Clean Techn Environ Policy (2009) 11:473–484
DOI 10.1007/s10098-009-0204-9
ORIGINAL PAPER
Assessment of the performance of different compost models
to manage urban household organic solid wastes
P. Ravi Kumar Æ Ambika Jayaram Æ
R. K. Somashekar
Received: 9 September 2008 / Accepted: 4 February 2009 / Published online: 14 March 2009
© Springer-Verlag 2009
Abstract The environmental, cultural, socio-economic
and political conditions of each community greatly affect the
municipality’s effort and decision-making in managing
household wastes. Composting at home can be used as a
sound method of SWM, can manage the waste at source itself
thereby can increase their recycling. And vermicomposting
is a viable and completely feasible option at household level,
provided it is acceptable to family members to handle the
worms and to remove worm-casts subsequently. In this
regard, the present paper gives a methodological framework
for assessing the management of urban household organic
wastes using different compost models to influence the
actual efficiency and effectiveness of a municipality’s col-
lection and management services. The current study also
deals with the challenges of solid waste management with a
focus on the segregation of compostable wastes from the
non-compostable ones and their composting, recycling or
disposal. The non-compostable wastes can be left for recy-
cling and re-use by the concerned authorities. The
composting behavior and the efficiency of different compost
models have been dealt with, and it is concluded that ver-
micomposting model is the best option. Urban residents can
be educated to vermicompost not only their entire kitchen
wastes but also garden wastes to reduce the burden on the
municipal councils.
P. Ravi Kumar (&) Ambika
· Jayaram R. K. Somashekar
Department of Environmental Science, Bangalore University,
Bangalore 56, India ·
e-mail: prakruthiravi@gmail.com
R. K. Somashekar
e-mail: rksmadhu@gmail.com
Keywords Solid waste management (SWM) ·
Urban solid waste (USW) · Electrical conductivity ·
C:N ratio · Earthworm · Compost
Introduction
Solid wastes are the organic and inorganic wastes gener-
ated by rapid increased production, consumption and other
human and animal activities of the urban society, normally
discarded as useless or unwanted or those which have lost
their value to the first user and are a major cause of pol-
lution (Berkün 1991; Mee and Topping 1998). Municipal
solid wastes generally solid or semisolid in nature arise
from domestic/residential, commercial, institutional and
industrial activities of urban society, can be classified into
transformable (e.g., old newspaper), recyclable, compo-
stable/organic and disposal wastes. In developing
countries, increasing waste production accompanies to
urbanization (Ahmed and Ali 2004) and the waste pro-
duced generally has high moisture content and a low
combustible fraction (e.g., paper and cardboard) (Ali 2003)
and found to be composed of vegetative matter (44%) and
inert materials (42%) in a developing country like India
(Damodaran et al. 2003). The burden that the increase in
solid waste generation would impose is evident from the
fact that the cumulative requirement of land for disposal of
urban solid waste (USW) in India would amount to around
1,400 km2 by 2047 (Singhal and Pandey 2001). This in turn
may establish competition for land acquisition between
highly inter-related solid wastes generation, urbanization
and population growth. This is because urban population
growth and economic development not only accelerate
consumption rates but also increase the waste generation in
developing countries (Alamgir et al. 2005). This has been
13
474
identified as an inevitable consequence of production and
consumption activities related to the level of income and
urbanization (Wang and Nie 2001).
Open burning of household wastes is often reported in
developing countries (Lemieux et al. 2004) either as
roadside heaps or dumped in shallow layers in unused areas
around towns and cities to reduce waste volume and/or to
recover the recyclable materials (Srinivas 2003) to make
treatment and disposal inexpensive. According to Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB), of the 50–90% of total
solid waste generated, 94% of the wastes are disposed
unscientifically and only a small fraction (\10%) is inter-
mittently processed in mechanical compost plants (Shekdar
1999). Various studies also reveal that about 90% of urban
MSW collected is disposed of unscientifically in open
dumps in low-lying areas (TERI 1998) and landfills, cre-
ating problems to public health and the environment
(Shivayogimath et al. 2007; Sharholy et al. 2008). When
the domestic waste and other household waste enter the
municipal waste stream without any pre-treatment or
source segregation, it either ends up in a landfill or in an
open dumping site. Organic portion of these wastes is the
major contributor to the landfill leachate (Katarina 1997)
and becomes a major sanitation and management issue,
creates organic load on the groundwater and more emis-
sions of landfill gases.
SWM has always been an integral part of human life,
has attracted considerable worldwide attention to promote
sustainable human settlement development with focus on
environmentally sound management of solid waste. It is
having a strong influence on production and consumption
patterns, associated with the control of generation, collec-
tion and storage, transfer and transport, processing, and
disposal of solid wastes in a manner that is in accord with
the best principles of public health, economics, engineer-
ing, conservation, aesthetics and other environmental
considerations. But, inefficient prevailing management
strategies and unchecked generation of solid waste has
become a bane of urban society due to spiraling urban
population by means of immigration of rural people seek-
ing better life, economic development, consumption
pattern, climate, culture and institutional framework (Wang
and Nie 2001). Additional load may arise because of
complexity and cost of existing management strategies,
absence of proper municipal amenities, ignorance of socio-
economic and ecological characteristics of management
processes and finally lack of advanced technology in
managing solid waste generated. It is clear that most people
are willing to spend a considerable amount of time on
recycling and composting and while economic incentives
are an important element in encouraging this process, they
are not its only determinant. Hence, there is an urgent need
for a policy shift toward establishment of better waste
13
P. Ravi Kumar et al.
management in an effort to move toward attaining a sus-
tainable society (Tanaka 2007) to serve the future
generation from adverse impacts of solid management.
Addition to this, attempts must be made to minimize
material consumption, environmental pollution, and public
health hazards resulting from waste management.
Societal aspects of sustainable solid waste management
must deal with social (anesthetic appearance), economic
(rise in waste disposal cost) and environmental (pollution
of soil and water sources such as lakes, groundwater,
etc.) problems. It should cover three imperatives of
sustainable development such as environmentally sus-
tainable, economically feasible and yet socially
acceptable (Pargal et al. 2000; Hediger 2000). Hence,
composting as a biological process of decomposition of
biodegradable wastes can be carried out under controlled
conditions of ventilation, temperature, moisture wherein
the organisms within the waste can convert waste into
humus-like material by acting on the organic portion of
the solid waste. If carried out effectively, the final
product is stable, odour-free, does not attract flies and is
a good soil conditioner while the non-compostable wastes
can be left for recycling and re-use by concerned
authorities. A major chunk of the municipal waste can be
reduced, leading to increased efficiency in overall man-
agement of waste by means of waste management
technique at urban household level. Similarly, vermi-
composting is a viable, simple, economical and efficient
process in converting organic solid wastes into organic
manure/soil conditioners popular with farmers (Garg
et al. 2006) and the generated product is stable and
homogeneous, having desirable aesthetics like reduced
levels of contaminants (Ndegwa and Thompson 2001).
Studies have also shown that vermicomposting of organic
waste accelerates organic matter stabilization (Neuhauser
et al. 1998; Frederickson et al. 1997) and gives chelating
and phyto-hormonal elements (Tomati et al. 1995) which
have a high content of microbial matter and stabilized
humic substances. The converted product can be used as
a fertilizer or as a source of nitrogen for microbial
populations which can be beneficial to plant growth
(Zerdani et al. 2004). There is a lack of stakeholder
participation, inadequate organizational support and
untrained personnel involvement in handling the wastes.
Thus, an effort is made in the current paper to arrive at
an optimal solid waste management strategy as applicable
to developing countries by employing effective methods
of composting for urban household purposes. This study
was concentrated mainly on the management of urban
household organic wastes at the source itself due to space
constraints and unavailability of garden to try composting
in pits. Approximate quantification of waste that can be
managed by different composter model has also been
 Assessment of the performance of different compost models
Table 1 Experimental setup and description of the four composter models
Sl. no. Composter Unit label Container Organic Additives Measurement Aeration Mixing
model waste
inputs

1 Simple plastic bins
with lids model
A Plastic bin stabilized with 3 feet Wet Dry neem (2%) Roughly 2 feet in height and Perforated at regular Manual mixing with
B of jelly stones (14–20 mm) Partially sun-dried waste Dry neem (2%) 1 foot in diameter interval by garden hand-rake
followed by 3 inches of sand drilling in the or wooden spatula
C and then covered with a layer Wet waste 100 ml Buttermilk and 50 g walls
of dry organic material of dead Jaggery at end of 15th
leaves or shredded newspaper day ? dry neem (2%)

2 Plastic bins for
vermicomposting
3 Horizontal drum
with rotating shaft
4 Terracotta composter
13
D Plastic bin stabilized with 3 feet Wet waste 100 g of earthworms of Roughly 2 feet in height and Perforated at regular Manual mixing with
E of jelly stones (14–20 mm) Partially sun dried waste mixed variety on 36th 1 foot in diameter interval by garden hand-rake
followed by 3 inches of sand day ? dry neem (2%) drilling in the or wooden spatula
and then covered with a layer walls
of dry organic material of dead
leaves or shredded newspaper
F Horizontal metal drum Wet waste Dry matter like shredded Metal drum of 20 inches length Perforated Metal Shaft with blade like
G Partially sun-dried waste newspaper and dead with 10 inches diameter Drum attachments runs
leaves ? dry neem (2%) through central
axis of metal
drum on a ball-
bearing setup
H Terracotta unit Wet waste Dry neem (2%) Stacked ecofriendly and naturally Holes around the Manual mixing with
porous units (designed by sides covered garden hand-rake
Daily dump, Bangalore based with mesh so as to or wooden spatula
company) prevent entry of
insects

475
476 P. Ravi Kumar et al.

dealt in addition to their efficiency in terms of conve-

nience, cost, time required for maturation of compost and
quality of compost.

Materials and methods

The materials used in this study are the compost models,

organic kitchen wastes from households such as raw veg-
etable and fruit wastes, domestic additives like buttermilk
and jaggery, dry organic matter like shredded newspaper,
dead leaves and neem leaves and cultured earthworms from Fig. 1 Simple plastic bin with lid model—Units A–E
University of Agricultural Sciences, Gandhi Krishi Vignyan
Kendra (GKVK campus), Bangalore. The present study
involves collection and distribution of raw materials (i.e.,
wastes), experimental design (i.e., composters), feed mix-
tures and compost monitoring, introduction of earthworms,
collection of compost and their physico-chemical analysis.

Collection of MSW

It is found that among the selected households, an average

household of four members generate about 600 g of solid
waste per day of which organic waste accounts to about
350 g. The amount of organic waste generated daily, varies
from 50–80% of the total waste generated. The current
study focussed mainly on management of organic wastes
such as raw vegetable and fruit wastes. The process of
organic waste collection was continued for a period of
15 days from selected households of Janapriya Heavens
apartments in Allalasandra, Bangalore. The wastes were
segregated at source to record the weight of organic and
inorganic wastes. All the materials collected each day was
Fig. 2 Horizontal drum with rotating shaft—Units F and G
homogenized and manually shredded to about 2–2.5 inches
and then divided into equal parts for the four different
models that have been employed in the present study. option for tropical conditions and the experiments were
conducted in plastic bins, horizontal metal drum and spe-
Collection of cultured earthworms cial terracotta units, with provision made on their walls in
the form of holes for aeration.
The culture of mixed variety of healthy earthworms The experimental setup and description of the four
(Eisenia fetida and Perionyx excavatus and common gar- Composter models has been summarized in the Table 1.
den worms), acclimatized to domestic refuse were All the units of four models were augmented each day with
collected from University of Agricultural Sciences, Gandhi new organic waste like raw vegetables and fruit wastes till
Krishi Vignyan Kendra (GKVK) Campus, Bangalore. the end of collection period of 15 days as described below.
The first two models (Fig. 1) labeled as Unit A–E were
Experimental setup stabilized by adding 3 feet of jelly stones (14–20 mm)
followed by 3 inches of sand and then covered with a layer
Four types of composting models were tried in this study, of dry organic material of dead leaves or shredded news-
each with two units, one for the wet waste and the other for paper to permit the leachate to move to the bottom of the
partially sun-dried waste. The purpose of partial drying was container. One part of the above homogenized waste was
to determine whether it would make a difference to the fed into all the three units (A, B and C) each day and was
composting process, as it would reduce excess moisture. manually mixed for aeration using rake or wooden spatula
Wooden containers are not considered as it is not a viable and the collection process was continued for 15 days. To

13
Assessment of the performance of different compost models
Fig. 3 Terracotta composter. 1 Assembled, 2 dismantled—Units H
and I
Lid
Homogenized Organic waste
Layer of dry organic material
3 inch of sand
3ft Jelly Stone of size 14-20 mm
Perforation
Fig. 4 Schematic representation (cross-section) of plastic bin com-
posting unit
the Container [C], an additive of 100 ml buttermilk and
50 g jaggery was added at the end of collection period of
15 days to enhance the performance of the micro-organisms
to decompose the waste.
Similarly, another part of homogenized waste was fed
continuously for 15 days into stabilized units (D) and (E)
with a layer of jelly stone, sand and dry organic material in
order to provide an initial favorable environmental condi-
tion for the earthworms that will introduced later in the
process. Hundred grams of mixed variety of healthy
earthworms (i.e., Eisenia fetida and Perionyx excavatus
and common garden worms) collected from University of
Agricultural Sciences, Gandhi Krishi Vignyan Kendra
(GKVK) Campus, Bangalore were directly introduced into
each of second model sets of plastic containers with
decomposed (D) and dry (E) waste. Earthworms were
introduced after 36th day, because they can feed easily on
partially or fully degraded materials, primarily acted upon
by microbes (Sinha et al. 2002) under stabilized tempera-
ture. Third and fourth share of the homogenized waste was
distributed among the wet (F) and dry (G) units of third
477
model (Fig. 2) and wet [H] and dry [I] wastes of fourth
model (Fig. 3) continuously for 15 days. Schematic rep-
resentation (cross-section) of plastic bin composting unit
has been given in Fig. 4.
In the present study, an optimum moisture content of 50–
60% of the total weight of waste (Diaz et al. 1993; Hand
1988; Yousuf 2005) and optimum temperature range of 25–
30°C (Tripathy and Bhardwaj 2005; Manivannan et al. 2004)
was maintained in all the units, to induce the microorganisms
and the earthworms to act symbiotically to accelerate and
enhance decomposition. Once the collection period of
15 days is over, the materials were allowed to decompose
within the units so as to achieve maturation of the compost.
The maintenance of composters started with daily monitor-
ing of temperature and moisture content with the duration of
experiments being 90 days. The material was turned every-
day with a garden hand-rake in the units of first, second and
fourth models and with the help of rotating shaft in the third
model for 50 days and less frequently thereafter to facilitate
aeration in order to assist successful composting of organic
waste regardless of the container or any additives that can be
used. Provision can be made by adopting separate individual,
households, communal or entrepreneurs’ bins for biode-
gradable waste in buildings, institutions, companies, and
residential colonies. Community-based systems, integrated
with a residential waste collection service can solve the
problem, if there is a continuous (intermittent) supply of
organic waste generated within a larger household. Terrace
gardening can be carried out by keeping the compost bins on
terraces as it is not necessary that the composting units have
to be used indoors. Not much training is required except for
handling of earthworms and first hand information on han-
dling of earthworms can be learnt either by reading any
books on composting or by consulting any government
agency or NGOs personnel.
Physico-chemical analysis
To monitor the progress of decomposition for a period of
90 days and to determine the maturation of the compost,
the material was subjected to certain physical and chemical
analysis such as pH, temperature, electrical conductivity
(mS/cm), moisture content, total organic carbon (TOC),
percent nitrogen (TKN), available phosphorus and avail-
able potassium (all in % except pH and EC). Except for
moisture content, the samples were dried and powdered for
all other analysis using standard methods (APHA 1998).
Moisture content is considered as an important factor to be
controlled during composting as it influences the structural
and thermal properties of the material, rate of biodegra-
dation and metabolic process of the microbes. Moisture
content (%) was calculated by finding difference between
weights of wet and dry (dried at 105°C) sample.
13
478 P. Ravi Kumar et al.

Temperature is another key parameter considered in the
study as it affects microbial activity and its variations can
affect the various phases of composting (Epstein 1997;
McKinley et al. 1985). The percent nitrogen and TOC were
estimated by Kjeldahl method and Walkey and Black’s
Wet Digestion and Rapid Titration methods (1934),
respectively. Percent potassium (%K) was estimated by
Flame Emission Technique while EC and pH were deter-
mined using conductivity meter and pH meter. Percent
phosphorus was determined by Olsen’s method (1954) and
the C:N ratio was calculated using the individual values.
Results and discussion
Physical observations
The physical changes observed includes the appearance of
large white maggot worms in the terracotta unit and gray-
whitish fungus at the initial stages in all other containers
except terracotta unit, may be due to excessively moist
conditions. These were found to involve in prevention of
Sinking in the compost material was observed few days
after the beginning of decomposition (i.e., 17th to 20th
day). Leaking of leachate was observed in the horizontal
metal drum due to excessive retention of moisture and was
combated by adding dry matter like shredded newspaper
and dead leaves, even though it is known that very dry
conditions prohibit natural decomposition. Even the color
of the material turned dark as the process continued,
reaching brown color on 60th day in all composters except
for the vermicomposting unit, where it was deep brown,
nearing black. The volume of waste appeared considerably
reduced in all containers and no other significant physical
change was observed after the 65th day in any of the
containers. Moisture was controlled either directly by
adding water or indirectly by changing the operating tem-
perature or the aeration regime. As same level of moisture
(50–60%) was maintained in all containers, not much
87
A
82 B
C
Moisture content (%)

77 D
aeration of waste by producing odour and other unhygienic E
conditions. The addition of dry neem leaves (2%) to 72 F
decomposing organic waste to all the containers dimin- G
67 H
ished the fungal as well as worm’s population with
I
proceeding decomposition. Dry neem leaves addition may 62
also be responsible for increasing the level of nitrogen-fixer
population in vermicompost (Kale et al. 1986) as it 57

increases porosity allowing sufficient oxygen penetration to

52
restore aerobic conditions and thereby reducing the odour 15 30 45 60 75 90
level. High level of odour and fly nuisance observed during Time (in days)
filling of containers with fresh wastes diminished gradu-
Fig. 6 Variation of moisture content between different composter
ally and was almost none after the 45th day due to units
decomposition.
5.5
A
B
A C
Electrical Conductivity (mS/cm)

B 5 D
8.3 C E
D F
E G
8 4.5
F H
G I
H
7.7
pH

I 4

7.4
3.5

7.1

3
6.8 15 30 45 60 75 90
15 30 45 60 75 90 Time (in days)
Time (in days)
Fig. 7 Variation of electrical conductivity between different com-
Fig. 5 Variation of pH between different composter units poster units

13
Assessment of the performance of different compost models 479

significant difference was observed among wet and par- 0.7

A
tially sun-dried waste containers. Sufficient oxygen supply B
(aeration) was maintained to control the temperature as 0.6
C
D
well as to remove excess moisture and gases by turning the E
pile regularly.

Potassium (%)
F
0.5
G
H
Physico-chemical results I
0.4

The decomposing material was turned well just before

sampling and grab sampling was done from the surface as 0.3
well as from the sub-surface and mixed. The samples were
taken for every 15 days, i.e., on 15th, 30th, 45th, 60th, 75th
0.2
and 90th day and were subjected to certain physical and 15 30 45 60 75 90
chemical analysis. Time (in days)
On the 15th day, pH of the composting material was
Fig. 9 Variation of potassium between different composter units
found to vary from 7.95 (unit E) to 8.42 (unit I) and tend to
be alkaline in all the units. From 36th day onwards the
added to bring down the moisture levels to less than 60% to
process is further assisted by earthworm activity (Units D
enhance the air spaces. There was abrupt dip in the mois-
and E) and associated microbes which decreased the pH of
ture levels for the 30th day readings. It was noticed that
product to the neutral or below neutral range (Fig. 5). It
from 30th day onwards, moisture levels gradually
was observed that the pH range in all the units is favorable
decreased, indicating maturation of the compost (Fig. 6).
for plants to take up the nutrients. With the advancement of
The electrical conductivity value on 15th day was high,
composting process, the decrease in pH of the compost was
range from 4.6 mS/cm (unit C) to 4.83 mS/cm (unit A).
observed, which can be attributed to the production of carbon
With the progress in the composting, the EC value steadily
dioxide, simple organic acids, loss of nitrogen as volatile
decreased in units C, D, E, H, and I and gradually in units
ammonia at high pH values (Hartenstein and Hartenstein
A, B, F and G. The 90th day readings varied from 3.04
1981) or mineralization of nitrogen and phosphorus into
(unit H) to 4.02 mS/cm (unit G) compared to the maximum
nitrates/nitrites and orthophosphates, respectively, by
permissible limit of 4.0 mS/cm (Fig. 7). EC of vermi-
microbial activity (Ndegwa et al. 2000).
compost was higher than other feed mixtures, and may be
Moisture content is a factor that had to be maintained
attributed to the loss of organic matter and release of dif-
externally to ensure proper composting and prevent
ferent mineral salts in available forms, being generated
anaerobic conditions. The 15th day moisture content of the
during ingestion and excretion by the earthworms (Garg
waste was ranging from 74.65% (unit I) to 82.16% (unit F),
et al. 2006; Kaviraj and Sharma 2003; Wong et al. 1997).
which would have led to anaerobic conditions, since the
water tends to occupy the pores between the particles. In
order to prevent anaerobic conditions, dry materials were
27

1.2
A
B
C
Available Phosphorus (%)

D
1 A
E
C:N Ratio

F B
G C
H 22 D
0.8 I E
F
G
H
0.6 I

0.4 17
15 30 45 60 75 90 15 30 45 60 75 90
Time (in days) Time (in days)

Fig. 8 Variation of phosphorus between different composter units Fig. 10 Variation of C:N ratio between different composter units

13
 480
13

Table 2 Rating of different composter models employed in the current study

Model Composter model Unit Costa Ease of Continuous Maggot and Quantity of waste Feasibility at Weight of compost % Average % reduction
no. handlingb feeding of fly menace managedc (kg) household (kg) after 90 days Reduction by a compost model
waste leveld by weight

1 Simple plastic bins with A Low Moderate No High 15–20 Good 3.949 38.1 40.5
lids model B 3.820 40.0
C 3.605 43.5
2 Simple plastic bins D Low Easy No Moderate 15–20 Beste 3.395 46.8 47.50
model for E 3.305 48.2
vermicomposting
3 Horizontal drum with F Very Moderate No Moderate 10–12 Not feasible 4.293 32.7 34.05
rotating shaft G high 4.120 35.4
4 Terracotta composter H Moderate Easy Yes Low 20–25 Good 3.457 45.8 45.95
I 3.438 46.1
The values in bold signifies the highest % reduction recorded among the four composter models
a
Refers to operational costs
b
Refers to safe, hygienic, odour free, cost effective disposal, etc
c
Refers to the quantity of waste that can be comfortably managed, without being too tightly packed in the units studied, under the given dimensions and conditions. These values differ if
composting is done in similar units but different dimensions and conditions
d
Compost and Leachate quality
e
Enhancement of soil microbial activity and secretions of growth stimulatory factors by earthworms, production of marketable earthworms and worm tea (=Leachate from vermicomposting).
Drawback could be with the family members in handling of earworms and removal of worm-casts

P. Ravi Kumar et al.

Assessment of the performance of different compost models
The initial percentage of available phosphorus in refuse
material ranged from 0.59% (unit G) to 0.71% (unit A).
Since the microbes present in the refuse need phosphorus
for their metabolic activity in smaller quantity compared to
nitrogen and carbon, a decrease in percentage phosphorus
up to 30th day was noticed. Alternately, after the intro-
duction of earthworms on the 36th day into units D and E,
the enzymatic activity of earthworms while consuming
organic materials increased the phosphatase enzymes in
excrements thereby was providing more percentage of
phosphorous to microbes present in refuse material (Garg
et al. 2006). It is clear from the Fig. 8 that Vermicompo-
sting is ideal for conserving phosphorus, while in other
units, phosphorus is not lost by volatilization or lixiviation
during the composting process, but P concentration might
increase as composting proceeds (Warman and Termeer
1996).
The initial potassium content of the material ranged from
0.29% (unit D) to 0.35% (unit G). A decrease in potassium
can be attributed to the microbial activities in the com-
posting material as potassium is very much essential for
their metabolic activity. After the introduction of earth-
worms to units D and E, the earthworms added to the
excrement which was utilized by the microbes associated
with worm casts and refuse material, thereby there occurred
a decrease and then an increase to 0.61 and 0.65%,
respectively (Fig. 9). In aerobic composting, there was
decrease in potassium followed by gradual increase to
0.58% (unit F) and 0.53% (unit G). However, the increase in
percent potassium can be attributed to the leaching of sol-
uble elements by excess water that drained through mass.
C/N ratio is a time-dependent parameter which decrea-
ses as time progresses, wherein carbon and nitrogen are too
far out of balance, the microbial system will suffer. In
current study, initial C/N ratio on 15th day ranged between
25.84 (unit E) to 27.35 (unit B) which decreased gradually
(Fig. 10) indicating progress of composting. After 90 days,
the C/N ratio ranged between 17.87 (unit A) to 22.19 (unit
D) compared to the ideal C/N ratio of about 20:1 to 25:1.
Reduced concentration of carbon and enhanced nitrogen
level as a consequence of microbial activity during humi-
fication process, results in the reduction of C:N ratio at the
end of the composting process, attributed to the loss in total
dry mass due to losses of C as CO2 (Hamoda et al. 1998). A
ratio higher than 30:1 may slow down the composting
process and a ratio lower than 15:1 may lead to loss of
nitrogen causing neither growth nor multiplication of
microorganisms (Diaz et al. 1993; Yousuf 2005). When
there is little nitrogen, the microbial population will not
grow to its optimum size, and composting will slow down.
In contrast, too much nitrogen allows rapid microbial
growth and accelerates decomposition, but this can create
serious odour problems as oxygen is used up and anaerobic
481
conditions occur. In addition, some of this excess nitrogen
will be given off as ammonia gas that generates odours
while allowing valuable nitrogen to escape. Hand et al.
(1988) has reported that nitrogen mineralization was
greater in the presence of earthworms, and this mineral
nitrogen was retained in nitrate form. Earthworms help to
lower the C:N ratio of fresh organic matter by consuming
the matter, breaking it down and using the carbon for
energy during respiration (Ronald and Donald 1977a, b).
Finally, about 6.380 kg of waste was collected per
compost unit and the percent reduction in weight of the
composted material after 90 days of composting is sum-
marized in Table 2. From the Fig. 11, it is evident that that
maximum rate of reduction with respect to weight of
compost produced was attained through vermicomposting.
The containers studied during the project are rated
(Table 2) by considering the wet and partially dried wastes
unit as single unit/model, their efficiency to reduce the
volume of wastes, handiness, operational cost, approximate
quantification of waste that can be managed by single unit,
time required for maturation of compost, quality and
quantity of compost that can be obtained through the
model.
From the Table 2, it is evident that among four com-
poster model used in the study, second model employing
plastic bins for vermicomposting showed better result
(47.5%) in terms of average reduction in the weight of wet
and dry solid wastes, followed by Terracotta composter
(45.95%), simple plastic bin with lids model (40.5%) and
finally Horizontal drum with rotating shaft model (34%).
In addition to this, the hastening additives like jaggery
and buttermilk did not gave significant contribution to the
composting process; while partial sun-drying before feed-
ing into the composters too did not change the overall
progress of the composting, may be because of external
maintenance of moisture levels.
Composting Unit
A B C D E F G H I
0 60
50
Weight of Compost (Kg)
Reduction in weight (%)
1
40
2
30
3
20
4
10
5 0
Weight of Compost (Kg) after 90 days % Reduction by weight
Fig. 11 Rate of reduction illustrating the efficiency of different
composter units
13
482
Conclusion
A complete and environmentally sound SWM depends on
collective human action and efforts as everyone is part of
the solid waste generation problem and everyone shall also
be part of the solution of proper management. Eco-friendly
and environmentally sound management must attempt to
change unsustainable patterns of production and con-
sumption in order to reduce toxins and quantity and safely
extract useful energy or material prior to final disposal to
attain sustainable development. Even though, composting
is the most desirable recycling process because of high
moisture content and organic materials in waste and prac-
tised on a very small scale in developing countries (Yousuf
2005), the biological pathogens present in the waste
(Epstein 1993) can contaminate the end products. This has
promoted farmers, agro-based industries and urban house-
holds to opt earthworm’s culturing for managing organic
waste management in India (Kale 2002).
It is apparent that a major chunk of daily generated
household organic waste can be subjected to composting in
particular, vermicomposting, to promote better manage-
ment of the remaining waste by the authorities concerned.
In comparison to other models that are employed in the
study, it is apparent that vermicomposting model is the
better option that can be employed to enhance the effi-
ciency of overall solid waste management. The current
study can also encourage people residing in urban house-
holds like apartments to take up composting of kitchen
waste in a clean and efficient way even when there is no
availability of garden to try composting in pits, space in the
living area, training and awareness. Vermicompost so
generated can be used as a source of rich nutrients to the
farming community not only to improve the status of the
soil but also as ‘decomposer industry’ to take care of the
organic wastes and make use of it as environmental
resource instead of creating pollution (Macfadyen 1963)
and to make additional income by selling vermicompost.
Since, municipal solid waste (MSW) is highly organic in
nature, vermicomposting has become an appropriate
alternative for the safe, hygienic and cost effective disposal
of it (Kaviraj and Sharma 2003).
Compost obtained this way need not be rich in all
nutrients; it can be used as a cheap alternative to mineral
fertilizers on crop land to improve soil structure and water-
holding capacity. Vermicomposting is a viable option at
household level, but may not be completely feasible for
household provided it is acceptable to family members to
handle the worms and to remove worm-casts subsequently.
Secretions of earthworms present in vermicompost serve as
growth stimulatory factors for plants (Galli et al. 1990),
enhances soil microbial activity by aerating the soil envi-
ronment for the microbes (Syers et al. 1979). It also
13
P. Ravi Kumar et al.
influences microfloral population to inactivate and suppress
the growth and risks of pathogens (Kale 1988; Masciandaro
et al. 2000) thereby attaining the desired biological trans-
formation of the organic matter. This will act as
conditioner for the soil health as well as a rich nutrient
source for the crops and reduces the need for chemical
weed control to suppress plant diseases. Proper handling of
organic waste (i.e., proper maintenance of certain physical
and chemical properties of the organic waste like pH,
temperature, moisture, texture of material and the quality),
can successfully produce very useful vermicompost
(Parthasarathi 2007). Unlike composting, leachate from
vermicomposting operations often called ‘‘worm tea’’ can
be used a liquid fertilizer. Matured vermicomposts are
likely to contain higher nitrogen levels because vermi-
composting temperatures and nitrogen losses are typically
much lower. Urban residents can be educated to vermi-
compost their entire kitchen waste as well as garden wastes
thereby to reduce the burden on the municipal councils
(Sinha et al. 2002), due to its negligible operating costs
compared to the other small scale composting methods
employed in the current study. It has the potential to pro-
duce a limited amount of marketable earthworms to earn
profit in addition to the production of vermicompost. Since
compost products vary significantly in terms of biological,
chemical, or physical contaminants, the quality level of a
compost product must be suited to the intended use of the
product. When the process is managed efficiently, com-
posting ensures that the finished product can be safely
returned to the environment. Finally, vermicomposting
systems associated with both economic as well as ecolog-
ical implications should be recommended that should be
operated as waste-processing facilities in urban household
level.
There was no collection mechanism for the compost
and the limited quantity of compost generated in the
current study was used for pottery plants maintained in
the Apartment. But, the compost can also be utilized for
gardening, urban farming or even can be contributed to
corporation parks/neighborhood or even can be disposed
off. Since, community participation is the key to sus-
tainable and integrated solid waste management, law
enforcement can help to obtain a certain degree of
participation. However, enhancing environmental con-
sciousness and promoting awareness of the detrimental
effects to public health and the environment is by far
more effective in achieving this goal. This should aim at
segregating waste at source into a pure biodegradable
‘‘wet’’ fraction and non-biodegradable ‘‘dry’’ waste.
Importance of self employment avenue by selling com-
post as a fertilizer should be explained to public so that
livelihood and social status of those who are making a
living by collecting and selling recyclable waste elements
Assessment of the performance of different compost models
can be improved. Minimum precautions necessary for
maintaining public health could be undertaken to ensure
production of a quality product minimizing environ-
mental impacts such as odour, leachate, and dumping of
waste rejects. Care must be taken to see that quality of
compost produced especially for resale to agricultural
users meet the quality standards set by the relevant
national or state authorities. Even international institu-
tions can play a role in building networks among
partners and stakeholders, providing sound technical and
logistical advice, know-how and capacity building
opportunities and providing a range of development
assistance mechanisms, in cooperation with other pro-
grams and donors.
As municipal authorities and governmental organiza-
tions are at the epicenter of urban waste management, they
are ultimately responsible for designing and implementing
waste management policy. They should encourage insti-
tutions, companies and citizens to initiate decentralised
composting solutions by establishing and staffing a
resource center that can offer sound composting advice.
NGOs can play a significant role in promoting decentral-
ized composting solutions. The application of composted
urban solid waste must be introduced in urban agriculture.
Market demand for compost rejects from decentralized
composting sites should be established by promoting the
linkages to organic farming and gardening. Municipal
authorities in cooperation with NGOs should deliver edu-
cational and training programs and initiate awareness
building campaigns with regard to waste segregation,
recycling and reuse. Even education and training should be
provided to municipal SWM personnel and municipal
partners to ensure that waste streams predominantly con-
sists of biodegradable waste (park and garden waste,
market waste, eateries, etc.) unmixed with other contami-
nating waste streams.
Further, it should be made mandatory by law for every
household to dispose their kitchen and food waste into
compost bins kept within their own premises. Municipal
authorities and the government must make available
compost bins to every household at a concessionary rate
that would minimize the amount of biodegradable waste
generated for collection. Even separate compost bins for
collecting sorted degradable and non-degradable waste can
be encouraged. Finally, the private sector must be
encouraged to collect compost generated at household or
market levels for sale as fertilizer as a viable project.
Recommendations
As only raw vegetable and fruit wastes are employed in the
current study, there is scope for testing the feasibility of
483
composting of cooked food waste at household level. There
is a scope to assess seasonal variation in organic fraction of
MSW for seasons like winter, summer, rainy and spring.
Though, compost so obtained is not rich in all nutrients,
can be used as soil nutrient and soil conditioner to help
plant to grow, for mulching, terrace gardening, etc. The
study was concluded with a few fruitful suggestions, which
may be beneficial to encourage the competent authorities/
researchers to work toward further improvement of the
present system to encourage households to take up com-
posting at the most decentralized level.
Acknowledgments This study was completed at the Bangalore
University under guidance of Prof. R.K. Somashekar, Professor and
Chairman, Department of Environmental Science, Bangalore Uni-
versity, Bangalore. Special thanks to Gandhi Krishi Vignyan Kendra
(GKVK), Bangalore for providing cultures of earthworms to carryout
vermicomposting. Special gratitude to the support and cooperation
extended from individuals of the selected households of the Janapriya
Heavens Apartments, Allalasandra, Bangalore during the course of
the study.
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