural majority or minority groups. Most of these studies have Verkuyten and Thijs found that personal victimisation was negatively
been conducted in North America and have noted that children and related to global self-esteem, but not cultural self-esteem. Ethnic
adolescents from ethnic minority backgrounds are more likely than discrimination was negatively related to global self-esteem, but was
those from the ethnic majority to report having been bullied (Carlyle mediated by cultural self-esteem. In order to explain the mediating
& Steinman, 2007; Juvonen, Graham, & Schuster, 2003; Mouttapa, role of cultural self-esteem, the researchers suggested a structural
Valente, Gallaher, Rohrbach, & Unger, 2004; Peskin, Tortolero, & conception of global self-esteem which is made up of various
Markham, 2006; Sawyer, Bradshaw, & O’Brennan, 2008; Spriggs, components, including cultural self-esteem.
Iannotti, Nansel, & Haynie, 2007). Several European studies have Kim, Wang, Deng, Alvarez, and Li (2011) and Shin, D’Antonio, Son,
reported similar findings (Strohmeier, Kärnä, & Salmivalli, 2011; Kim, and Park (2011) produced structural models in which cultural
Strohmeier, Spiel, & Gradinger, 2008). However, some research victimisation and discrimination had the effect of a positive mediator
within Europe has concluded that there are no significant differences between other variables such as the level of comprehension of English,
in the prevalence of victimisation as a function of the cultural being the object of cultural stereotypes, or the percentage of the
background of the participants (Fandrem, Strohmeier, & Roland, cultural majority within their school, and symptoms of depression.
2009; Monks, Ortega-Ruiz, & Rodríguez-Hidalgo, 2008; Rodríguez- The current study attempts to test a structural equation model of
Hidalgo, Ortega-Ruiz, & Zych, 2014; Sweeting & West, 2001). victimisation in multi-cultural settings which integrates personal
Other studies have directly examined victimisation with a cultural and cultural forms of victimisation. A model of the effects of personal
component, content or motive. Monks et al. (2008) used the term and cultural victimisation is proposed, examining the impact on
‘cultural victimisation’ to include victimisation that appears to have global self-esteem, cultural self-esteem and emotions, including
a racial, ethnic, or cultural motive. Most studies of cultural possible mediator variables such as the percentage of the cultural
victimisation have focussed on racist insults. Racist name-calling has majority within the school. From this model it may be possible to
been assessed in a number of studies as a subtype of victimisation suggest some important considerations for the design of more
along with other forms which are not explicitly racist in focus, such effective intervention and prevention programmes for victimisation
as experiencing physical aggression, having property stolen or and discrimination in multi-cultural school contexts.
damaged on purpose, and being the target of insults or threats
(Strohmeier et al., 2011). Method
In contrast, some researchers have suggested that cultural
victimisation is somewhat independent of personal victimisation. Participants
They argue that cultural victimisation can be carried out in a variety
of ways, not only by racist insults, but also by other means such as The initial sample was composed of 1,185 students from 13
social exclusion and the spreading of rumours, and that these forms schools in the metropolitan areas of South-East England (n = 322)
of victimisation are experienced more often by individuals from and Andalucía, Spain (n = 863) from compulsory secondary school
cultural minority groups than those in the cultural majority education establishments. Participants with missing data were
(McKenney, Pepler, Craig, & Connolly, 2006; Monks et al., 2008; excluded leaving a final sample of 1,042 (England = 224 and Spain =
Rodríguez-Hidalgo et al., 2014; Verkuyten & Thijs, 2001, 2002, 2006). 818).
In this way, a victim of cultural victimisation may experience distinct The ages of the students varied from 11 to 18 years (mean age =
types of racist aggression. ‘Multi-victimisation’ has been used to 13.65, SD = 1.90). There were 47.3% (n = 493) in early adolescence
refer to situations in which the victim experiences several different aged 11 to 13 years and 52.1% (n = 573) in mid-late adolescence aged
types of aggression (Blaya, Debarbieux, del Rey, & Ortega, 2006). We 14-18 years (n = 6, 0.6%, did not give their age). Just over half were
suggest using the term ‘cultural multi-victimisation’ to refer to male, 51.1%, n = 532 (n = 3, 0.3%, did not give their gender).
experiencing a variety of different forms of cultural victimisation. In terms of cultural group, 89.3% (n = 930) were from the cultural
Adolescents tend to rate cultural victimisation as being worse than majority (in England, Caucasian 17.8%, n = 185; in Spain, Payo 71.8%,
personal victimisation (Monks et al., 2008). Cultural victimisation may n = 748). Just over a tenth (10.5%, n = 109) identified themselves as
have a negative impact on the recipient. Verkuyten and Thijs (2001) being from a cultural minority group. In England, Mixed 1.2%, n = 13,
and Monks, Ortega, and Rodríguez (2010) found a negative relationship Asian/British Asian 1.1%, n = 11, Black/British Black 0.5%, n = 5, Chinese
between the experience of cultural victimisation and cultural self- 0.1%, n = 1, Other 0.9%, n = 9. In Spain, Mestizo Payo-Gitano 1.6%, n =
esteem (although this was non-significant in Verkuyten & Thijs’ 17, Mestizo Gitano 2.0%, n = 21, Latin American 2.1%, n = 22, African
study). It is possible that cultural victimisation damages feelings of 0.4%, n = 4, Asian 0.5%, n = 5, Other 0.1%, n = 1 (0.3%, n = 3 did not give
cultural self-esteem, or that those with poorer cultural self-esteem are their cultural background).
more at risk of cultural victimisation.
Recently, Rodríguez-Hidalgo et al. (2014) found negative relations Directly Observed Variables
between ethnic-cultural victimisation and: a) personal self-esteem
(not specifically cultural) and b) social adjustment. In addition, they Participant variables. Data regarding the age, gender and cultural
observed that pupils who were frequent victims of ethnic-cultural group of participants were obtained from self-reports. In relation to
A. J. Rodríguez-Hidalgo et al. / Psicología Educativa 21 (2015) 3-9 5
age, participants were grouped into early adolescence (aged 11-13) affirmative was summed in order to obtain an indication of personal
or mid-late adolescence (14-18 years). Due to the small Ns for some multi-victimisation and cultural multi-victimisation. Participants
of the cultural minority groups, participants were assigned to either were also asked about the frequency with which they had experienced
the cultural majority (Caucasian or Payo) or cultural minority. Two each form of victimisation ranging from never (0) to all the time (4).
additional variables were calculated: 1) the percentage of the cultural These scores were summed in order to obtain an indication of the
majority group within the school and 2) the percentage of their own frequency of personal victimisation and the frequency of cultural
cultural group within the school. victimisation. Furthermore, students were asked about their feelings
Personal self-esteem. The Rosenberg self-esteem questionnaire when they experienced the victimisation. Their responses were on a
(1965) assessed personal self-esteem. This has been widely used and Likert scale from 0 (it has never happened to me) to 1 (I did not mind)
validated in England and Spain (Olaya, Tarragona, Osa, & Ezpeleta, to 5 (I was angry). These responses were summed separately for
2008; Vázquez, Jiménez, & Vázquez, 2004). The questionnaire personal victimisation and cultural victimisation in order to obtain
consists of 10 items and participants are asked to indicate the degree an indication of the emotions caused by the victimisation.
to which they agree with the statements on a four-point Likert scale.
Cronbach’s alpha was acceptable, .72 (cultural majority group = .73, Procedure
cultural minority group = .68).
Cultural self-esteem. The Collective Self-Esteem Scale (CSE) The research was approved by the relevant ethics committees
(Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992) was employed. It consists of 16 items on (University of Córdoba and Kingston University). Consent was
a five-point Likert scale. The items are grouped into four subscales. obtained from the head teacher and parents/guardians of those
One of the subscales (private subscale) has similar properties to the pupils involved. Participants were invited to complete the self-report
global CSE and has been used on its own with some minor adaptations questionnaire in class individually and in silence. The questionnaire
by Verkuyten in order to assess adolescents’ cultural self-esteem was administered in the following order: 1) participant variables,
(Verkuyten & Nekuee, 2001; Verkuyten & Thijs, 2001, 2002, 2006). 2) emotional state, 3) personal self-esteem, 4) cultural self-esteem,
This shortened version was used in the current study and Cronbach’s 5) personal victimisation, and 6) cultural victimisation. A member of
alpha for the four-item scale was acceptable, .73 (cultural majority the research team was present to answer any questions. Participants
group = .72, cultural Mminority group = .74). were told that participation was voluntary and responses were
Emotions. Each participant was asked how they felt at that anonymous and confidentiality of data was assured.
moment. Participants were asked to respond by choosing one of The data were coded and descriptive analyses were performed using
seven cartoon faces. The cartoons depicted faces changing PASW 18. Then, a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) of the model and
progressively from ‘very sad’ to ‘very happy’. This type of questioning various Structural Equations Modelling analyses (SEM) using AMOS 16
has been used by Yee and Brown (1992) and was coded on a seven employing the maximum likelihood method were conducted. Missing
point Likert scale. data was eliminated. In order to assess the adjustment indices of the
models, the index of absolute adjustment was considered (χ2(df),
Latent Variables p < .05). For the sample size, the recommendations of Bagozzi and Yi
(1989) and Bollen (1989) were followed. The recommendations of Hu
In order to find out about experiences of personal and cultural and Bentler (1999) were considered in relation to normality and
victimisation, seven scenarios were presented to the participant, kurtosis. The following indices were also considered: χ2/df (CMIN/DF),
four on personal victimisation, physical (violence, hitting, taking Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI),
possessions), verbal (name calling), direct relational (social Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), Root Mean Square
exclusion), and indirect relational (rumour spreading) and three Error for Approximation (RMSEA), and Parsimonious Comparative Fit
described cultural victimisation (verbal cultural, direct relational Index (PCFI).
cultural, and indirect relational cultural). The personal and cultural
scenarios only differed in the focus of the victimisation (see Monks Results
et al., 2008 for a description). It was possible to obtain an indication

of the directly observable variables which created the latent variables, Descriptive Statistics
personal victimisation and cultural victimisation.
For each scenario, participants were asked whether it had ever Table 1 shows Pearson’s correlations between each of the
happened to them. The number of times they answered in the observed variables. Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations
Table1
Bivariate Pearson’s Correlations of the Observed Variables
Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1. Personal multi-victimisation -
2. Emotions about personal victimisation .91** -
3. Frequency of personal victimisation .89** .86** -
4. Culturalmulti-victimisation .25** .24** .21** -
5. Emotions about cultural victimisation .23** .26** .22** .88** -
6. Frequency of cultural victimisation .23** .22** .22** .91** .84** -
7. % of cultural majority in school -.06 -.06* -.06 .15** -.19** -.06 -
8. % own cultural group in school .00 -.00 -.01 .33** -.33** -.01 .35** -
9. Personalself-esteem -.21** -.22** -.25** -.07* -.08** -.25** .14** .04 -
10. Culturalself-esteem -.07* -.06 -.08** -.11** -.11** -.08** .37** .13** .36** -
11. Emotionalstate -.15** -.16** -.16** -.08* -.09** -.16** .14** .04 .40** .25** -
*p < .05, **p < .01
Table2
Means and SDs of the Observed Variables in the Cultural Groups
Cultural Group
Total Majority Minority

n = 1,042 n = 930 n = 109
Variable M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) t
1. Personal multi-victimisation 2.22 (1.13) 2.23 (1.14) 2.15 (1.06) 0.72

2. Emotions about personal victimisation 8.04 (4.41) 8.07 (4.47) 7.88 (3.91) 0.40
3. Frequency of personal victimisation 2.10 (2.34) 2.11 (2.36) 2.03 (2.19) 0.34
4. Cultural multi-victimisation 1.14 (0.46) 1.10 (0.36) 1.57 (.81) -10.83***
5. Emotions about cultural victimisation 3.51 (1.74) 3.33 (1.43) 5.07 (3.00) -10.83***
6. Frequency of cultural victimisation 0.23 (0.80) 0.15 (0.62) 0.95 (1.51) -10.31***
7. % of cultural majority in school 89.18 (5.71) 89.59 (5.29) 5.41 (3.86) 4.84***
8. % of their own cultural group in school 80.75 (26.28) 89.60 (5.27) 85.97 (7.61) 161.13***
9. Personals self-esteem 29.75 (4.36) 29.77 (4.36) 29.58 (4.40) 0.44
10. Cultural self-esteem 17.41 (2.92) 17.48 (2.84) 16.79 (3.48) 2.00**
11. Emotionalstate 5.36 (1.30) 5.36 (1.29) 5.29 (1.40) 0.53
**p < .01, ***p < .001
of each of these variables as a function of cultural group (majority were moderators of the possible effect of personal victimisation and
and minority). In order to compare the mean scores of the cultural cultural victimisation on cultural self-esteem, self-esteem, and
groups, independent t-tests were performed. There were no emotional state (three socio-affective variables). In relation to these,
significant differences between the cultural majority and minority the model included six direct paths, three which came from each
groups in personal victimisation (multi-victimisation, frequency, victimisation variable tested and went to each one of the socio-
and feeling), personal self-esteem, and emotional state. There were affective variables mentioned. The initial model included other paths
significant differences between the 2 cultural groups in cultural in which the links between the victimisation and socio-affective
victimisation (multi-victimisation, frequency and feeling) and variables were moderated by the percentage of the presence of the
cultural self-esteem. Those in the cultural minority scored higher cultural majority in the school and by the percentage of their own
than the cultural majority on each of the cultural victimisation cultural group in the school. This initial model did not fit the data
variables, but scored lower than the cultural majority on cultural well, χ2(26 df) = 151.61, p = .00; CMIN/DF = 5.83; GFI = .97; AGFI = .93;
self-esteem. CFI = .98; TLI = .96; RMSEA = .06 (see Figure 1).
In the search for an adjusted model, all of the paths in which the
Measurement Model regression weights were not significant at the 1% level were
eliminated (see the earlier table). Although the global adjustment
In the first phase, two latent variables were constructed: personal indices demonstrated an improvement with respect to the initial
victimisation and cultural victimisation. Personal victimisation was model, the fit was still unacceptable, χ2(38 df) = 184.17, p = .00;
made up of three observed variables: a) personal multi-victimisation, CMIN/DF = 4.84; GFI = .97; AGFI = .94; CFI = .98; TLI = .97; RMSEA =
b) frequency of personal victimisation experienced, and c) the scale .06. In order to finish adjusting the model, the endogenous variable,
of emotions caused by the personal victimisation. Cultural ‘percentage of their own cultural group in the school’, was
victimisation was comprised of: a) cultural multi-victimisation, eliminated, given that in the final proposed model it did not appear
b) frequency of cultural victimisation experienced, and c) the scale to act as a mediator or moderator between victimisation and the
of emotions caused by cultural victimisation. socio-emotional variables assessed in this study. The redefined
In order to carry out the CFA on the two factors, a covariance was model maintained the following paths: a) personal victimisation
introduced between them. The global adjustment indices showed and self-esteem ( = -.24, p = .00); b) self-esteem and emotional
that the model was not sufficiently robust, χ2(8 df) = 65.04, p < .01; state ( = .11; p = .00); c) self-esteem and cultural self-esteem ( =
CMIN/DF = 8.13; GFI = .98; AGFI = .94; CFI = .99; TLI = .98; RMSEA = .22, p = .00); d) cultural victimisation and percentage of cultural
.08. In order to obtain a better adjustment, theoretically justifiable majority in the school ( = -1.23; p = .00); e) percentage of cultural
modifications were made, keeping in mind the modification indices majority in the school and cultural self-esteem ( = .17, p = .00); and
(MI). Three covariances between the measurement errors were f) cultural self-esteem and emotional state ( = .05; p = .00). The
introduced: a) between emotions caused by personal aggression and redefined model also has a good fit with the data, χ2(29 df) = 60.93,
emotions caused by cultural aggression (MI = 29.15), b) between p = .00; CMIN/DF = 2.10; GFI = .98; AGFI = .97; CFI = .99; TLI = .99;
personal multi-victimisation and cultural multi-victimisation (MI = RMSEA = .03, and at the same time parsimonious (PCFI = .64). In
28.34), and c) between frequency of personal victimisation and this final model the dependent variables “cultural self-esteem and
frequency of cultural victimisation (MI = 16.06). The fit of the model emotional” state explained 23% and 17% of the variance respectively
to the data was excellent, χ2(5 df) = 9.95, p = .07; CMIN/DF = 1.99; GFI (see Figure 2).
= .99; AGFI = .98; CFI = .99; TLI = .99; RMSEA = .03. Several distinct multi-group analyses were carried out on this
model in relation to the different participant variables. In relation to
Structural Model the two age groups, early adolescence (11-13 years, n = 493) and
mid-late adolescence (14-18 years, n = 543), the model was well-
In the second step, an initial hypothetical model was constructed adjusted, χ2(87 df) = 188.29, p = .00; CMIN/DF = 2.16; GFI = .98; AGFI
which assumed that the percentage of the cultural majority in the = .96; CFI = .99; TLI = .99; RMSEA = .02. The regression weights of the
school and the percentage of their own cultural group in the school model for each age group were significant (p < .05), and there were
Figure 1. The initial model for predicting the direct and indirect effects of personal victimisation and ethnic-cultural victimisation on self-esteem and emotions. Pers Multiv =
Personal multi-victimisation; Pers Emoti = Emotions about personal victimisation; Pers Frecu = Frequency of personal victimisation; Cultur Multiv = Cultural multi-victimisation;
Cultur Emoti = Emotions about cultural victimisation; Cultur Frecu = Frequency of cultural victimisation.
Figure 2. The final model displays standardized coefficients predicting the direct and indirect effects of personal victimisation and ethnic-cultural victimisation on self-esteem
and emotions. Pers Multiv = Personal multi-victimisation; Pers Emoti = Emotions about personal victimisation; Pers Frecu = Frequency of personal victimisation; Cultur multiv =
Cultural Multi-victimisation; Cultur Emoti = Emotions about cultural victimisation; Cultur Frecu = Frequency of cultural victimisation. 2 (29 df) = 60.93, p = .00; CMIN/DF = 2.10;
GFI = .98; AGFI = .97; CFI = .99; TLI = .99; RMSEA = .03.
no differences between the two age groups. The same was found for χ2(87 df) = 173.87, p = .00; CMIN/DF = 1.99; GFI = .98; AGFI = .96; CFI
gender. The model was well-adjusted for males and females, χ2(87 df) = .99; TLI = .99; RMSEA = .02. In the case of the cultural majority, all
= 178.58, p = .00; CMIN/DF = 2.05; GFI = .98; AGFI = .96; CFI = .99; TLI of the regression weights between the variables that made up the
= .99; RMSEA = .02, and there were no significant differences between model were significant. However, for the cultural minority, two were
the two. not significant: 1) between cultural victimisation and percentage of
In relation to the cultural group of the pupils (either cultural cultural majority in the school ( = .04, p = .939) and 2) between
majority or cultural minority), the adjusted model showed a good fit, cultural self-esteem and emotional state ( = .00, p = .964).
Discussion aggression. The first route can be explained by considering the

structural concept of global self-esteem: personal victimisation
When focussing on personal victimisation, personal self-esteem produces a negative effect on personal self-esteem (global), which
and the emotional state of adolescents from distinct cultural groups, has a negative effect on one part of its components, cultural self-
it appears that being from a cultural majority or minority may not be esteem. The second route is more consistent among members of the
a particular risk factor. Several recent studies have concluded that cultural majority: the increase in the experience of cultural
there is no significant difference between cultural groups in the victimisation, when it takes place in contexts where the cultural
prevalence levels of victimisation (not specified as having a cultural majority is less numerous, produces a negative indirect effect on the
content) as a function of cultural group (Fandrem, et al., 2009; Monks cultural self-esteem of the victims. Considering the two routes
et al., 2008; Rodríguez-Hidalgo et al., 2014; Sweeting & West, 2001). described and the differences detected between the cultural groups,
The results from the current study are in accord with this conclusion, it is noteworthy that for adolescents from the cultural minority who
expanding on this topic to demonstrate that is holds true for suffer cultural victimisation, it is only when they also suffer personal
1)  personal multi-victimisation, 2) the frequency of personal victimisation that we see a negative impact on their general self-
victimisation experienced, and 3) the negativity of the feelings esteem and in consequence their cultural self-esteem.
caused by being the target of this victimisation. In addition, it was Kim et al., (2011) and Shin et al., (2011) show how discrimination
noted that the levels of personal self-esteem and emotional state and/or victimisation experienced by adolescents from Asian
were relatively homogenous between adolescents regardless of their backgrounds in the USA has a negative effect on their psychological
cultural group. well-being. The model from our study is consistent with this,
When focussing on victimisation which is cultural in nature and showing how the emotional state is indirectly and negatively affected
cultural self-esteem, we find clear evidence to support the suggestion by personal and cultural victimisation, mediated by personal and
that those adolescents from cultural minority groups are at cultural self-esteem and the percentage of the presence of the
heightened risk. For cultural victimisation, multi-victimisation, cultural majority. The results of the present study enable us to see
frequency, and level of negative feelings were significantly higher this relationship not only among adolescents from the cultural
among those from cultural minority groups than those who were minority, but also among adolescents from the cultural majority,
from the cultural majority. Furthermore, the cultural self-esteem of although there are some differences between these groups in the
pupils in the minority groups was lower than that shown by those weight of these intermediate variables. This study suggests that
from cultural majority groups. there is a strong relationship between the experience of victimisation,
The results obtained reinforce the idea of studying both personal self-esteem, and emotional adjustment. It also indicates that
victimisation and cultural victimisation in order to be able to prevention and intervention programmes should include not only
consider the range of victimisation among pupils in multi-cultural those pupils who feel excluded for being part of a cultural minority,
contexts. This led us to propose a model which integrates personal but all pupils. Education programmes which focus on the
and cultural victimisation, which is something that has been noted development of self-esteem and healthy emotional adjustment can
in other studies (e.g., Rodríguez-Hidalgo et al., 2014). Furthermore, benefit not only more vulnerable pupils, such as those who come
the current study demonstrates a step forward in the way in which from minority groups, but also the student group as a whole. If levels
the latent victimisation variables are formed, by incorporating three of self-esteem and emotional adjustment are improved for all pupils,
observed variables: multi-victimisation experienced, the frequency this may have the effect on the minority group among whom we
of being a victim, and the negativity of the feelings of the victim. may see a reduction in vulnerability to victimisation.
These three variables are faithful to those proposed theoretically in It is worth noting that the current study was cross-sectional in
the literature on peer-victimisation (Olweus, 1996). nature. In this study we consider the effects of victimisation on self-
The confirmation of the model integrating personal and cultural esteem. However, it is important to note that low self-esteem may
victimisation has enabled us to propose a structural equation model predate victimisation and may act as both a risk factor and
which is more complete in that it shows the effects of these variables consequence of victimisation (e.g., Egan & Perry, 1998). Longitudinal
over others. This model is successful for adolescents in this sample, studies would aid in making this distinction.
independent of gender, age group, and whether they are from the The model tested in the present study indicated the need to
cultural majority or minority. consider personal and cultural victimisation together if we want to
Verkuyten and Thijs (2006) proposed 2 models based on which address the effects of peer bullying. This model may have implications
victimisation and ethnic discrimination (not exclusively bullying) for the development of intervention programmes aimed at preventing
were considered separately. In contrast, the present study integrated and dealing with victimisation among peers in educational contexts in
personal and cultural victimisation into the same model. This multi-cultural societies. Until now, psycho-educational programmes
enabled us to contemplate other possible mediator and moderator have tended to focus solely on personal victimisation, or on cultural
variables and their effects on self-esteem, cultural self-esteem, and discrimination as a wider social phenomenon (not just among peers).
emotional state. The clearest agreement between the models of On the basis of the present model it is possible to infer that although
Verkuyten and Thijs and the model proposed by the current study is these two lines of intervention may have positive effects for prevention
that an increase in personal victimisation has a direct negative effect and intervention, the effects may be limited. The model presented
on personal self-esteem. here opens the possibility of a third way of designing programmes to
In contrast to the models of Verkuyten and Thijs (2006), we did prevent/intervene with bullying and victimisation in multi-cultural
not find that cultural victimisation produces a negative effect on contexts. These programmes could be made more effective by
cultural self-esteem and that this in turn negatively impacts on considering the personal and cultural characteristics of violence
general self-esteem. This new model considers cultural self-esteem between peers as well as the effects on self-esteem, cultural self-
not as a mediator, but as a variable indirectly affected by two routes esteem and emotional state. They could be seen as an alternative to
from personal and cultural victimisation. The first route is common those currently available and would consider personal victimisation
for participants from the cultural majority and cultural minority and cultural victimisation together.
groups: personal victimisation produces a negative effect on personal Future studies should focus on the search for the precursors and
self-esteem, which then impacts negatively on cultural self-esteem. risk factors for interpersonal and intercultural violence among
This route is reinforced when adolescents recognise themselves not children and adolescents. This will enable the design of more precise
only as being not only victims of personal, but also targets of cultural strategies for prevention and palliative work.
Conflict of Interest Mouttapa, M., Valente, T., Gallaher, P., Rohrbach, L. A., & Unger, J. B. (2004). Social
network predictors of bullying and victimization. Adolescence, 39, 315-335.
Olaya, B., Tarragona, M. J., Osa, N., & Ezpeleta, L. (2008). Protocolo de evaluación de
The authors of this article declare no conflict of interest. niños y adolescentes víctimas de la violencia doméstica. Papeles del Psicólogo, 29,
123-135.
Olweus, D. (1996). Bully/victim problems in school. Prospecs, 26, 331-359.
Acknowledgements
Peskin, M. F., Tortolero, S. R., & Markham, C. M. (2006). Bullying and victimization
among black and hispanic adolescents. Adolescence, 41, 467-484.
The current work is a part of two research projects: 1) Violencia Rodríguez-Hidalgo, A. J., Ortega-Ruiz, R., & Zych, I. (2014). Peer victimization and eth-
Escolar y Juvenil: los riesgos del Cortejo Violento, la Agresión Sexual y el nic-cultural peer victimization: Self-esteem and school relations between different
cultural groups of students in Andalusia, Spain. Revista de Psicodidáctica, 19, 191-
Cyberbullying, VIEJUCO from I+D+i National Plan (Code PSI 2010- 210. doi: 10.1387/RevPsicodidact.7909
17246), granted by Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia, Spain; and 2) Rosenberg, M. (Ed.) (1965). Society and the adolescent sef-image. Princeton: Princeton
Parejas y Redes de Iguales en la Adolescencia: Un programa de Prevención University Press.
Sawyer, A. L., Bradshaw, C. P., & O’Brennan, L. M. (2008). Examining Ethnic, Gender, and
de la Violencia en las Relaciones sentimentales from I+D National Plan Developmental Differences in the Way Children Report Being a Victim of “Bullying”
(Code PSI2013-45118-R), granted by Ministerio de Economía y on Self-Report Measures. Journal of Adolescent Health, 43, 106-114.
Competitividad, Spain. Shin, J. Y., D’Antonio, E., Son, H., Kim, S.-A., & Park, Y. (2011). Bullying and discrimina-
tion experiences among Korean-American adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 34,
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11
A preliminary study of teachers’ perception of core competencies for undergraduate

students
Fuensanta Hernández-Pina* and Fuensanta Monroy
University of Murcia, Spain
Manuscript received: 28/07/2014 Background. The study reported in this paper analysed how tertiary teachers assessed a number of
Revision received: 28/01/2015 competencies, such as information search and communication, organization, and analysis, and decision
Accepted: 12/02/2015 making among others, every undergraduate student is expected to learn during his/her university studies.
Method. Trigwell and Prosser´s (2004) Approaches to Teaching Inventory (ATI) was administered to first-
Keywords:
year lecturers along with a list of core competencies. Results. Analyses showed that opinions as to which
Competencies
competencies are highly essential for students varied in terms of teachers’ approach to teaching, sex, and
Approaches to teaching
Bologna Process branch of knowledge. Most participants, however, assessed “Communication skills”, “Time management”,
Learning needs “Critical thinking”, and “Application of knowledge” as the most important competencies for students.
Tertiary learning Conclusions. Preliminary results provide an insight into which competencies are regarded as most necessary
for students and may guide universities as they prepare for the evaluation and accreditation process they
are soon to face upon implementation of programmes.
Estudio sobre la percepción que tienen los profesores sobre las competencias que
deben adquirir los estudiantes universitarios
resumen
Palabras clave:
Competencias Introducción. Este estudio analizó la valoración que realizan profesores universitarios de las competencias
Enfoques de enseñanza transversales que todo estudiante debe adquirir durante sus estudios universitarios. Método. La muestra
Proceso de Bolonia estuvo conformada por profesores que impartían docencia en titulaciones de grado de las cinco ramas de
Necesidades de aprendizaje conocimiento. Se aplicó el cuestionario Approaches to Teaching Inventory (ATI) de Trigwell y Prosser (2004)
Aprendizaje universitario y una lista de competencias transversales. Resultados. Las competencias valoradas como más necesarias
para los estudiantes variaron en función del enfoque de enseñanza predominante, el sexo y la rama de co-
nocimiento del profesor, si bien la mayoría de participantes valoró la capacidad de comunicación, la gestión
del tiempo, la aplicación del conocimiento y el pensamiento crítico como competencias muy necesarias
para sus estudiantes. Conclusiones. Los resultados preliminares aportan información útil sobre la importan-
cia que se concede a determinadas competencias y pueden ayudar en la preparación para los procesos de
acreditación de títulos universitarios.
*Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to Fuensanta Hernández

Pina. Email: fhpina@um.es
12 F. Hernández-Pina and F. Monroy / Psicología Educativa 21 (2015) 11-16
One of the most significant changes derived from the introduction main advantage of a competency-based education is the development
of Spanish universities into the European Space for Higher Education of a new paradigm based on learning and knowledge management
(ESHE) has been the introduction of student-centred teaching and (Universidad de Deusto & Universidad de Groninger, 2003). One of
learning processes. For the past decades, research into higher the most significant contributions in this process was the introduction
education has resulted in a wealth of theories focused on exploring of 30 core competencies every undergraduate student should learn
teaching and learning from the perspective of teachers and students and develop during his/her course of studies. Competencies may be
alike (Hernandez-Pina, Martínez-Clares, Rosário, & Rubio-Espín, described as “learning needs” and are based on cross-curricular
2005). This has in turn contributed to understanding the challenges competencies.
posed by the ESHE. In light of the different competencies promoted in the Tuning
The interest in learning more about teachers’ approaches to Report and their educational value, as well as the evidence of
teaching has revealed itself as a very productive line of research, which association between how teachers teach and how students learn,
has resulted in a number of studies worldwide (e.g., Hernández-Pina, there is a growing interest in learning about how university teachers
Maquilón-Sánchez, Monroy-Hernández, & Izquierdo-Rus, 2010; Stes, approach their teaching and how they assess different competencies
De Maeyer, & Van Petegem, 2010; Trigwell & Prosser, 1996). Studies at the onset of undergraduate studies. As the interest lies on gaining
from the 1990s (e.g., Dall’Alba, 1991; Dunkin & Precians, 1992; Gow & an insight into how important core competencies may be for students
Kember, 1990; Pratt, 1992; Prosser, Trigwell, & Taylor, 1994; from the point of view of teachers, the main objective of this study
Samuelowicz & Bain, 1992; Trigwell, Prosser, & Taylor, 1994) analysed was to descriptively analyse teachers’ assessment of different
teachers’ conceptions of teaching, which may be classified into two competencies undergraduate students ought to acquire during the
main orientations: teacher-centred teaching, characterised by a focus course of their studies. Analyses were conducted in terms of teachers’
on information transmission, and student-centred teaching, which sex, branch of knowledge in which they taught, and dominant
focuses on learning (Kember, 1997). approach to teaching.
Subsequent studies carried out by Trigwell and colleagues
(Prosser et al., 1994; Trigwell & Prosser, 1996; Trigwell et al., 1994) Method
identified a number of categories which they later grouped under
two main approaches to teaching: a) an information transmission/ Participants
teacher-focused approach, in which “the teacher adopts a teacher-
focused strategy, with the intention of transmitting to the students Seventy lecturers (29 males, 41.4%, 35 females, 50%, and 6 lost
information about the discipline; the focus is on facts and skills, but cases, 8.6%) from a Spanish state university took part in this study. At
not on the relationships between them”; and b) a conceptual change/ the time of data collection all participants were teaching first-year
student-focused approach, in which “teachers adopt a student- courses in compliance with the new qualifications framework
focused strategy to help their students change their world views or introduced by the Bologna process.
conceptions of the phenomena they are studying.” (Trigwell & A non-probability sampling procedure based on convenience was
Prosser, 1996, p. 80). used, as teachers voluntarily responded to an invitation sent to them
Using a qualitative methodology, Trigwell and Prosser (1996) to participate in the study. The degrees in which participants taught
developed the Approaches to Teaching Inventory (ATI) to measure may be classified into the following categories (see Table 1): a) Arts
approaches to teaching (teacher-focused approach, ITTF, and student- and Humanities – Philosophy, English Studies, Fine Arts; b) Social
focused approach, CCSF) of university teachers in the UK. Later and Legal Sciences – Pedagogy, Primary Education, Law, Management,
studies (e.g., Gibbs & Coffey, 2004; Hernández-Pina, Maquilón- and Business Administration; c) Sciences – Biology, Mathematics,
Sánchez, García-Sanz, & Monroy-Hernández, 2010; Trigwell, Prosser, Optics, and Optometry; d) Health Science – Nursing, Pharmaceutical
& Waterhouse, 1999) identified a relation between approaches to Sciences, Science and Food Technology; and e) Engineering and
teaching and approaches to learning. More specifically, ATI showed Architecture – Computer Engineering, Chemical Engineering.
that “adopting a Conceptual Change/Student-Focused approach to
teaching is more likely to lead to high quality student learning and to Instruments
greater teaching satisfaction than the adoption of an Information
Transmission/Teacher-Focused approach” (Trigwell & Prosser, 2004, Participants completed two instruments: 1) a Spanish version of
p. 419). It is therefore crucial to analyse teachers’ teaching intentions Trigwell and Prosser’s (2004) Approaches to Teaching Inventory
and strategies, and how these may relate to students’ learning needs. (ATI) and 2) an ad hoc list of 18 core competencies all students should
The Sorbonne-Bologna-Prague-Berlin process triggered the acquire during their university studies.
creation and development of the ESHE along with profound changes The Approaches to Teaching Inventory (ATI) measures teachers’
in the Spanish educational system and the introduction of core and approaches to teaching in terms of two scales which represent two
discipline-based competencies at undergraduate and postgraduate fundamentally different approaches: a Conceptual Change/Student-
level. The reform process initiated a decade ago set educational Focused approach (CCSF) and an Information Transmission/Teacher-
objectives for higher education and also defined which academic Focused approach (ITTF) (Trigwell & Prosser, 2004). The questionnaires
profiles are demanded by society (Medina-Rivilla, Domínguez- consist of 16 items scored on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (never or
Garrido, & Sánchez-Romero, 2013). Such profiles describe the
competencies university students should develop, as well as the
learning outcomes students ought to achieve. Table 1
One of the objectives posed in the Tuning Report (Universidad de Distribution of Participants as per Branch of Knowledge
Deusto & Universidad de Groninger, 2003) was to formulate proposals
Branch of Knowledge f %
in order to later design undergraduate courses which would make
degrees compatible and comparable in and amongst different Arts and Humanities 18 25.7
countries in the European Union. The development of competencies Social and Legal Sciences 16 22.8
and skills is one of the cornerstones of the reform process introduced Sciences 10 14.3
in Spanish universities in 2010. Academic courses are now defined in Health Science 20 28.6
terms of “learning outcomes” and acquisition of “general and specific Engineering and Architecture 6 8.6
TOTAL 70 100
competencies”, namely, core and discipline-based competencies. The
F. Hernández-Pina and F. Monroy / Psicología Educativa 21 (2015) 11-16 13
rarely) to 5 (always or almost always). ATI had been translated into Results were further analysed in terms of teachers’ sex, branch of
Spanish by Hernández-Pina in 2006 and later administered to a knowledge in which teachers taught, and dominant approach to
sample of university teachers by her research team (Hernández-Pina, teaching. Analyses of assessment of competencies in terms of sex
Maquilón-Sánchez et al., 2010). (Table 2) revealed results similar to those found in the group as a
Participants usually obtain two scale scores (CCSF and ITTF), but whole. In particular, men rated as quite necessary or very necessary
for the purpose of this study only the scale with the highest score the same competencies as the group as a whole, except for the
was identified as the dominant teaching approach. Hence, 57% of “Commitment and motivation” competency. Women also rated
participants used an ITTF approach (M = 34.25, SD = 3.47), while the social competencies (“Decision-making”, and “Commitment and
remaining 43% adopted a CCSF approach (M = 33.06, SD = 4.11). motivation”) and “Submission of written assignments” as quite or
Cronbach alpha for the ITTF scale was .605 and .724 for the CCSF very necessary, but, unlike men, they did not consider “Knowledge
scale, thus reliability coefficients were similar to those obtained by understanding”, “Problem-solving”, or “Ability to make judgments”
Trigwell and Prosser (2004), namely, ITTF = .73 and CCSF = .75. quite or very necessary.
Taking the Tuning project (2003) and Royal Decree (Real Decreto) As to which competencies should be described as necessary for
1393/2007 as a basis, the authors chose 18 competencies which first-year students when classifying the sample into the five branches
students should learn during their studies and which belong to one of knowledge (Table 3), results showed a lack of agreement amongst
of the following categories: staff. Four branches of knowledge agreed on “Communication skills”
A. Information search and communication competencies: finding and “Critical thinking” (marked1 in Table 3) as the most necessary
information in different sources, questioning, and analysis of competencies, while three branches agreed on five competencies:
materials. These competencies are represented by items 1, 7, 12, 13, “Knowledge understanding”, “Time management”, “Problem-solving”,
14, 15, 16, and 18 of the questionnaire. “Ability to make judgments”, and “Application of knowledge” (marked 2
B. Information assimilation and retention competencies: listening, in Table 3).
recalling, coding, representing concepts, reading comprehension, These results highlight the differences in prioritisation amongst
information recording. Questionnaire items: 8, 9, and 17. the various branches of knowledge (and thus disciplines) as to which
C. Organisational, creative and analytical competencies: prioritising, competencies should be essential for university student. So far,
scheduling, organisation of resources, inductive reasoning, generation differences such as these could only be suspected. The results in this
of ideas and hypotheses, use of analogies, development of a critical study provide preliminary empirical evidence, yet further research is
attitude, deductive reasoning, and assessment of ideas and hypotheses. necessary in order to explore further differences between degrees
Questionnaire items: 2, 3, 4, 10, and 11. and course years.
D. Decision-making and social competencies: cooperation, Finally, teachers’ assessment of competencies in terms of their
conflict resolution, motivation, identification of different options, teaching approach (Table 4) showed that regardless of dominant
and rational choices. Questionnaire items: 5 and 6. approach, all participants assessed five competencies (“Communication
The above competencies were referred to as “Students’ Learning skills”, “Knowledge understanding”, “Time management”, “Critical
Needs” (see Appendix) and assessed by participants on a 5-point thinking”, and “Application of knowledge”) as quite or very necessary.
Likert scale, so that they could note the extent to which they By subgroups, ITTF teachers rated as very necessary students’
considered them necessary (1 was not necessary and 5 was very
necessary). Cronbach’s alpha coefficient revealed a reliability of .611,
Table 2
which may be regarded as moderate.
Teachers’ Assessment of Core Competencies. Analysis in Terms of Sex
Procedure Global
Group Item Competencies M F
> 80%
This study used a survey design and was conducted in several
A 1 Teamwork
stages. First, researchers selected the 18 competencies that would
make up the list of competencies for teachers to assess. After informing A 7 Use of ICT
the deans of several faculties at the same state-owned university, ATI A 12 Note-taking
and the list of competencies were sent to staff by post or email. A 13 Information search
Appropriate precautions to protect the confidentiality of participants’
A 14 Writing assignments
data were ensured. Participation rate was 90%. Data storage and
statistical analyses were performed using software package SPSS 20. A 15 Submission of written assign-
ments
Results A 16 Oral presentations
A 18 Planning and conducting a

Analyses revealed that about 60% of participants assessed all 18 research study
competencies as quite necessary or very necessary (i.e., Likert value 4 B 8 Communication skills
and 5 respectively). In order to get a clearer picture, the number of
B 9 Knowledge understanding
participants who had assessed competencies with a 4 and a 5 were
B 17 Exam preparation
added, thus 80% of the sample assessed the following competencies as
quite or very necessary: “Communication skills”, “Knowledge C 2 Time management
understanding”, “Time management”, “Critical thinking”, “Problem- C 3 Critical thinking
solving”, “Ability to make judgments”, “Application of knowledge”, C 4 Problem-solving
and “Commitment and motivation” (Table 2). These competencies
C 10 Ability to make judgments
refer to communication, organization, and motivation, and are usually
regarded as essential for undergraduate students. Competencies C 11 Application of knowledge
assessed as not necessary or slightly necessary (i.e., Likert values 1 and D 5 Decision-making
2 respectively) were those from group A (Information search and D 6 Commitment and Motivation
Communication competencies), as well as “Exam preparation” (group
B), and “Decision-making” (group D). Note. M (Male), F (Female)
Table 3
Teachers’ Assessment of Core Competencies. Analysis in Terms of Branch of Knowledge
Comp. Item Competencies Global AH CS CC SA AI
A 1 Teamwork
A 7 Use of ICT
A 12 Note-taking
A 13 Information search
A 14 Writing assignments
A 15 Submission of written assignments
A 16 Oral presentations
A 18 Planning and conducting a research study
B 8 Communication skills1
B 9 Knowledge understanding2
B 17 Exam preparation
C 2 Time management2
C 3 Critical thinking1
C 4 Problem-solving2
C 10 Ability to make judgments2
C 11 Application of knowledge2
D 5 Decision-making
D 6 Commitment and motivation
Note. AH (Arts and Humanities), CS (Social Sciences), CC (Sciences), SA (Health Science), AI (Engineering and Architecture).
Agreement amongst four branches of knowledge. 2Agreement amongst three branches of knowledge.
1
“Commitment and motivation” (D6), as well as the five aforementioned make judgments” (C10), the ability to give “Oral presentations” (A16),
competencies. In contrast, CCSF teachers regarded as very necessary and “Decision-making” (D5). The competencies preferred by CCSF
additional competencies such as “Problem-solving” (C4), “Ability to participants reflect the core themes behind a learning-centred and
student-focused approach to teaching, which places a particular
emphasis on helping students develop their critical thinking and
Table 4 problem-solving ability.
Teachers’ Assessment of Core Competencies. Analysis in Terms of Dominant Teaching
Finally, when comparing the competencies regarded as very
Approach
necessary by the group as a whole and by subgroups (Table 5), only four
Comp. Item Competencies Global ITTF CCSF competencies were assessed as quite necessary or very necessary by
A 1 Teamwork over 80% of participants: “Communication skills” (B8), “Time
management” (C2), “Critical thinking” (C3), and “Application of
A 7 Use of ICT
knowledge” (C11). In contrast, “Information search” (A13) was described

A 12 Note-taking by all subgroups as a slightly necessary or not necessary competency for
A 13 Information search students, while the rest of group A competencies (information search
A 14 Writing assignments and communication competencies) were assessed as necessary or very
necessary by a very small number of participants (between 10% and
A 15 Submission of written
assignments
20%). This is an interesting, yet surprising outcome, as all undergraduate
A 16 Oral presentations
students are required to write and give an oral presentation of a final-
year dissertation which involves information search and communication.
A 18 Planning and conducting a
research study
Discussion
B 8 Communication skills
B 9 Knowledge understanding This study shows that over half of first-year staff adopted an
B 17 Exam preparation information transmission approach to teaching during the 2009-
C 2 Time management 2010 academic year, just after the introduction and implementation
C 3 Critical thinking of a new educational system in Spanish universities in conformity
with European guidelines. Evidence of the relation between
C 4 Problem-solving
approaches to teaching and approaches to learning suggests that an
C 10 Ability to make judgments
educational system with a majority of student-focused (CCSF)
C 11 Application of knowledge teachers is a must, as they would in turn promote the adoption of a
D 5 Decision-making deep approach to learning amongst students.
The most highly rated competencies are “Communication skills”,
D 6 Commitment and motivation
“Time management”, “Critical thinking”, and “Application of
Note. ITTF (Information Transmission/Teacher-Focused approach), CCSF (Conceptual knowledge”. In contrast, information search and communication
Change/Student-Focused approach). Boldface: competencies rated quite or very necessary. competencies achieved a moderate-low scoring, which suggests the
F. Hernández-Pina and F. Monroy / Psicología Educativa 21 (2015) 11-16 15
Table 5
Teachers’ Assessment of Core Competencies
Comp. Item Competencies Global M F AH CS C SA AI ITTF CCSF %
A 1 Teamwork 10
A 7 Use of ICT 20
A 12 Note-taking 20
A 13 Information search 0
A 14 Writing assignments 10
A 15 Submission of written assignments 10
A 16 Oral presentations 10
A 18 Planning and conducting a research
10
study
B 8 Communication skills 90
B 9 Knowledge understanding 60
B 17 Exam preparation 20
C 2 Time management 80
C 3 Critical thinking 90
C 4 Problem-solving 60
C 10 Ability to make judgments 60
C 11 Application of knowledge 80
D 5 Decision-making 30
D 6 Commitment & motivation 50
Note. M (Male), F (Female), AH (Arts and Humanities), CS (Social Sciences), CC (Sciences), SA (Health Science), AI (Engineering and Architecture), ITTF (Information Transmission/
Teacher-Focused approach), CCSF (Conceptual Change/Student-Focused approach).
sample does not regard them as a priority in the learning process of peculiarities and differences amongst disciplines, so that students
undergraduate students. become proficient learners in their field of study. As a result, this
This study provides the first evidence of how university teachers would have a positive impact on learning outcomes and thus on the
from different areas assess a number of competencies which quality of our educational system as a whole.
undergraduate students ought to learn and develop while at university.
In future research it would be desirable to analyse the differences Conflict of Interest
between degrees which belong to the same branch of knowledge and
between different course years in a single discipline. There is evidence The authors of this article declare no conflict of interest.
(Samuelowicz & Bain, 1992) that teachers’ conceptions of teaching
vary from one context to another, as well as from undergraduate to Financial Support
postgraduate courses, so there might also be differences in teachers’
opinions as to how necessary core competencies are to first-, second-, This study is part of a larger project (“Teachers’ perception of
and third-year students. It would therefore be interesting to delve into students’ learning as per teachers’ approaches to teaching”. Project
the differences in ratings amongst teachers at different levels. number: 11908/PHCS/09) funded by a research grant awarded by
Amongst the main limitations of this study are the sampling Fundación Séneca, Agencia Regional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Spain
procedure and sample size, as well as the fact that the analysis (2010-2012).
focused on a single Spanish university. Since this descriptive study
was conducted with non-randomly selected first-year teachers, the
authors do not intend to generalise results to a population or other References
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(assessment of competencies) following the introduction of Dall’Alba, G. (1990). Foreshadowing conception of teaching. Research and Development
European changes to the Spanish educational system. Nevertheless, in Higher Education, 13, 291-297.
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teaching. Higher Education, 24, 483-502.
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their students. This is particularly relevant at the present time, as teaching skills, their approach to teaching and the approach to learning of their
many Spanish universities are undergoing an evaluation, students. Active Learning in Higher Education, 5, 87-100.
Gow, L., & Kember, D. (1990). Does higher education promote independent learning?
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Hernández-Pina, F., Maquilón-Sánchez, J. J, Monroy-Hernández, F., & Izquierdo-Rus, T.
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students should learn, so that programmes may be updated teaching area, gender and teaching approach. Paper presented at the European Edu-
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developed. These courses should be long-term and highlight the vista de Investigación Educativa, 31, 239-255.
Pratt, D. D. (1992). Conceptions of teaching. Adult Education Quarterly, 42, 203-220. Trigwell, K., & Prosser, M. (2004). Development and use of the Approaches to Tea-
Prosser, M., Trigwell, K., & Taylor, P. (1994). A phenomenographic study of academics’ ching Inventory. Educational Psychology Review, 16, 409-424.
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Real Decreto 1393/2007, de 29 de octubre, por el que se establece la ordenación de teaching first year university sciences. Higher Education, 27, 75-84.
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Appendix
Students’ Learning Needs
Not necessary Slightly necessary Fairly necessary Quite necessary Very necessary
Core competencies/Learning needs
1 2 3 4 5
(1) Teamwork
(2) Time management
(3) Critical thinking
(4) Problem-solving
(5) Decision-making
(6) Commitment and motivation
(7) Use of ICT
(8) Communication skills
(9) Knowledge understanding
(10) Ability to make judgments
(11) Application of knowledge
(12) Note-taking
(13) Information search
(14) Writing assignments
(15) Submission of written assignments
(16) Oral presentations
(17) Exam preparation
(18) Planning and conducting a research study

17
Psychometric properties of the Internet Addiction Test in a sample of Malaysian

undergraduate students
Xi Lu and Kee Jiar Yeo
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
Manuscript received: 13/10/2014 This study examined the psychometric properties of a bilingual version of the Internet Addicion Test (IA)
Revision received: 12/02/2015 (Malay and English) in a sample of undergraduate students. A total of 104 students from Universiti
Accepted: 03/03/2015 Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) participated in this study. Result of Rasch Model analysis on the items of IAT
showed that the 6-point rating scale was the optimal and the unidimensional structure of IAT was
Keywords:
confirmed. The evidences provided by Rasch Model analysis supported that IAT was a good and reliable
Internet Addiction Test (IAT)
instrument to examine psychopathological internet use (PIU). The undelying construct of IAT was examined
Pathological Internet use (PIU)
Undergraduate students by EFA, which found a six-factor model as the best fit model (tolerance, time management problems &
neglect of duty, neglect of social life, problematic use & reality substitute, withdraw & emotional conflict,
intentionally concealing behavior, and lack of control). Time spent online was found to be significantly
correlated to each factor subscales of IAT, but weakly. Factors of lack of control and problematic use &
reality substitute were two salient underlying structures of IAT in this study. A bigger sample size was
suggested to confirm the underlying construct by using CFA in the future study.
Propiedades psicométricas del Test de Adicción a Internet en una muestra de

estudiantes universitarios malayos
resumen
Palabras clave:
Test de Adicción a Internet (IAT) Este estudio ha analizado las propiedades psicométricas de una versión bilingüe del Test de Adicción a In-
Utilización patológica de Internet ternet, IAT (malayo e inglés) en una muestra de estudiantes universitarios. Un total de 104 alumnos de la
Estudiantes universitarios Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) participaron en el estudio. El resultado del análisis del modelo de
Rasch sobre los items del IAT mostró que era óptima la escala de valoración de 6 puntos y se confirmó la
estructura unidimensional del IAT. Las pruebas proporcionadas por el análisis del modelo de Rasch confir-
maron que este test es un instrumento bueno y fiable para evaluar el uso patológico de Internet. Mediante
un EFA se analizó el constructo subyacente al IAT, apareciendo un modelo de 6 factores como el mejor mo-
delo de ajuste (tolerancia, problemas de gestión del tiempo y descuido de las obligaciones, desatención de
la vida social, uso problemático y sustitución de la realidad, alejamiento y conflicto emocional, ocultación
intencionada del comportamiento y falta de control). Se vio que el tiempo transcurrido online correlaciona-
ba significativamente, aunque débilmente, con cada factor subescala del IAT. Los factores de falta de control
y uso problemático y sustitución de la realidad constituían dos estructuras subyacentes sobresalientes del
IAT en este estudio. Se propuso utilizar una muestra mayor para confirmar la estructura subyacente del
constructo mediante CFA en un futuro estudio.
*Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to Dr. Lu Xi or to Dr. Yeo

Kee Jear. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Department of Education. 81310 UTM. Johor
Bahru. Malaysia, E-mail: luxi0218@gmail.com; kjyeo@utm.my
18 X. Lu and K. J. Yeo / Psicología Educativa 21 (2015) 17-25
Young (1996) was one of the first persons to study Internet use The psychological properties of IAT were examined in various
related problems and take the term “Internet addiction” to describe countries and language versions, yielding satisfactory reliability and
a portion of population that fascinated on Internet use and suffered construct validity (Chang & Law, 2008; Khazaal et al., 2008; Ng, Isa,
from negative consequences. She further developed the criterion of Hashim, Pillai, & Harbajan Singh, 2012; Yang et al., 2005; Widyanto
Internet addiction based on the diagnostic criterion of pathological & McMurran, 2004), but the result of construct of IAT using factor
gambling in the DSM-IV and cited the term “pathological Internet analysis was not consistent as shown in Table 1. For instance,
use” (PIU) instead of “Internet addiction” in her recent publication Widyanto and McMurran (2004) extracted six factors (salience,
“Internet Addiction: A Handbook and Guide to Evaluation and excessive use, neglect work, anticipation, lack of control, and neglect
Treatment” (Young & Nabuco de Abreu, 2011). social life) using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) in a sample of UK
Although there is no single standardized definition or terminology adults, while another study on UK college students found a three-
on PIU, researchers dedicated to defining the characteristics of PIU factor model (psychological/emotional conflict, time-management
symptoms got similar conclusion in many aspects, such as tolerance, problems, and mood modification; Widyanto, Griffiths, & Brunsden,
withdrawal, or mood adjustment. Griffiths (1998) explained the PIU in 2011).
six aspects, including salience, mood modification, tolerance, For the Italian version, Ferraro, Caci, D’Amico, and Di Blasi (2007)
withdrawal symptoms, conflict, and relapse. The recent description of got a six-factor model (compromised social quality of life,
PIU was from a dissertation, which was based on previous literature compromised individual quality of life, compensatory usage of the
and DSM-IV-TR for impulse control disorder (DiNicola, 2004). The Internet, compromised academic/working careers, compromised
researcher proposed nine criteria for PIU: (1) “preoccupation with the time control, and excitatory usage of the Internet). Chang and Law
Internet or Internet related activates”; (2) “tolerance in terms of a need (2008) got a three-factor solution (withdrawal & social problems,
to spend increasing amounts of time online in order to achieve desired time management & performance, and reality substitute) using both
excitement”; (3) “repeated attempts to control, reduce, or stop Internet EFA and CFA for a bilingual version (Chinese and English), while a
use or to avoid a particular type of content”; (4) “withdrawal symptoms study on a sample of Chinese Adolescents confirmed and improved
including restless or irritability when attempting to cut down or stop Chang and Law‘s (2008) three-factor model using CFA (Lai et al.,
Internet use”; (5) “Internet use to escape problems or as a means of 2013). Khazaal et al. (2008) only got one-factor solution for a French
relieving dysphoric mood (e.g., helplessness, guilt, anxiety, version. A recent study on US college students identified a two-factor
depression)”; (6) “lying to family members, significant others, model (dependent use and excessive use; Jelenchick, Becker, &
employers, or therapist to conceal extent of involvement with the Moreno, 2012). A study in Finland supported both a single factor and
Internet or type of content accessed online”; (7) “has committed two-factor models using EFA. Finally, Ng et al. (2012) extracted five
illegal acts online (e.g., hacking into computer networks, copying files factors (lack of control, neglect of duty, problematic use, social
illegally, downloading illegal content), but not including swapping or relationship disruption, and email privacy) for a Malay version in a
sharing of music files”; (8) “has jeopardized or lost a significant sample of 162 medical students by using EFA.
relationship, job, or educational opportunity because of involvement Besides the studies concentrated on the construct underlying IAT
with the Internet”; (9) “guilt about the amount of time spent online using factor analysis, the Rasch Model theory was also applied to
and/or guilt related to the activities engaged in online”. assess the items of IAT, which was conducted in a sample of Cypriot
Developing a valid instrument is always an important concern for high school students (Panayides & Walker, 2012). It is the only study
research development in this field. Currently, there are at least 13 in current literature to examine the psychometric properties of IAT
instruments designed to measure PIU (Moreno, Jelenchick, Cox, in an alternative way, which found a satisfactory person reliability
Young, & Christakis, 2011). Some were adapted from the criteria of (.86) and item reliability (.99). The researcher further concluded that
DSM-IV regarding to substance abuse and dependence or pathological “all 20 items were sufficiently spread out and describe distinct levels
gambling, such as the Internet Addiction Disorder Diagnostic along the variable and do define a linear continuum of increasing
Criteria(Goldberg, 1996), the Internet-Related Addictive Behavior difficulty”. The unidimentionality and good construct validity of this
Inventory (Chang & Man Law, 2008), the Young Diagnostic scale was confirmed (Panayides & Walker, 2012). This study intended
Questionnaire (Young, 1996), and The Internet Addiction Test (IAT) to employ the Rasch model to examine the items of a bilingual IAT
(Widyanto & McMurran, 2004), the Chen Internet Addiction Scale version (Malay and English). Although the recent study in Malaysia
(Chen, Weng, Su, Wu, & Yang, 2003) and the Problematic Internet got a five-factor model for the Malay version of IAT, the sample was
Usage Questionnaire (Jia & Jia, 2009). Some are developed based on restricted to medical students. This study also intended to explore
the cognitive-behavioral model, including the Online Cognition Scale the construct of IAT among a more varied sample, such as
(OCS) (Davis, Flett, & Besser, 2002), the Generalized Problematic undergraduate students from various majors.
Internet Use Scale (GPIUS) (Caplan, 2002) and the Generalized
Problematic Internet Use Scale 2 (GPIUS 2) (Caplan, 2010). Other Objectives
instruments are based on the PIU behavioral addiction model, such
as the Compulsive Internet Use Scale (Meerkerk, van den Eijnden, First, this study examined the items of IAT using Rasch Model
Vermulst, & Garretsen, 2009). analysis, which could check the rating scales and item quality.
Apart from the various instruments mentioned above, the Internet Second, linking to the previous studies and theories, the construct of
Addiction Test (IAT) is one of the most widely used instruments and IAT was explored. Last, this study identified the level of PIU and its
has been regarded as the first validated instrument to assess Internet sub-construct and examined the relationship of PIU and Internet use
addiction (Widyanto & McMurran, 2004), which was deemed as a experience, time spent online, as well as the PIU sub-construct
reliable instrument that covers the significant traits of Pathological ‘salience’ for this sample.
Internet Use (PIU). It has been validated in many languages, including
English, Greek, Italian, French, Turkish, Chinese, and Korean (Chang Method
& Law, 2008; Khazaal et al., 2008; Panayides & Walker, 2012; Yang,
Choe, Baity, Lee & Cho, 2005; Young & Nabuco de Abreu, 2011), and Subjects
can be adapted and applied in outpatient and inpatient settings
(Young & Nabuco de Abreu, 2011). This study aimed to evaluate the A total of 104 undergraduate students from Univerisiti Teknologi
psychometric properties of this popular instrument: Young’s Internet Malaysia (UTM) answered the questionnaire. As shown in Table 2,
Addiction Test (Young & Nabuco de Abreu, 2011) the sample consisted of 46 students from Arts, Humanity, and Social
X. Lu and K. J. Yeo / Psicología Educativa 21 (2015) 17-25 19
Table 1
Factor Structure of IAT in the Prior Research
Model
Item 1a/b 2a 2b 3a 3b 3c 5 6a 6b
IAT1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 5
IAT2 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2
IAT3 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 6 6
IAT4 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 6 1
IAT5 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 5 1
IAT6 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 3 4
IAT7 1 2 2 2 - - 5 4 3
IAT8 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 3 4
IAT9 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1
IAT10 1 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 6
IAT11 1 1 1 1 - - 1 4 3
IAT12 1 1 1 3 3 3 1 1 2
IAT13 1 1 1 3 1 1 4 1 1
IAT14 1 2 1 3 3 3 1 2 2
IAT15 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 3
IAT16 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 5 1
IAT17 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 5 5
IAT18 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1
IAT19 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2
IAT20 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 2 2
Note. 1a: derived from Khazaal et al., 2008 (EFA & CFA)
1b: derived from Korkeila, Kaarlas, Jaaskelainen, Vahlber, & Taiminen (2010). EFA
2a: F1 - dependent use; F2 - excessive use (Jelenchick, Becker, & Moreno, 2012). EFA
2b: F1 - salient use; F2-loss of control (Korkeila, Kaarlas, Jaaskelainen, Vahlberg & Taiminen, 2010). EFA
3a: F1 - psychological/emotional conflict; F2 - time-management problems; F3 - mood modification (Widyanto, Griffiths, & Brunsden, 2011). EFA
3b: F1 - withdrawal & social problems; F2 - time management & performance; F3 - reality substitute (Chang & Man Law, 2008). EFA & CFA
3c: F1 - withdrawal & social problems; F2-time management & performance; F3 - reality substitute (Lai, Mak, Watanabe, Ang, Pang, & Ho, 2013). CFA
5: F1 - lack of control; F2 - neglect of duty; F3 - problematic use; F4 - social relationship disruption; F5 - email privacy (Ng, Isa, Hashim, Pillai, & Harbajan Singh, 2012). EFA
6a: F1 - salience; F2 - excessive use; F3 - neglect work; F4 - anticipation; F5 - lack of control; F6 - neglect social life (Widyanto & McMurran, 2004). EFA
6b: F1 - compromised social quality of life; F2 - compromised individual quality of life; F3 - compensatory usage of the Internet; F4 - compromised academic/working careers;
F5 - compromised time control; F6 - excitatory usage of the Internet (Ferraro, Caci, D’Amico, & Di Blasi, 2007).
Science, 27 from Science and 27 from Engineering. There were 50 from the perspective of psychological symptoms and behaviours,
males and 54 females. such as psychological dependence, compulsive use, withdrawal,
problems of school, sleep, family, and time management. It was

Measure developed based on Young’s YDQ (Young & Nabuco de Abreu, 2011;
Young, 1996). The original English version of IAT was translated into
The pencil-paper questionnaire used in this study was comprised Malay using translation and back translation procedures. Both
by two parts: first, basic information of undergraduate students English and Malay were shown in the questionnaire in this study. In
including gender, major field, time spent online per day, and years of Young and Nabuco de Abreu’s latest book, Internet Addiction: A
Internet use; second, the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) —a 20-item Handbook and Guide to Evaluation and Treatment, the items are rated
self-report instrument used to measure an individual’s Internet use on a six-point scale regarding participants’ experience of their
Internet use: 0 = not applicable, 1 = rarely, 2 = occasionally, 3 =
frequently, 4 = often, 5 = always. The score range is 0 to 100, and the
Table 2 higher score, the greater level of PIU. An individual who gets a total
Demographics for the Sample score between 0 and 30 is deemed as normal Internet user, between
31 and 49 mild Internet user, between 50 and 79 moderate PIU, and
n Percentage (%)
between 80 and 100 he is supposed to suffer from severe PIU. In this
Gender Male 50 48.08 study, the individual who got 80 or above on IAT was categorized as
Female 54 51.92 PIU, the remaining were non-PIU.
Race Malay 83 79.81
Chinese 15 14.42 Statistical Analyses
Others 6 5.77
First, this study exmined the items of IAT using Winsteps, version
Major field Art, humanity and social
science
47 45.19 3.75.0, which is a Rasch Model analysis software. The Rasch Model
theory is a kind of item response theory (IRT) which intends to
Science 30 28.85
measure item responses rather than total scores (Thissen, 2001).
Engineering 27 25.96
There are some critical concepts used in this study under Rasch
Model analysis. Person fit in the Rasch model is an index of with the abilities of person. The infit and outfit mean-square (MNSQ)
individual’s response to items. People may be considered as “misfit” values in Table 4 showed that all the items fit the Rasch model very
when they respond in an inconsistent manner because of feeling well with mean infit and outfit of 0.99 and 1.02 respectively, except
bored and inattentive to the task, confused, or an item evokes an IAT 7 and IAT 12 with higher infit and outfit MNSQ (> 1.40). Further
unusually salient response from an individual (Linacre, 2012). Linacre examination on a person’s performance of items found that the
(2012) suggested that the value of INFIT and OUTFIT MNSQ should be misfit on IAT 7 and IAT 12 was due to the abnormal response from
in the range of 0.6 and 1.4 for rating scales. Separation coefficient is five students. The infit and outfit MNSQ of IAT 7 and IAT 12 dropped
the signal-to-noise ratio, the ratio of “true” variance to error variance. below the cut-off value of 1.4 (IAT 7: 1.39 and 1.35; IAT 12: 1.35 and
Person separation is used to classify people. Low person separation 1.38) once the response of these five students was removed from the
implies that the instrument may not be sensitive enough to dataset. Therefore, IAT 7 and IAT 12 could be kept, as the misfit was
distinguish person with high and low performance. More items may caused by the unexpected responses of five students.
be needed. Item separation is used to verify the item hierarchy. Low The result of Rasch principal component analysis (PCA) in Table 5
item separation implies that the person sample is not large enough indicated that the raw variance in observations of IAT was 54%, with
to confirm the item difficulty hierarchy of the instrument. This is 23.5 eigenvalue units. The unexplained variance in the first contrast
analogous to the Fisher Discriminant Ratio. Reliability (separation was 7.4%, with 3.2 0.500 units; the second contrast was 6.5%, with 2.8
index) is separation reliability. The person reliability is equivalent to 0.500 units; and the third contrast was 5.2%, with 2.3 eigenvalue
KR-20, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. And the item reliability is units. The 0.500 units of first, second, and third contrast are bigger
equivalent to construct validity (Linacre, 2012). than 2.0, which implied that IAT may be multidimensional with
Second, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted by items measuring different constructs. To further test the
Mplus, version 6. The EFA in Mplus could provide the goodness of fit unidimensionality of IAT, the items were segmented into subtests
statistics as CFA. This study took the following model fit index to according to the cluster numbers to perform the disattenuated
evaluate the EFA model. First, there is the chi-square and degrees of correlation on person measures, which got significant high positive
freedom, which suggested that a model can be considered to fit well value of disattenuated correlation, ranging from .6604 to 1.00 (Table
if 2/df ratio is below 2. Second, the Root Mean Square Error of 6). The high positive disattenuated correlation implied that the
Approximation (RMSEA) suggested that the value between 0 and .05 person measures on the different clusters of items are statistically
indicated a good fit and between .05 and .08 indicated an acceptable the same, which implied that the three clusters of items measure the
one. Third, the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) was same thing. Based on the result of PCA and attenuated correlation, all
suggested to be in the range of .05 and .10 as acceptable, between 0 the items of IAT measure the same construct with four sub-
and .05 as good fit (Schermelleh-Engel & Moosbrugger, 2003). The dimensions, which suggested to identify the sub-construct of IAT.
fourth index is the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), which was suggested The overall property of IAT showed high person and item
to be greater than .95 as good fit, and above .90 acceptable (Hu & separation (3.52 and 4.61 respectively) corresponding to person
Bentler, 1999). Last, there is the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), also known reliability of .93 and item reliability of .95. The high person separation
as the Non-normed Fit Index, (NNFI), whose value was recommended indicated the students were separated into more than three groups
to be greater than .95 as good fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999). by IAT, while the high item reliability meant that the item ability was
widely spread, and could distinguish approximately five different
Results levels of Internet addiction.
Rasch Model Analysis on Items Exploratory Factor Analysis
To examine the rating scale with six categories, the result of Exploratory factor analysis (IAT) was run in Mplus v. 6. to identify
category structure for IAT is shown in Table 3. The observed average the underlying sub-construct of IAT using weight least square with
measure increases with the category score (-1.75, -0.77, -0.24, 0.31, mean and variance (WLSMV) estimation. As previous research have
0.70 and 1.03 for categories 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 respectively) and is close found one- to six-factor solutions, this research identified the one- to
to sample expected value. The value of structure calibration also six-factor models respectively using oblique direct quartimin
increases with the category value, which indicated that there was no rotation. The goodness-of-fit of the six EFA models are listed in Table
disordered category. The value of INFIT and OUTFIT is close to 1 on 7, which indicates that a 6-factor model is fit better and acceptable
categories 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 (from 0.88 to 1.15). (2/df < 2, RMSEA = .075, SRMR = .029, CFI = .986, TLI = .969).
Table 4 is the Rasch analysis result of item fit statistics in misfit The factor loading and correlations of the 6-factor model are
order, which showed that all the point-measure correlations (CORR.) shown in Table 8. All items had strong primary loadings on their
are positive and high, range from .43 to .78, and all are close to the corresponding factors, ranging from .344 to .786. There were four
expected correlation (EXP.). It implied that all the items are aligned salient cross-loading items that were IAT1, IAT13, IAT15, and IAT18.
Table 3
Category Structure
Category Observed Observed Sample INFIT OUTFIT Structure Category
Label Score Count % Average Expected MNSQ MNSQ Calibration Measure
0 0 224 11 -1.75 -1.70 0.96 0.96 NONE (-3.01)

1 1 370 18 -0.77 -0.80 1.01 1.03 -1.72 -1.41
2 2 400 19 -0.24 -0.20 0.88 0.94 -0.56 -0.44
3 3 526 25 0.31 0.26 0.94 0.96 -0.24 0.38
4 4 393 19 0.70 0.68 0.96 1.09 0.76 1.44
5 5 167 8 1.03 1.11 1.15 1.12 1.75 (3.07)
Table 4
Item Fit Statistics of IAT in Misfit Order
Total Model INFIT OUTFIT PT-Measure Exact Match
No. Score Count Measure SE MNSQ ZSTD MNSQ ZSTD CORR. EXP. OBS% XP% Item
7 260 104 -0.01 0.1 1.61 4.0 1.98 5.7 A .43 .69 31.7 37.2 IAT7
12 286 104 -0.26 0.1 1.40 2.7 1.47 3.1 B .58 .70 29.8 37.5 IAT12
4 236 104 0.21 0.1 1.16 1.2 1.38 2.6 C .57 .68 36.5 37.5 IAT4
16 340 104 -0.81 0.1 1.18 1.3 1.22 1.5 D .65 .71 32.7 39.2 IAT16
13 175 104 0.80 0.1 1.21 1.5 1.14 0.9 E .60 .63 40.4 39.5 IAT13
14 292 103 -0.34 0.1 1.13 1.0 1.08 0.6 F .69 .70 31.1 37.9 IAT14
1 359 104 -1.02 0.11 0.96 -0.2 1.10 0.8 G .65 .71 46.2 40.3 IAT1
3 225 104 0.32 0.1 1.04 0.3 0.99 0.0 H .68 .67 44.2 37.7 IAT3
17 309 104 -0.49 0.1 0.97 -0.2 1.04 0.3 I .74 .71 34.6 38.5 IAT17
18 230 103 0.24 0.1 1.02 0.2 1.01 0.1 J .67 .68 41.7 37.5 IAT18
9 225 104 0.32 0.1 0.97 -0.1 0.93 -0.4 j .67 .67 36.5 37.7 IAT9
8 236 104 0.21 0.1 0.86 -1.1 0.89 -0.8 i .73 .68 29.8 37.5 IAT8
20 230 104 0.27 0.1 0.85 -1.1 0.82 -1.3 h .76 .67 47.1 37.6 IAT20
5 202 104 0.54 0.1 0.83 -1.3 0.79 -1.5 g .70 .65 48.1 38.7 IAT5
15 231 104 0.26 0.1 0.80 -1.6 0.82 -1.4 f .75 .67 40.4 37.7 IAT15
10 277 104 -0.17 0.1 0.79 -1.6 0.77 -1.8 e .76 .70 39.4 37.7 IAT10
6 237 104 0.20 0.1 0.77 -1.9 0.75 -1.9 d .78 .68 36.5 37.5 IAT6
11 299 104 -0.39 0.1 0.76 -1.9 0.75 -2.0 c .75 .70 41.3 38.3 IAT11
19 229 104 0.28 0.1 0.75 -2.0 0.74 -2.1 b .78 .67 43.3 37.6 IAT19
2 277 104 -0.17 0.1 0.72 -2.3 0.72 -2.3 a .76 .70 38.5 37.7 IAT2
M 257.8 103.9 0.00 0.1 0.99 -0.2 1.02 0.0 38.5 38.0
SD 45.1 0.3 0.44 0.0 0.23 1.7 0.30 2.0 5.6 0.8
All the six factors were correlated weakly to moderately (r = .233 - withdraw and emotional conflict, and contained five items (IAT 12,
.517). IAT13, IAT15, IAT19, IAT20). Factor 5, namely, intentionally concealing
Factor 1, named as tolerance, time management problems, and behavior, had two items (IAT 9, IAT18). Factor 6, termed lack of
neglect of duty, comprised four items (IAT2, IAT 3, IAT6, IAT8). Factor control, comprised three items (IAT1, IAT16, IAT17).
2, termed neglect of social life, consisted of three items (IAT4, IAT5,
IAT7). Factor 3, named problematic use and reality substitute, IAT Overall, Factor Subscale Scores and Relationship With
contained three items (IAT 10, IAT11, IAT14). Factor 4 was termed as Internet Use Status
The overall mean IAT score was 49.567 ± 19.323. Result of two-
way ANOVA without interaction showed that there were no

Table 5
Standardized Residual Variance of IAT (in Eigenvalue Units) significant main effect of gender F(1, 100) = 3.838, p = .053 and major
field F(2, 100) = 0.554, p = .576 on overall IAT mean score. There were
Empirical Modeled only four students reported the overall IAT score above 80, who were
Total raw variance in 43.5 100.0% 100.0% categorized as PIU. As shown in Table 9, the mean item scores ranged
observations from 1.600 ± 1.310 to 3.220 ± 1.397 for the non-PIU students and from
Raw variance explained by 23.5 54.0% 53.3% 2.750 ± 1.258 to 5.000 ± 0.000 for PIU students.
measures
Raw variance explained by 11.3 6.1% 25.8%
persons Table 6
Approximate Relationships between the Person Measures
Raw Variance explained by 12.1 27.9% 27.5%
items
PCA Item Pearson Disattenuated
Raw unexplained variance 20.0 46.0% 100.0% 46.7% Contrast Clusters Correlation Correlation
(total)
1 1-3 .5871 .7443
Unexplned variance in 1st 3.2 7.4% 16.1%
contrast 1 1-2 .7464 .8455
Unexplned variance in 2nd 2.8 6.5% 14.1% 1 2-3 .7212 .8957

contrast 2 1-3 .5419 .6604
Unexplned variance in 3rd 2.3 5.2% 11.3% 2 1-2 .7790 1.0000
contrast
2 2-3 .8517 1.0000
Unexplned variance in 4th 1.8 4.2% 9.2%
3 1-3 .6551 .8225
contrast
3 1-2 .8092 .9493
Unexplned variance in 5th 1.4 3.2% 6.9%
contrast 3 2-3 .9031 1.0000
Table 7
Goodness of Fit EFA 1-6 Factors
Factors Chi-square RMSEA SRMR CFI TLI
2 df Estimate 90% C.I.
1 418.734 170 .119 .104, .133 .084 .930 .922

2 308.178 151 .100 .084, .116 .066 .956 .945
3 264.994 133 .098 .080, .115 .056 .963 .947
4 225.441 116 .095 .077, .114 .048 .969 .950
5 182.537 100 .089 .068, .109 .038 .977 .956
6 134.544 85 .075 .050, .098 .029 .986 .969
Table 10 provided the correlation of six IAT factors, time spent As the number of items in IAT factor subscales was not identical,
online per day and years of Internet experience, which showed that this study computed the mean of IAT factor instead of the total
time spent online per day was significantly related to each IAT factor scores. As shown in Table 11, the undergraduate students in
factors, while years of Internet experience was significantly this study reported a highest mean score in lack of control,
correlated to two IAT factors (F2: neglect of social life; F5: followed by problematic use & reality substitute, tolerance, time
intentionally concealing behavior). management problems & neglect of duty, neglect of social life,
withdraw & emotional conflict, and intentionally concealing
behavior. The followed up pairwise comparisons showed that lack
Table 8
of control reported significantly higher score compared with
Factor Loadings and Correlations for Exploratory Factor Analyses
other IAT factor subscale scores (mean difference with F1 = .887, p
Items 1 2 3 4 5 6 =.000; mean difference with F2 = .994, p = .000; mean difference
with F3 = .449, p = .000; mean difference with F4 = 1.017, p = .000;
IAT1 .428 -.125 .325 -.081 -.111 .455
mean difference with F5 = 1.403, p = .000). The problematic use &
IAT2 .758 .115 -.045 .080 -.054 .173
reality substitute was reported as the second higher factor
IAT3 .447 .320 .183 .254 -.060 -.203 subscale score (mean difference with F1 = .438, p = .000; mean
IAT4 .139 .677 .011 .104 -.010 -.068 difference with F2 = .545, p = .000; mean difference with F4 =
IAT5 .158 .499 .038 .140 .158 .095 .569, p = .000; mean difference with F5 = .595, p = .000; mean
IAT6 .545 .179 .169 .062 .147 .037 difference with F6 = -.449, p = .000).
IAT7 -.083 .493 .240 -.290 .026 .222
IAT8 .731 .004 .202 -.049 .171 -.082
IAT9 .019 .013 .179 .055 .734 .053
IAT10 .082 .071 .754 .014 .111 .017 Table 9
IAT11 .076 .039 .726 .050 .058 .102 Internet Addiction Test (IAT) Item Scores of non-PIU and PIU
IAT12 -.135 .242 .256 .667 -.185 .086 non-PIU (n = 100) PIU (n = 4)
IAT13 .055 .018 .065 .548 .389 -.137 ITEM
Mean Mean
SD SD
IAT14 .044 -.005 .344 .246 .175 .212
IAT15 .142 .014 .352 .504 .142 -.002 IAT1 3.420 1.165 4.250 1.500
IAT16 -.037 -.014 .079 .193 .008 .786 IAT2 2.570 1.257 5.000 0.000
IAT17 .140 .204 .062 -.098 .189 .638 IAT3 2.070 1.365 4.500 0.577
IAT18 .046 .380 -.009 -.053 .444 .193 IAT4 2.210 1.258 3.750 1.893
IAT19 .293 .131 -.124 .515 .187 .252 IAT5 1.900 1.299 3.000 1.414
IAT20 .203 -.023 -.034 .650 .207 .228 IAT6 2.200 1.456 4.250 0.957
IAT7 2.490 1.367 2.750 1.258
Quartimin factor correlations
IAT8 2.190 1.354 4.250 1.500
1 2 3 4 5
IAT9 2.090 1.357 4.000 0.816
1 1.000 IAT10 2.580 1.342 4.750 0.500
2 .409 1.000 IAT11 2.820 1.298 4.250 0.500
3 .517 .435 1.000 IAT12 2.680 1.435 4.500 0.577
4 .370 .316 .308 1.000 IAT13 1.600 1.310 3.750 1.500
5 .454 .292 .352 .327 1.000 IAT14 2.758 1.457 4.750 0.500
IAT15 2.120 1.358 4.750 0.500
6 .403 .284 .412 .233 .285
IAT16 3.220 1.397 4.500 0.577
Note. F1 = tolerance, time management problems & neglect of duty. IAT17 2.940 1.469 3.750 1.893
F2 = neglect of social life
F3 = problematic use & reality substitute IAT18 2.212 1.409 2.750 1.500
F4 = withdraw & emotional conflict IAT19 2.110 1.377 4.500 0.577
F5 = intentionally concealing behavior
IAT20 2.140 1.429 4.000 1.414
F6 = lack of control
Table 10 Exploratory Factor Analysis for IAT Factor Structure

Correlations among IAT Factor Subscale, Time Spent Online, and Internet Experience
Time spent Years of Internet As previous studies have found one- to six-factor model for IAT,
online experience this study examined the one- to six-factor solution using EFA
F1: tolerance, time management problems respectively, and found that the six-factor model was fit better
.382** .152
& neglect of duty compared to other five models. The different factor model found in
F2: neglect of social life .225 *
.241* the past research and this study may be influenced by the different
F3: problematic use & reality substitute .304 **
.187 culture and sample’s background. Widyanto and McMurran (2004)
F4: withdraw & emotional conflict .297** .152 first identified a six-factor model among UK college students, and
another six-factor model was identified using a more distinct age
F5: intentionally concealing behavior .376** .276**
group (between 13 and 50 years old) for an Italian version (Ferraro et
F6: lack of control .251 *
.121
al., 2007). The three-factor model was always identified for the
*p < .05, **p < .01 bilingual (Chinese and English) version IAT by a Chinese sample
(Chang & Man Law, 2008; Lai et al., 2013). Despite the different factor
arrangement among the six-factor model in previous research and in
Discussion this study, the major underlying structure of IAT is consistent. For
instance, F6 - lack of control in this study was quite similar as
Rasch Model Analysis on Items Widyanto and McMurran’s (2004) “lack of control” factor and Ferraro
et al.’s (2007) “comprised time control”, where the majority of item
The first main objective of this study was to examine the item of arrangement was consistent for the factor about Internet use control
IAT using Rasch Model analysis. It first evaluated the 6-point rating in previous research and this study.
scale which did not find any disordered category. The 6-point rating The salient difference of this study and the previous six-factor
scale was psychometrically optimal. There was only one study models was that this study identified IAT9 and IAT18 as one factor
using Rasch Model to examine a Greek version of IAT, which found named intentionally “concealing behaviour”. IAT 9 is “defensive or
that collapsing the three middle categories into one to become secretive when anyone asks you what do you online”, while IAT 18 is
3-point rating scale performed better than 5-point rating scale “hid how long you have been online”. Both items in IAT are related to
(Panayides & Walker, 2012). As this study provided a satisfactory hide the real Internet use of individual including content and time
result of category structure test, it is not necessary to collapse any spent. Previous research arranged these two items in “excessive use”
category to become 3-point rating scale. Thus, this study kept the of six-factor model (Widyanto & McMurran, 2004), “neglect of duty”
6-point rating scale which was applicable for this bilingual version of five-factor model (Ng et al., 2012), “withdrawal & social problem”
IAT. of three-factor model (Chang & Man Law, 2008; Lai et al., 2013),
For the item fit statistics, this study found two misfit items (IAT7 “psychological/emotional conflict” of three-factor model (Widyanto
and IAT12) at first, but the value of infit and outfit MNSQ dropped et al., 2011), “salient use” of two-factor model (Korkeila, Kaarlas,
to the normal range once it removed the unexpected responses. It Jaaskelainen, Vahlberg, & Taiminen,, 2010), dependent use of two-
was same as Panayides and Walker (2012), which kept the IAT7 factor model (Jelenchick et al., 2012). Although there was certain
after removing the unexpected responses from the dataset. connection between these two items and the factors listed above, the
Panayides and Walker (2012) reported 40.8% of total variance IAT 9 and IAT18 were clearly grouped as a factor of intentionally
(eigenvalue 13.8) for principal component analysis (PCA) and concealing behaviour in this study that was consistent with DiNicola’s
provided the evidence of unidimensional structure of IAT. This (2004) sixth criterion of PIU. Thus, this study suggested keeping the
study reported a higher variance explained by the measure of 20- IAT9 and IAT18 to construct one of the underlying structures.
item IAT (54%, eigenvalue 23.5) units. The unidimensional structure The recent study for a Malay version IAT only extracted five
of IAT was also supported by this study. factors among medicine students (lack of control, neglect of duty,
Panayides and Walker (2012) found a satisfactory person and problematic use, social relationship disruption, and email privacy)
item separation (2.48 and 3.64 respectively) for the modified 20- (Ng et al., 2012). One of the factors, “email privacy”, was only
item Greek version IAT (3-point rating scale), which was deemed as constituted by one item IAT7, which was suggested to be dropped.
an effective measurement. This study also found a high person and Although this study also examined the structure of IAT (Malay and
item separation (3.52 and 4.61 respectively) and supported that the English version) using EFA as Ng et al. (2012), the discrepancy of this
bilingual version IAT used in this study is a reliable instrument to study and Ng et al.’s (2012) may be due to the different estimation
assess the PIU. method and rotation type for EFA, as well as the sample constitution.
Table 11
Repeated-Measure ANOVA for IAT factor subscale
Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity Test of within-Subjects Effects
Mean SD Mauchly’s W p F p
F1: tolerance, time management problems & neglect of duty 2.344 1.203 .885 .582 33.648 .000
F2: neglect of social life 2.237 1.042
F3: problematic use & reality substitute 2.782 1.200
F4: withdraw & emotional conflict 2.213 1.178
F5: intentionally concealing behavior 2.188 1.233
F6: lack of control 3.231 1.171
Despite the different amount of factors extracted by this study and 104 alumnos de la Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM)
Ng et al.’s (2012), the F1-tolerance, time management problems & cumplimentaron el cuestionario de papel y lápiz. La muestra estaba
neglect of duty and F6-lack of control identified in this study compuesta por 46 alumnos de Letras, Humanidades y Ciencias
contained items that loaded on Ng et al.’s “lack of control” and Sociales, 27 de Ciencias y 27 de Ingenierías. Por sexo, 50 eran hombres
“neglect of duty” factors. The salience cross-loading was also y 54 mujeres.
identified in this study, which are IAT1, IAT3, IAT13, and IAT15. Three El cuestionario de papel y lápiz utilizado en el estudio tenía dos
of them (IAT13, IAT15, IAT18) were also found to be loaded on more partes, una con información básica sobre los alumnos, como el sexo,
than one factor in Ng et al.’s (2012) study. la carrera, el tiempo diario conectados a Internet y los años de
Based on the EFA result of primary factor loading and the previous experiencia en el uso de Internet. La segunda parte la constituye el
models, this study suggested a six-factor model to be applicable for test IAT propiamente, un autoinforme de 20 ítems que mide el uso
undergraduate students. The underlying construct of IAT should individual de Internet desde el punto de vista de los síntomas y
include tolerance, time management problems & neglect of duty, comportamientos psicológicos, tales como la dependencia
neglect of social life, problematic use & reality substitute, withdraw psicológica, el uso compulsivo y la abstinencia, problemas con el
& emotional conflict, intentionally concealing behavior, and lack of alcohol, sueño, familia y gestión del tiempo. Se tradujo al malayo la
control. versión original en inglés, siguiéndose el procedimiento de traducción
y traducción inversa. En este estudio se mostraron las versiones en
IAT Overall, Factor Subscale Scores, and Relationship ambos idiomas. Los ítems se valoran en una escala de 6 puntos que
with Internet Use Status mide la experiencia del participante en el uso de Internet. El rango de
puntuaciones va de 0 a 100; a mayor puntuación mayor experiencia
Compared to the study on the US college students which also used en el uso patológico de Internet (PIU). Una persona que obtenga una
the 6-point rating scale of IAT (Jelenchick et al., 2012), the undergraduate puntuación total entre 50 y 79 se considera que sufre un moderado
students in this study reported extremely higher overall scores in IAT PIU y entre 80 y 100 un PIU grave. En este estudio, la persona que
(US: 28.4 ± 10.3 vs Malaysia: 49.567 ± 19.323). It is difficult to identify obtenga 80 o más en el IAT se considera como PIU; el resto se
the reason of this huge discrepancy between US college students and consideran no PIU.
Malaysian students in the current study, which implied a further study El análisis del modelo de Rasch aplicado a los ítems mostró que
on the culture difference in Internet use. But the extremely higher era óptima la escala de valoración de 6 puntos. El análisis de
overall scores in IAT for Malaysian undergraduate students did call for componentes principales (PCA) y la correlación atenuada confirmaron
the attention from the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia and que el IAT tiene una estructura unidimensional, lo que indica que
universities on their students’ Internet use. todos los ítems miden el mismo constructo, aunque implicaba
Differently from Chang and Man Law’s (2008), this study found identificar el subconstructo del IAT. El análisis del modelo de Rasch
significantly positive relationship between time spent online per day puso de manifiesto que el IAT era un buen instrumento, fiable, para
and each factor subscales of IAT. Chang and Man Law (2008) only analizar el PIU. El constructo que subyacía al IAT se analizó mediante
found the significant positive relationship of “reality substitute” un análisis factorial exploratorio (EFA) que encontró un modelo de 6
factors and time spent online. The relationship found in this study factores como el modelo de mejor ajuste (tolerancia, problemas de
and the study of Chang and Man Law were weak, which indicated gestión de tiempo y descuido de las obligaciones, descuido de la vida
that time spent online did play a role in developing PIU, but not the social, utilización problemática y sustitución de la realidad,
sole criterion. And the relationship between the years of Internet abstinencia y conflictos emocionales, ocultación intencionada de
experience and three factor subscales of IAT was not identified comportamientos y falta de control). Se vio que el tiempo empleado
(Chang & Man Law, 2008). Slightly differently, this study found that online correlacionaba significativa, aunque débilmente, con cada una
there were a significantly positive relationship between the years of de las subescalas factores del IAT. Los factores de falta de control y
Internet experience and two factor subscales (neglect of social life utilización problemática y sustitución de la realidad constituían dos
and intentionally concealing behavior), but it was weak. It implied estructuras destacadas subyacentes del IAT en este estudio.
that individual tended to ignore their real social relationship and La discusión, comparando el resultado de este estudio con otros
hide their behavior of Internet use by their increasing years of hallazgos, indica que a pesar de las ligeras diferencias en los
experiences with Internet. resultados al validar al IAT mediante el análisis del modelo de Rasch,
F6 - lack of control and F3 - problematic use & reality substitute mayormente eran congruentes en cuanto a la estructura
were identified as the salient factor subscales of IAT in this study, unidimensional del IAT utilizado en este estudio y en la gran
which revealed that the symptoms of PIU, as measured by IAT, were separación de los sujetos y de los ítems. La versión bilingüe del IAT
acted sharply compared with other four factors. It further implied que se ha utilizado en este estudio es un instrumento fiable para
that lack of control and problematic use & reality substitute were evaluar el PIU.
two major criteria of PIU. Si bien los estudios previos han hallado un modelo de IAT de entre
uno y seis factores, este estudio ha encontrado que el modelo de seis
Conclusion and Future Study factores es el mejor. La incongruencia de los resultados de la
investigación previa en relación a los de este estudio puede explicarse
The Rasch model analysis on the items of the bilingual version IAT por la cultura diferente y el bagaje de la muestra. A pesar de la
(Malay and English) provided evidences of good instrument on diferente disposición de factores en el modelo de seis factores en la
assessing PIU. The EFA showed a six-factor model of IAT. The positive investigación previa y en ese estudio, la principal estructura
relationships of time spent online and the subconstructs of IATwere subyacente es congruente. Por ejemplo, el factor “falta de control” en
confirmed. A bigger sample size was recommended in the future este estudio era bastante parecido al factor homónimo de Wydanto
study, using CFA in order to further confirm the construct underlying y McMurran (2004) y al factor de “control del tiempo”; la mayor
IAT in Malaysia context. parte de la disposición de los ítems era congruente para el factor
“control del uso de Internet” en la investigación previa y en esta.
Resumen ampliado La diferencia más notable de este estudio y de los modelos previos
de seis factores era que el primero identificó el IAT9 y el IAT18 como un
El objetivo de este estudio es analizar las propiedades único factor, designado como comportamiento ocultado inten
psicométricas del Test de Adicción a Internet (IAT). Una muestra de cionadamente. El IAT9 es “ser defensivo o con secretos cuando alguien
te pregunta por lo que haces cuando estás conectado” y el IAT18, “cuánto Davis, R. A., Flett, G. L., & Besser, A. (2002). Validation of a new scale for measuring
problematic Internet use: Implications for pre-employment screening. CyberP-
tiempo has estado conectado”. Ambos ítems del IAT se relacionan con la
sychology & Behavior, 5, 331-345. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.
ocultación del uso real de Internet de aspectos tales como el contenido org/10.1089/109493102760275581.
y el tiempo transcurrido (conectado). De acuerdo con la revisión de los DiNicola, M. D. (2004). Pathological Internet Use among College Students: The Prevalence
of Pathological Internet Use and Its Correlates (Thesis of Doctor Degree). Ohio Univer-
estudios previos, este estudio recomienda mantener el IAT9 y el IAT18
sity.
para construir una de las estructuras subyacentes. Ferraro, G., Caci, B., D’Amico, A., & Blasi, M. D. (2007). Internet addiction disorder: An
En comparación con los alumnos universitarios norteamericanos Italian study. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 10, 170-175.
(Jelenchick, Becker y Moreno, 2012), las puntuaciones globales Goldberg, I. (1996). Internet addiction. Electronic message posted to Research Discus-
sion List. Research @ PsyCom.net World Wide Wbe, http://www. cmhc. com/mlists/
mucho más elevadas en el IAT de los alumnos malayos research/ and http://www-usr.rider.edu/~suler/psycyber/supportgp.html
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universidades sobre el uso de Internet por parte de los alumnos. Hu, L.T., & Bentler, P.M. (1999), “Cutoff Criteria for Fit Indexes in Covariance Structure
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relaciones positivas significativas entre el tiempo diario transcurrido lling, 6, 1-55.
Jelenchick, L. A., Becker, T., & Moreno, M. A. (2012). Assessing the psychometric pro-
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conectado”. La relación hallada en este estudio y en el de Chang y
Khazaal, Y., Billieux, J., Thorens, G., Khan, R., Louati, Y., Scarlatti, E., … Zullino, D.
Man Law era débil, lo cual indicaba que el tiempo transcurrido online (2008). French validation of The Internet Addiction Test. Cyberpsychology and Beha-
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(descuido de la vida social y la conducta ocultada intencionadamente), Lai, C. M., Mak, K. K., Watanabe, H., Ang, R. P., Pang, J. S., & Ho, R. C. M. (2013) Psycho-
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Pediatric Psychology, 3, 1-14. doi: 10.1093/jpepsy/jst022
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La falta de control y el uso problemático y sustitutivo de la Meerkerk, G. J., van den Eijnden, R. J. J. M., Vermulst, A. A., & Garretsen, H. F. L. (2009).
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Panayides, P., & Walker, M. J. (2012). Evaluation of the Psychometric Properties of the
Conflict of Interest Internet Addiction Test (IAT) in a Sample of Cypriot High School Students: The
Rasch Measurement Perspective. Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 8, 327-351. doi:
10.5964/ejop.v8i3.474
The authors of this article declare no conflict of interest.
Schermelleh-Engel K., & Moosbrugger, H. (2003). Evaluating the fit of structural equa-
tion models: test of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures. Methods
of Psychological Research Online, 8, 23-74.
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Psicología Educativa. Volumen 21 #1. Año 2015 - (PG 3 - 28)

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1

Psicología Educativa 21 (2015) 1-2

A la memoria de Keith Rayner (1943-2015), un extraordinario psicólogo cognitivo

ca, movimientos oculares, procesamiento de imágenes e investiga-

Psicología Educativa 21 (2015) 3-9

Peer-victimisation in multi-cultural contexts: A structural model of the effects on

University of Greenwich, England

article information abstract

Victimización entre iguales en contextos multiculturales: un modelo estructural

*Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Antonio

et al., 2008 for a description). It was possible to obtain an indication

*p < .05, **p < .01

Total Majority Minority

1. Personal multi-victimisation 2.22 (1.13) 2.23 (1.14) 2.15 (1.06) 0.72

**p < .01, ***p < .001

Discussion aggression. The first route can be explained by considering the

escolar. In R. Ortega (Ed.), Agresividad injustificada, bullying y violencia escolar

Psicología Educativa 21 (2015) 11-16

A preliminary study of teachers’ perception of core competencies for undergraduate

article information abstract

*Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to Fuensanta Hernández

Results A 16 Oral presentations

A 18 Planning and conducting a

Comp. Item Competencies Global AH CS CC SA AI

A 15 Submission of written assignments

A 18 Planning and conducting a research study

C 10 Ability to make judgments2

D 6 Commitment and motivation

knowledge” (C11). In contrast, “Information search” (A13) was described

Comp. Item Competencies Global M F AH CS C SA AI ITTF CCSF %

(2) Time management

(3) Critical thinking

(6) Commitment and motivation

(7) Use of ICT

(8) Communication skills

(9) Knowledge understanding

(10) Ability to make judgments

(11) Application of knowledge

(13) Information search

(14) Writing assignments

(15) Submission of written assignments

(16) Oral presentations

(17) Exam preparation

(18) Planning and conducting a research study

Psicología Educativa 21 (2015) 17-25

Psychometric properties of the Internet Addiction Test in a sample of Malaysian

article information abstract

Propiedades psicométricas del Test de Adicción a Internet en una muestra de

*Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to Dr. Lu Xi or to Dr. Yeo

problems of school, sleep, family, and time management. It was

Rasch Model Analysis on Items Exploratory Factor Analysis

Category Observed Observed Sample INFIT OUTFIT Structure Category

Label Score Count % Average Expected MNSQ MNSQ Calibration Measure

0 0 224 11 -1.75 -1.70 0.96 0.96 NONE (-3.01)

Total Model INFIT OUTFIT PT-Measure Exact Match

way ANOVA without interaction showed that there were no

Unexplned variance in 2nd 2.8 6.5% 14.1% 1 2-3 .7212 .8957

Factors Chi-square RMSEA SRMR CFI TLI

2 df Estimate 90% C.I.

1 418.734 170 .119 .104, .133 .084 .930 .922

4 .370 .316 .308 1.000 IAT13 1.600 1.310 3.750 1.500

Table 10 Exploratory Factor Analysis for IAT Factor Structure

Mauchly’s Test of Sphericity Test of within-Subjects Effects

p < .01, *p < .001