Chapter 5 - Hydrology

Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 5
Road Drainage Manual Hydrology
Chapter 5 5
Hydrology
March 2010
i
Chapter 5 Amendments – Mar 2010

Revision Register
Issue/ Reference Description of Revision Authorised Date
Rev Section by
No.
1 - Initial Release of 2nd Ed of manual. Steering Mar
Committee 2010
March 2010
ii
Table of Contents
5.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 5-1
5.2 Rainfall ................................................................................................. 5-1
5.3 Rainfall - Runoff Relationship ............................................................ 5-2
5.4 Methods Available for Runoff Calculation......................................... 5-2
5.5 Rational Method................................................................................... 5-3
5.6 Catchment Area ................................................................................... 5-4
5.7 Time of Concentration ........................................................................ 5-4
5.7.1 General .................................................................................................. 5-4
5.7.2 Rural Catchments .................................................................................. 5-5
5.8
5.7.3 Urban Catchments ................................................................................. 5-6
Rainfall Intensity - Frequency - Duration......................................... 5-16
5
5.9 Runoff Coefficient ............................................................................. 5-16
5.9.1 Rural Catchments ................................................................................ 5-17
5.9.2 Urban Catchments ............................................................................... 5-17
5.9.3 Adjustment Factors .............................................................................. 5-19
5.10 Partial Area Effects ........................................................................ 5-21
5.10.1 Rural Catchments ................................................................................ 5-21
5.10.2 Urban Catchments ............................................................................... 5-22
5.11 Progressive Catchments ............................................................... 5-23
5.12 Previous Methodology................................................................... 5-25
5.12.1 Time of Concentration.......................................................................... 5-25
5.12.2 Runoff Coefficient................................................................................. 5-26
March 2010
iii
March 2010
iv
Chapter 5
Hydrology
runoff from a catchment. This is normally

5.1 Introduction
expressed as the peak flood discharge,
Calculation of the flood hydrograph and given as a volume per unit time, usually as
peak flood discharge is an important part of cubic metres per second (m3/s). The
the design of departmental drainage calculation can be based on an assessment
infrastructure. This needs to be considered of rainfall or on recorded streamflow data.
in almost all drainage designs carried out For routine analysis of small catchments, it
for the department. is almost always based on analysis of
rainfall, and this is the procedure described
This aspect of the drainage assessment in this manual.
process is called the hydrologic analysis.
Understanding the hydrological conditions
It is well understood that actual rainfall
events or storms are variable and dynamic
5
of the project site is vitally important. in nature. That is, rainfall;
These conditions include:
 is not of uniform intensity over the
 rainfall (duration and intensity); whole of the catchment; and
 topography (slope and soil type);  may not cover the whole catchment.
 land use; To apply this understanding in a design
 vegetation coverage; context, that is, to calculate flood
hydrographs or the peak flood discharge
 water flow paths;
generated by any actual storm, is extremely
 areas of water inundation and complicated and difficult.
storage;
The department’s principal requirement for
 water harvesting (farm dams); routine design peak discharges of defined
 volume of runoff generated. average recurrence intervals (ARI). These
can be calculated by relatively simple
Understanding these aspects ensures that procedures that are introduced and
any drainage system design: discussed in the relevant sections of this
 meets the drainage design criteria; chapter.
 is economical; 5.2 Rainfall

 is safe for all users;
Rainfall and in particular rainfall intensity,
 protects investment in the road asset;
is needed as the basis for procedures to
and
calculate design floods, for a specific
 protects the environment from harm. geographical location, to be used for the
design of road drainage infrastructure.
The department defines hydrology for road
drainage design as the calculation of flood
March 2010
5-1
Design rainfall intensities are published by This relationship can be plotted as flood
the Institution of Engineers Australia in discharge against time and the resulting
Australian Rainfall and Runoff, A Guide to graph is called a hydrograph. Should the
Flood Estimation (AR&R). This is the key discharge point (for example, culvert site)
reference for almost all design rainfall or ARI change, the relationship will change.
calculation studies throughout Australia,
An actual or ‘real’ discharge hydrograph
and it would be extremely unusual for an
plots the flows from actual rainfall events
alternative method to be used, especially for
and could have several peaks. The rainfall
routine projects.
pattern for particular storm events may be
The design rainfall intensity data is complex and may vary from one event to
provided for all Average Recurrence another so this hydrograph may also be
Intervals (ARI) up to 100 years and for complex. However, for design purposes,
standard durations from 6 minutes to 3 design flood hydrographs are usually
days. The different ARIs are needed to calculated using an idealised, theoretical
assess floods of different risk levels and the procedure and a ‘synthetic’ hydrograph is
range of durations allows for different produced. This plot will usually have only
5 catchment response times to be considered. one peak for each ARI event. Refer Figure
5.3 for examples of actual and synthetic
The design rainfall intensities provided in
hydrographs.
AR&R have been calculated by the Bureau
of Meteorology and have been based on Hydrographs are useful tools particularly
extensive rainfall data collected throughout when reviewing total flow volume and time
Australia. of flow for a catchment and selected ARI.
Also, hydrographs are used for
AR&R provides a detailed procedure for
determination of time of submergence and
calculating design rainfall intensities, and
time of closure.
this procedure should be followed in all
cases. Tables of intensities for selected For the design of most road drainage
ARIs can be developed either manually, by infrastructure, the two key points on a
using specialised software or obtained from hydrograph that are of most interest to
the Bureau of Meteorology website. designers are the peak discharge generated
Determination and application of design and the time it occurs.
rainfall intensities is discussed further in
Section 5.7. 5.4 Methods Available for
Runoff Calculation
5.3 Rainfall - Runoff
Relationship There are several techniques available for
flood estimation in various sized
As rainfall hits the ground, runoff is catchments and these procedures are
generated (after initial and continuing described in detail in Australian Rainfall
losses) from the catchment. Therefore, a and Runoff, A Guide to Flood Estimation,
relationship between the rainfall that hits Vol 1 (IEAust. 2001).
the ground and the runoff generated exists
for a given catchment and discharge point.
March 2010
5-2
3000
2500
2000 Actual or Recorded Hydrograph

Discharge - m3/s
1500
1000
500
0
03 Mar 04 Mar 05 Mar 06 Mar 07 Mar 08 Mar 09 Mar 10 Mar 11 Mar 12 Mar 13 Mar 14 Mar
Time
700
600
500
Several ARI
events shown
5
Discharge - m /s
400
3
300
Synthetic Hydrograph 200
100
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Time - hours
Figure 5.3 - Actual and Synthetic Hydrographs
Methods and techniques for determining

5.5 Rational Method
flood discharges or runoff estimation in
larger catchments are usually associated The Rational Method formula is:
with major structures such as bridges and
floodways are not described in this manual.
Qy  k  C y  I tc , y  A
While there are many methods for flood Where:

estimation, the standard method of routine  Qy = flow rate, Q (m3/s) for an ARI
runoff calculation used by the department of y years;
for small rural and urban catchments is the
Rational Method.  k = a conversion factor. k = 0.278
when A is km2 and 0.00278 when A is
The Rational Method is a simple, statistical hectares (ha);
method used to calculate peak discharge
from a catchment for a given ARI.  Cy = runoff coefficient, C
(dimensionless) for an ARI of y
years;
March 2010
5-3
 Itc,y = average rainfall intensity, I 5.7 Time of Concentration

(mm/h) for design duration of tc and
ARI of y years; and 5.7.1 General
 A = area of catchment (either In the Rational Method, the time of
hectares or km2). concentration tc for a catchment is defined
The Rational Method has its limits and as:
these are detailed in Chapter 1 of this (a) Time taken for water to flow from the
manual. most remote point on the catchment to
Each of the key terms in the Rational the outlet or point of interest; or
Method equation (C, I and A) will be (b) Time taken from the start of rainfall
examined in the following sections. until all of the catchment is
simultaneously contributing to flow at
5.6 Catchment Area the outlet or point of interest.
The catchment or watershed area, A (in The significance of the time of
5 hectares or km2), is typically determined

from topographical mapping, aerial
concentration is that peak outflow will
almost always result when the entire
photographs used as stereo pairs or the catchment is contributing flow from rainfall
basis of photogrammetric contour plots, on the catchment. The most intense rainfall
aerial laser survey or by field survey. that contributes to the outflow will be that
with a duration equal to the time of
Catchments interpreted from aerial
concentration.
photographs in heavily timbered or flat
country should be verified by ground Therefore, tc is the duration used to select
inspection or survey to ensure that major the design rainfall intensity from the IFD
errors do not result from misinterpretation. table generated in Section 5.8.
In urban areas, the determination of If the rainfall is more intense but of shorter
catchment boundaries can be difficult. duration not all the catchment will
Natural boundaries are often affected by contribute to the peak runoff. If the rainfall
roadworks, railway embankments or other is of longer duration the average intensity
earthworks, building works, underground over that duration will be less and the peak
piped stormwater networks and property runoff will be less even though the entire
fences. In complex situations, catchment catchment contributes.
boundaries should be verified by site
The time of concentration is generally made
inspection and survey.
up of three components:
When using the Rational Method, rural
1. Overland flow time across natural or
catchments are limited to 25 km2 and due to
paved surfaces including retardance due
complexity, urban catchments are limited to
to pondage on the surface or behind
1 km2.
obstructions;
2. Time of flow in natural and artificial
channels; and
3. Time of flow in pipes.
March 2010
5-4
The type of flow will vary throughout the If the time of concentration to point ‘A’ is
catchment, although once channelised, calculated in the ‘Existing Catchment’, it
overland flow conditions do not normally will be made up of:
recur. Overland flow to channel flow and
 a considerable length of overland and
pipe flow back to channel flow can be
channel flow; and
expected to occur. There may also be
overland or channel flow parallel with pipe  a short length of flow in pipes.
flow at full capacity. Several flow paths In the case with ‘Possible Catchment
may need to be examined to determine Development’ where the drainage system in
which is the longest or most critical in the catchment upstream of the road is
terms of design flows. improved, the overland flow time will be
The procedure for calculating time of reduced and the time of concentration to
concentration varies depending on whether ‘A’ also reduced. This will increase the
the catchment is urban or rural. Both intensity of design rainfall and therefore
procedures are described later in this increase the amount of runoff generated.
section.
The minimum time of concentration to be
Designers need to check the full range of
possible cases. 5
used in design for both rural and urban
5.7.2 Rural Catchments
catchments is 6 minutes. This practice is
inline with the recommendations within
Typically, for rural catchments, the time of
AR&R.
concentration is made up from two
In designing culverts for road crossings, the components:
time of concentration used should allow for
1. Some overland flow at the top of the
future development of the upstream
catchment; and
catchment. This development could be the
changing of land use due to farming or 2. Time of flow in the natural channel to
urbanisation near or within a town or city. drainage structure site.
Consider the following example illustrated For all catchment sizes within the limits of
in Figure 5.7.1. the Rational Method, the time of
concentration, is determined using the
Bransby-Williams formula. This formula
which includes overland flow and channel
flow conforms to the accepted practices in
AR&R (IEAust. 2001).
The Bransby-Williams formula is:
FL
tc  0.2
A  Se
0.1
Where:
Figure 5.7.1 - Hypothetical Catchment
Development  tc = time of concentration (min);
March 2010
5-5
 F = a conversion factor. F = 58.5 following has been extracted from QUDM

when A is km2 and 92.7 when A is with some minor modification.
hectares (ha);
It should be noted that the time of
 L = length of mainstream (km) from concentration as used in the Rational
the outlet to the catchment divide; Method is not the same as the critical storm
duration or time to peak as determined from
 A = area of catchment (either km2 or
runoff-routing models. It is therefore
hectares);
inappropriate to adopt the critical storm
 Se = equal area slope (m/km) as duration determined from a runoff-routing
defined in Figure 5.7.2 model and apply it as the time of
If the catchment has several possible flows concentration for a Rational Method
paths upstream of the site, each path will analysis.
have to be assessed to determine the path In determining the time of concentration,
with the longest time of concentration. the designer should adopt the appropriate
catchment conditions in accordance with
5 the required analysis. Ultimate flow

conditions should be based on a fully
developed catchment in accordance with
the allowable land use shown in the
relevant local authority plans, or as directed
by the local authority.
To apply the Rational Method in an
Equal Area appropriate and consistent manner, four
Slope different methodologies for determination
of the time of concentration are presented
Natural Stream below for different types of drainage
Profile catchments. Those catchment types being:
(a) Predominantly piped or channelised
urban catchments less than 1 km2 with
the top of the catchment being
urbanised.
Figure 5.7.2 - Derivation of the Equal (b) Predominantly piped or channelised
Area Slope of Main Stream. urban catchments less than 1 km2 with
Derived from AR&R (IE Aust 1987a) the top of the catchment being
bushland or a grassed park.
5.7.3 Urban Catchments
(c) Bushland catchments too small to
The department acknowledges that the allow the formation of a creek with
Queensland Urban Drainage Manual defined bed and banks.
(QUDM) published by the Department of (d) Urban creeks with a catchment area
Natural Resources and Water in 2008, less than 1 km2.
represents the latest thinking and practice
for urban catchment hydrology. The
March 2010
5-6
(a) Predominantly piped or channelised Equation, refer Section 5.7.3.6.

urban catchments less than 100ha with the Alternatively, if the expected travel
top of the catchment being urbanised. time in the creek is not critical, an
average flow velocity of 1.5 m/s may
Components of time of concentration:
be adopted (not applicable to
 Standard Inlet Time (preferred) from constructed channels).
Section 5.7.3.1. In cases where use
(b) Predominantly piped or channelised
of a standard inlet time is not
urban catchments less than 100ha with the
considered appropriate, calculate
top of the catchment being bushland or a
travel time from roof to kerb using
grassed park.
Section 5.7.3.2. The standard inlet
time includes the travel time along a Components of time of concentration:
typical length of kerb / channel from
 Estimate the length of ‘sheet’ runoff
near the top of the catchment to the
at top of catchment using Table
first pipe or channel inlet. If the
5.7.3.3(a) or field observations, then
actual length of kerb / channel travel
estimate the sheet flow travel time as
is unusually long, then an additional
travel time must be added to the
per Section 5.7.3.3. 5
standard inlet time (next dot point  Determine the remaining distance of
below). If a gully / field inlet does assumed concentrated overland flow
not exist near the top of catchment, from the end of the ‘sheet’ runoff to
then use Sections 5.7.3.2 and/or the nearest kerb, pipe inlet, open
5.7.3.3 to determine the initial travel channel or creek. Then determine the
time to the start of the kerb / channel, travel time for this concentrated
then add the travel time along the overland flow based on the calculated
kerb / channel. flow velocity.
 Kerb flow time from Section 5.7.3.4  Kerb flow time as per Section
only if the length of kerb exceeds that 5.7.3.4.
which would normally exist at the  Pipe flow time using actual flow
top of a catchment. velocities determined from a pipe
 Pipe flow time using actual flow network analysis or Manning’s
velocities determined from a pipe Equation, refer Section 5.7.3.5.
network analysis or Manning’s Alternatively, if the pipe flow time is
Equation, refer Section 5.7.3.5. not critical, an average pipe flow
Alternatively, if the pipe flow time is velocity of 2 m/s and 3 m/s may be
not critical, an average pipe flow adopted for low gradient and medium
velocity of 2 m/s and 3 m/s may be to steep gradient pipelines
adopted for low gradient and medium respectively.
to steep gradient pipelines  Creek and/or channel flow time using
respectively. actual flow velocity determined from
 Creek and/or channel flow time using numerical modelling or Manning’s
actual flow velocity determined from Equation, refer Section 5.7.3.6.
numerical modelling or Manning’s Alternatively, if the expected travel
March 2010
5-7
time in the creek is not critical, an If the above two conditions do not apply,
average flow velocity of 1.5 m/s may then the time of concentration should be
be adopted (not applicable to based on the procedures outlined in (a) or
constructed channels). (b) above as appropriate for the catchment
conditions.
(c) Bushland catchments too small to
allow the formation of a creek with
5.7.3.1 Standard Inlet Time
defined bed and banks.
Time of concentration is determined as for Use of standard inlet times for developed
(b) above. catchments is recommended because of the
uncertainty related to the calculation of time
(d) Urban creeks with a catchment area
of overland flow. The standard inlet time is
less than 100 ha.
defined as the travel time from the top of
Time of concentration for an urban the catchment to a location where the first
catchment containing a watercourse with gully or field inlet would normally be
defined bed and banks may be determined expected as depicted in Figure 5.7.3.1.
5 as for rural catchments but only if the

following conditions apply:
Recommended standard inlet times are
presented in Table 5.7.3.1. These inlet
 channel storage along the times are considered appropriate for
watercourse, for the catchment traditional (i.e. non Water Sensitive Urban
condition being analysed, is not Design (WSUD)) low density residential
significantly reduced from the natural areas where the top of the catchment is low
(i.e. pre-urbanisation) conditions; and density residential, but not a park or
bushland.
 less than 20% of the catchment
drains to a pipe network.
Figure 5.7.3.1 - Application of Standard Inlet Time
March 2010
5-8
Table 5.7.3.1 - Recommended Standard Inlet Times
Inlet Time
Location
(minutes)
Road surfaces and paved areas 5
Urban residential areas where average slope of land at top of catchment is
5
greater than 15%.
8
greater than 10% and up to 15%.
10
greater than 6%and up to 10%.
13
greater than 3% and up to 6%.
15
up to 3%.
Note: The average slopes referred to are the slopes along the predominant flow path for the catchment in
its developed state. 5
If the top of the catchment consists of high time shall extend down the catchment to a
density residential, then the local location where a gully inlet would normally
government should be consulted for inlet be located in a traditional kerb-&-channel
times appropriate for the catchment. In drainage system.
such cases it is recommended that the
A standard inlet time should not be adopted
standard inlet time should not exceed 10
in sub-catchments where detailed overland
minutes unless demonstrated otherwise by
flow and kerb / channel flow calculations
the designer.
are justified.
If the hydrologic analysis is being
A local government may require that the
performed on a development located at the
use of standard inlet times shall not apply
top of the catchment, then use of a standard
within their area and may recommend
inlet time will usually not be appropriate
designers to use alternative methods.
because these inlet times are likely to be
significantly greater than the actual travel In certain circumstances the use of standard
time. inlet times may result in times of
concentration unacceptably short for the
If the first gully or field inlet is located
catchment under consideration, such as
further down the catchment slope than
airports, or large flat car parks. In these
would normally be expected, then the
cases the designer should utilise Friend’s
standard inlet time shall only account for
Equation to determine the time of initial
the travel time down to the location where
overland flow (refer to Section 5.7.3.3
the first gully or field inlet would normally
below). Inlet times calculated by these
have been located.
methods should only be adopted for design
If the urban drainage system does not if the sheet flow length criteria discussed in
incorporate pipe drainage (i.e. no gully or Section 5.7.3.3 are met and if due
field inlet exists) then the standard inlet consideration is given to the type and
March 2010
5-9
continuity of the surface where overland The sheet flow travel time is defined as the
flow is occurring. travel time from the top of a catchment to
the point where stormwater runoff begins to
Notwithstanding the above, it is
concentrate against fences, walls, gardens,
recommended that a maximum inlet time of
or is intercepted by a minor channel, gully
20 minutes be adopted for urban and
or piped drainage. This concentration of
residential catchments, including playing
flow may also occur in the middle of
fields and park areas.
vegetated areas as the stormwater
5.7.3.2 Roof to Main System concentrates in minor drainage depressions.
Connection The time required for water to flow over a
homogeneous surface such as lawns and
In cases where use of a standard inlet time
gardens is a function of the surface
is not considered appropriate, the roof to
roughness and slope. There are a number
main system flow travel times as shown in
of methods available for the determination
Table 5.7.3.2 are recommended.
of sheet flow travel times and a local
government may direct which of these
5 5.7.3.3 Overland Flow
methods shall be applied. Two such
methods are presented in this section.
Overland flow at the top of a catchment will
initially travel as ‘sheet’ flow, after which it Irrespective of which method of calculation
will move down the catchment as minor is adopted, it is the designer’s responsibility
‘concentrated’ flow. Travel times for the to determine the effective length of this
sheet flow and concentrated flow sheet flow.
components need to be determined
separately.
Table 5.7.3.2 - Recommended Roof Drainage System Travel Times
Time to point
Development Category
‘A’ (minutes)
Rural Residential, Residential Low Density
For the roof, downpipes and pipe connection system from the building to
5
the kerb and channel or a rear-of-allotment drainage system (Figure
5.8.3.2(a)).
Residential Medium and High Density, Commercial, Industrial and
Central Business
For the roof and downpipe collection pipe to the connection point to the 5
internal allotment drainage system abutting the building (Figure 5.8.3.2(b)).
Note: The flow time from point A (Figures 5.7.3.2 (a) & (b)) through the internal allotment pipe system to
the kerb and channel, street underground system or rear of allotment system for the more intense
developments noted should be calculated separately.
March 2010
5-10
Typical Roof Drainage Systems

Note: Point A is referred to in Table 5.7.3.2
5
Figure 5.7.3.2(a) - Residential Figure 5.7.3.2(b) - Industrial
In urban areas, the length of overland sheet  Determine the ‘sheet’ flow travel
flow will typically be 20 to 50 metres, with time using Friend’s Equation – see
50 metres being the recommended discussion below.
maximum. In rural residential areas the
 Determine or measure the remaining
length of overland sheet flow should be
distance of assumed concentrated
limited to 200 m (Argue 1986), however
overland flow from the end of the
the actual length is typically between 50
adopted sheet flow to the nearest
and 200 m where after the flow will be
kerb, channel, or pipe inlet.
concentrated in small rills, channels, or
tracks.  Determine the ‘concentrated’ flow
travel time using either Manning’s
Design steps:
Equation (refer to 5.7.3.6 or Section
To determine the overland flow travel time 8.4.3) or for preliminary design
the following steps should be applied: purposes, Figure 5.7.3.4.
 Where practical, inspect the Friend's Equation / Nomograph for
catchment to determine the length of Overland Sheet Flow
initial overland sheet flow, or for new
The formula shown below and attributed to
developments measure the length of
Friend (1954) may be used for the
overland flow from the design plans.
determination of overland sheet flow times.
 Where it is not practical to inspect This was derived from previous work in the
the catchment, determine the likely form of a nomograph, as shown in Figure
length of overland sheet flow based 5.7.3.3, for shallow sheet flow over a plane
on Table 5.7.3.3(a). surface.
March 2010
5-11
Friend’s Equation is: Surface roughness values for Horton’s n are

1 similar but not identical to Manning’s n
107 nL 3
values. Refer Table 5.7.3.3(b) for values
t 1
S 5 for Horton’s n.
Where:
 t = overland sheet flow travel time
(mins);
 L = overland sheet path length (m);
 n = Horton’s roughness value for the
surface;
 S = slope of surface (%).
Table 5.7.3.3(a) - Recommended Maximum Length of Overland Sheet Flow
5 Surface Condition
Assumed Maximum
Flow Length (m)
Steep (say >10%) grassland (Horton’s n = 0.045) 20
Steep (say >10%) bushland (Horton’s n = 0.035) 50
Medium gradient (approx. 5%) bushland or grassland 100
Flat (0–1%) bushland or grassland 200
Source: AR&R (IEAust 1977)

Figure 5.7.3.3 - Overland Sheet Flow Times – Shallow Sheet Flow Only
March 2010
5-12
Table 5.7.3.3(b) - Horton’s Roughness overall time of concentration, then an

Values average pipe velocity of 2 m/s and 3 m/s
Surface Condition n may be adopted for low gradient and
medium to steep gradient pipelines
Paved surface 0.015 respectively.
Bare soil surface 0.0275

5.7.3.6 Channel Flow
Poorly grassed
0.035
surface The time stormwater takes to flow along an
Average grassed open channel may be determined by
0.045
surface dividing the length of the channel by the
Densely grassed average velocity of the flow.
0.060
surface The average velocity of the flow is
Source: Soil Conservation Measures – Design calculated using the hydraulic
Manual for Queensland (NR&M 2004)
characteristics of the open channel.
Manning’s Equation is suitable for this
5.7.3.4 Kerb Flow

purpose:
2 1
5
R 3
S 2
V 
Time of flow in kerb and channel should be n
determined by dividing the length of kerb
Where:
and channel flow by the average velocity of
the flow.  V = velocity in pipe (m/s);
The average velocity of the flow may be  R = hydraulic radius of pipe flowing
determined in either of two ways: full (m);
1. Izzard’s Equation - refer to Section  S = slope of energy line or hydraulic
11.2.3; or gradient (m/m);
2. For preliminary design purposes, use  n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
Figure 5.7.3.4. for pipe.
Note: The slope of the energy line is often
5.7.3.5 Pipe Flow
difficult to determine, therefore use a
Wherever practical, pipe travel times should representative slope of the channel (So) in
be based on calculated pipe velocities either the vicinity of the site to estimate the slope
using a Pipe Flow Chart (refer Appendix of the energy line, that is, So ≈ S.
5A), uniform flow calculations using the Where an open channel has varying
Manning’s Equation, or results from a roughness or depth across its width it may
calibrated numerical drainage model. be necessary to split the channel into
For preliminary design purposes, pipe flow sections and determine the average flow
travel time can be estimated using Figure velocity in each section, to determine the
5.7.3.4 or alternatively, if the travel time overall flow time.
within the pipe is small compared to the
March 2010
5-13
5
Figure 5.7.3.4 - Kerb and Channel Flow Time using Manning’s Equation
Grass swales Flows can reach drains / channels via roof

Flow travel times along grassed swales can to gutter conduits, overland flow paths or
vary significantly depending on flow depth along gutters. In many cases, flows travel
and vegetation. Swale roughness, n should along two or three consecutive paths, and it
be determined from the vegetation is necessary to calculate a total travel time.
retardance charts presented in Appendix
8A.
5.7.3.7 Estimate of Kerb, Pipe and

Channel Flow Time
For checking or preliminary design

purposes, an overall flow time can be
determined from Figure 5.7.3.7. The chart
may be used directly to determine
approximate travel times along a range of
rigid channel types and, with the
application of multiplier Δ for a range of
loose-boundary channel forms.
March 2010
5-14
Figure 5.7.3.7 - Flow Travel Time in Pipes and Channels

Source: Argue 1986
NOTES:
1. Flow travel time (approximate) may be obtained directly from this chart for:
 kerb-and-gutter channels
 stormwater pipes
 allotment channels of all types (surface and underground)
 drainage easement channels (surface and underground)
2. Multiplier Δ, should be applied to values obtained from the chart as per:
 grassed swales, well maintained and without driveway crossings - Δ = 4
 blade-cut earth table drains, well maintained and no driveway crossings - Δ = 2
 natural channels - Δ = 3
March 2010
5-15
 F50 - Geographical Factor.

5.8 Rainfall Intensity -
Frequency - Duration A tabulation of IFD values for durations
from 5 minutes to 72 hours and average
The design rainfall intensity, Itc,y is defined recurrence intervals from 1 to 100 years is a
as a rainfall depth per unit time and is standard output from the RAIN program
defined for a frequency and duration. The but values for non standard times are also
normal units for rainfall intensity, I, are readily obtained. Note that in accordance
millimetres per hour (mm/h). with AR&R, the minimum standard
Rainfall intensity varies with location and duration is 6 minutes.
topography as well as duration and An important observation of an IFD table is
frequency, and this should be considered that the longer the duration of rainfall, the
when using the Rainfall Intensity - lower the intensity of the storm.
Frequency - Duration (IFD) calculations
AR&R also details the use of temporal
performed using methods described in
patterns and areal reduction factors.
AR&R.
Temporal patterns are applied to large
5 For calculation of design IFD rainfall
tables, departmental staff can use an in-
catchments to allow for rainfall intensity
variations across the catchment over the
house computer program called RAIN. storm duration. Areal reduction factors are
Other similar programs are available. IFD applied to point rainfall intensities to
tables can also be obtained from the Bureau address the issue that the application of
of Meteorology website. point rainfall values over a large catchment
The use of an IFD program requires the is unrealistic as such intensities are unlikely
input of nine parameters determined from to be maintained across the entire area.
maps contained in Australian Rainfall and These two aspects are not considered for
Runoff, A Guide to Flood Estimation, Vol 2 use within the Rational Method as follows:
(IEAust. 1987b). These parameters are: (a) Temporal patterns are not needed since
 2
I1 (2 year, 1 hour log-normal rainfall the Rational Method only uses a
intensity); uniform rainfall intensity based on the
time of concentration; and
2
 I12 (2 year, 12 hour log-normal
rainfall intensity); (b) Because the Rational Method only
applies for small catchments up to an
2
 I72 (2 year, 72 hour log-normal area of 25 km2, the areal reduction
rainfall intensity); factor is approximately equal to 1.0.
50
 I1 (50 year, 1 hour log-normal
rainfall intensity); 5.9 Runoff Coefficient
50
 I12 (50 year, 12 hour log-normal The runoff coefficient C is a statistical
rainfall intensity); composite of several aspects including the
 50
I72 (50 year, 72 hour log-normal effects of rainfall intensity, catchment
rainfall intensity); characteristics, infiltration (and other
losses) and channel storage. It should not
 G - Skewness Factor; be confused with the volumetric runoff
 F2 - Geographical Factor; and
March 2010
5-16
coefficient which is the ratio of total runoff Table 5.9.1(b) - Adjustment Factors for
to total rainfall. Runoff Coefficients for Other Average
Recurrence Intervals
The runoff coefficient includes effects of Average

catchment characteristics, infiltration and Recurrence Rural Urban
other losses as well as rainfall intensity. Interval Coefficient Coefficient
The runoff coefficient Cy, as used in the (years)
Rational Method, is a function of the design
ARI (y in years) and depends on many 1 0.8 C50 0.80 C10
features of the catchment area including: 2 0.8 C50 0.85 C10
 rainfall intensity; 5 0.8 C50 0.95 C10
 relief or slope of catchment; 10 0.8 C50 1.00 C10
 storage or other detention 20 0.9 C50 1.05 C10
characteristics; and
 ground characteristics such as
50 1.0 C50 1.15 C10 5
100 1.05 C50 1.20 C10
vegetation cover, soil type, and
impervious areas. Notes:
1. C50 determined for rural catchments using
The runoff coefficient for the ARI 50 year Table 5.9.1(a)
event (C50) is determined using Table 2. C10 determined using method described in
5.9.1(a). To determine the value of Cy for Section 5.9.2
other ARIs, the C50 value is modified using 3. Where runoff coefficients calculated using
the above table exceed 1.00, they should be
the factors from Table 5.9.1(b).
arbitrarily set to 1.00
It should be noted that this method can give
a C50 value greater than 1.0. This can occur
when rainfall intensity exceeds 120 mm/hr The runoff coefficient must account for the
and the remaining characteristics are at future development of the catchment as
maximum values (possible in small, steep depicted in the planning scheme or zoning
catchments). In this instance, C50 should be maps for the relevant local government, but
rounded down to 1.0. should not be less than the value
determined for the catchment under existing
conditions.
Again, the department acknowledges that The runoff coefficient is calculated in
QUDM (NR&W 2008) represents the latest accordance with the method summarised in
thinking and practice for urban catchment the following steps:
hydrology. The following discussion has
been extracted from QUDM with some
minor modification.
March 2010
5-17
Table 5.9.1(a) - Estimation of the Runoff Coefficient for Rural Catchments
Runoff producing values (in brackets) as % in calculation of ‘C’ for a 50

Characteristic
year average recurrence interval event
Rainfall
(C ) = 0.3 I50 + 4
Intensity
Very steep slopes > Hilly to steep slopes 4 - Flat to rolling slopes <
Catchment
15% 15% 4%
Relief
(10) (5) (0)
Well defined water Overland Flow is Poorly defined water
Catchment courses, negligible significant, some courses, large flood
Storage storage. floodplain storage plain storage capacity
(10) (5) (0)
Dense
Grazing land and Heath and sand
Ground Agricultural land Vegetation and
open forest dunes
Characteristics rainforest
(40) (30) (20) (10)
Notes:
5 Catchment storage is defined as; a catchment’s ability to detain or temporarily hold water within
a stream’s adjacent floodplain. Water will slowly drain after flood water recedes.
Example:
Determine C50 for a Rainfall Intensity of 40 mm/h over a catchment with the following
characteristics:
Catchment Relief – Hilly with average slopes 4-8%;
Catchment Storage - Well defined system of small watercourses with little storage capacity;
Ground Characteristics - Open forest.
16  5  10  40
C 50   0.71
100
STEP 1 Determine the fraction impervious In certain circumstances the resulting value
fi for the catchment under study from Table of Cy will be greater than 1.0. In
5.9.2(a). accordance with the recommendations of
AR&R, a limiting value of Cy = 1.0 should
STEP 2 Determine the 1 hour rainfall
be adopted for urban areas.
intensity 1I10 for the ARI 10 year event at
the locality. Refer to Section 5.8. There is little evidence to support an
allowance for either slope or soil type in
STEP 3 Determine the 10 year C value
fully developed (non WSUD) urban areas.
from Tables 5.9.2 (b) & (c).
If there are significant local effects, and
STEP 4 Determine the Urban Coefficient reliable data is available, then adjustments
for the required ARI from Table 5.9.1(b), if for soil type may be incorporated within the
required. calculations at the discretion of the
STEP 5 Multiply the C10 as per Urban designer in consultation with the relevant
Coefficient (Step 4) to determine the runoff local authority.
coefficient for the design storm Cy.
March 2010
5-18
Table 5.9.2(a) - Fraction Impervious vs. The relationships shown in Book 8 of

Development Category AR&R (IEAust 2001) and adopted in this
manual apply to areas that are essentially
homogeneous, or where the pervious and
Development Category Fraction impervious portions are so intermixed that
Impervious an average is appropriate. In cases where
(fi) separable portions of a catchment are
Central Business 1.00 significantly different, they should be
divided into sub-catchments and different
Commercial, Local 0.90
Business, Neighbouring values of C applied.
Facilities, Service
Notwithstanding the above notes and
Industry, General
Industry, Home Industry limitations, it is the responsibility of the
designer to ensure each sub-catchment flow
Significant Paved Areas 0.90
eg. Roads and Carparks is determined using a suitable coefficient of
Urban Residential - High

Density
0.70 to 0.90
discharge. The local government may set
specific C values to be used within their
5
area.
Urban Residential - Low 0.45 to 0.85
Density (Including 5.9.3 Adjustment Factors
Roads)
Urban Residential - Low 0.40 to 0.75 In making the decision on whether or not to
Density (Excluding allow for future development, the disruption
Roads)
to traffic when the additional waterways are
Rural Residential 0.1 to 0.2 constructed in the future must be
Open Space & Parks etc. 0
considered. Other considerations include
the requirements by some local
Notes: governments to not allow any increase in
1. The designer should determine the actual water discharging into drainage structures
fraction impervious for each development.
in the road corridor from development of an
Local governments may specify default
values. upstream catchment.
2. Typically for Urban Residential High Detention basins are therefore specified in
Density developments:
the design of the development, particularly
 - townhouse type development fi =
0.70 in small urbanised catchments. In this case
 - multi-unit dwellings>20 dwellings per there is no need to consider the effect of
ha development.
 - highrise residential development fi =
0.90. In the case where the detention basin only
3. In Urban Residential Low Density areas fi moderates the runoff from the development,
may vary depending upon road width, then the parameters of the detention basin
allotment size, house size and extent of
design need to be considered in the
paths, driveways etc.
discharge calculations at the departmental
drainage structure.
March 2010
5-19
Table 5.9.2(b) - C10 Values
Intensity
Fraction Impervious fi
(mm/h)
1
I10
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 0.90 1.00
39-44 0.44 0.55 0.67 0.78 0.84 0.90
45-49 0.49 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.85 0.90

Refer to Table 5.7.2(c)
50-54 0.55 0.64 0.72 0.81 0.86 0.90
55-59 0.60 0.68 0.75 0.83 0.86 0.90
60-64 0.65 0.72 0.78 0.84 0.87 0.90
65-69 0.71 0.76 0.80 0.85 0.88 0.90
5 70-90 0.74 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.88 0.90

1
I10 = One hour rainfall intensity for a ARI 10 year event
C10 = Runoff Coefficient for a ARI 10 year event
Table 5.9.2(c) - C10 Values for 0% Fraction Impervious
Medium density bush,

Light cover bushland, or
or Good grass cover,
Land Poor grass cover, or
Dense bushland or High density
Description Low density pasture, or
pasture, or Zero tillage
Low cover bare fallows
cropping
Intensity Soil permeability Soil Permeability Soil Permeability

(mm/h)
1
I10 High Med Low High Med Low High Med Low
39-44 0.08 0.24 0.32 0.16 0.32 0.40 0.24 0.40 0.48
45-49 0.10 0.29 0.39 0.20 0.39 0.49 0.29 0.49 0.59
50-54 0.12 0.35 0.46 0.23 0.46 0.58 0.35 0.58 0.69
55-59 0.13 0.40 0.53 0.27 0.53 0.66 0.40 0.66 0.70
60-64 0.15 0.44 0.59 0.30 0.59 0.70 0.44 0.70 0.70
65-69 0.17 0.50 0.66 0.33 0.66 0.70 0.50 0.70 0.70
70-90 0.18 0.53 0.70 0.35 0.70 0.70 0.53 0.70 0.70
Derived from Qld Department of Natural Resources & Mines (2005)
March 2010
5-20
areas are presented in the following

5.10 Partial Area Effects
sections. One method is for rural
In general, the appropriate time of catchments and the other for urban
concentration (tc) for calculation of the flow catchments. It is recommended that the
at any point is the longest time of travel to hydrologic assessment of catchments with
that point. However, in some situations, the unusual or widely varying surface features
maximum flow may occur when only part should be undertaken by Hydraulics
of the upstream catchment is contributing. Section, Engineering & Technology
Thus the product of a lesser C.A and a Division or suitably pre-qualified
higher tIy (resulting from a lower tc) may consultant using an appropriate numerical
produce a greater peak discharge than that runoff-routing model.
if the whole upstream catchment is
considered. This is known as the ‘Partial
Area Effect’. The occurrence of the Partial Area Effect in
Usually the above effect results from the the rural environment is not common, but
existence of a sub-catchment of relatively
small C.A but a considerably longer than
designers should look for catchments that
display the characteristics that may allow 5
average tc. This can result from differences Partial Area Effect to occur. These
within a catchment of surface slope, or from catchments need to be checked to ensure
catchment shape. that the peak discharge for the catchment is
correctly determined.
The onus is on the designer to be aware of
the possibility of the Partial Area Effect and Figure 5.10.1 shows two examples of rural
to check as necessary to ensure that an catchments that may experience Partial
appropriate peak discharge is obtained. Area Effect.
Two generally accepted procedures for use

with the Rational Method for the
calculation of peak flow rates from partial
Figure 5.10.1 - Examples of Rural Catchments that may be subject to Partial Area Effects
March 2010
5-21
In catchment (I), the whole catchment is A simplified procedure is given in Argue

assessed with all parameters for the time of (1986) based upon a comparison between
concentration and runoff calculations the full area discharge and the partial area
determined normally. The catchment is peak discharge for the time of concentration
then divided, where the catchment changes of the impervious areas of the critical sub-
from wide to narrow, into two portions. catchment. Care must be exercised as this
The lower portion is then assessed as if it procedure can underestimate the peak
was the whole catchment, that is, A will be discharge.
smaller, Se will be based on the channel bed
The method involves the use of a time of
from the catchment outlet to the dividing
concentration ti corresponding to the flow
line between the portions and so on. In this
travel time from the most remote, directly
case tc will be shorter and therefore Iy will
connected, impervious area of the
be higher. The higher discharge of the two
catchment to the point under consideration.
assessments is deemed to be the peak
Thus, the calculated peak discharge is that
discharge.
from the impervious portion of the
In catchment (II), the whole catchment is catchment plus that from the pervious part
5 again assessed with all parameters for the
time of concentration and runoff
of the catchment which has begun to
contribute up to time ti since the storm
calculations determined normally. The began.
catchment is then divided, where the
Therefore:
catchment slope changes from steep to flat.
The lower portion is then assessed as if it t 
CA  C i Ai   i C p A p 
was the whole catchment. In this case, Se  tc 
will be much higher and will have a bigger
impact on reducing tc. Intensity will Where
therefore be higher. Again, the higher  C = overall coefficient of runoff with
discharge of the two assessments is deemed Ci and Cp being the coefficients for
to be the peak discharge. the impervious and pervious areas
respectively.
 A = overall area with Ai and Ap being
The following discussion has been the impervious and pervious areas
extracted from QUDM (NR&W 2008) with respectively (ha).
some minor modification.  ti = time of concentration from
The occurrence of Partial Area Effect in the impervious area (min).
urban environment is much more common  tc = time of concentration for the
than in the rural environment. catchment (min).
Figure 5.10.2 shows various examples of
urban catchments that may experience
Partial Area Effect.
March 2010
5-22
Figure 5.10.2 - Examples of Urban Catchments that may be subject to Partial Area Effects
Source: QUDM (NR&W 2008)
5
For example, with reference to Figure 5.11,
5.11 Progressive
the peak discharge at Point 5 would be
Catchments
estimated from assessing Catchment C
A situation that often occurs in rural normally. To estimate the peak discharge at
environments is where the one stream Point 3, variables A and C must cover both
crosses the road several times. catchments B and C while variables Se / tc
would be based on the critical duration
The Rational Method can only estimate the determined from paths [3, 4, 10], [3, 4, 5, 6,
runoff at a point, usually the outlet of the 7] or [3, 4, 5, 6, 8]. To estimate the peak
catchment, the site for a culvert. Therefore, discharge at Point 1, variables A and C need
disregarding any upstream crossing, the to cover catchments A, B and C and
variables A and C (Q=k.C.I.A) must variables Se / tc would be based on the
describe the whole upstream catchment and critical duration determined from paths [1,
the variables Se / tc must be based on the 2, 9], [1, 2, 3, 4, 10], [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7] or
flow path from the site to the top of the [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8].
catchment. If there are several flow paths
or streams, time of concentration Technically, any upstream crossing could
calculations will need to be undertaken on act as a detention device, that is, a device
each path to determine the critical duration. that reduces the peak flow but lengthens the
time flow occurs at that point, though this
Furthermore, this approach also relies on effect would usually be small. This would
components of C (slope of catchment, have an impact on the flow, at some
storage and ground characteristics) being downstream point, as determined by using
similar for all catchments. the Rational Method as explained in this
section. The impact would typically be a
March 2010
5-23
reduction in the peak discharge. Therefore Should the situation occur in an urban
the approach adopted here is considered environment where the one stream crosses
conservative. the road several times then specialist
assistance from Hydraulics Section,
If the land use or components of C vary
Engineering & Technology Division or
between the catchments or if a more
suitably pre-qualified consultant is required.
accurate estimate of runoff is required, then
use of an appropriate numerical runoff-
routing model is needed and assistance
from Hydraulics Section, Engineering &
Technology Division or suitably pre-
qualified consultant is required.
7
9
Catchment C
5 Catchment A 6
2 Road
5
3
4
1
Catchment B
10
Figure 5.11 - Progressive Catchments
March 2010
5-24
analysis) calculations were made, then a

5.12 Previous Methodology
new assumed flood level was required and
On 13 September 2007, the department the whole process repeated. Also, the
(then Main Roads) issued a Planners and variable n was an ‘average’ Manning’s
Designers Instruction which made changes roughness coefficient for the entire main
to drainage design methodology. Key stream. This was highly interpretive
changes made applied to hydrology – (assumptions generally made) and difficult
calculation of time of concentration and the to determine.
determination of runoff coefficient. The Due to the assumptions and interpretations
superseded methods are detailed below for made, it was possible for a wide range of
historical purposes as future project work results and it was difficult to replicate
may require to back calculate the discharge results between designers.
used in previous projects.
For rural catchments less than 5 km2, the
5.12.1 Time of Concentration Stream Velocity method was used.
The Stream Velocity formula is:
Previously, the department had adopted two
methods of calculating the Time of tc 
L 5
Concentration depending on the area of the 60  V
catchment. In this formula, V was highly interpretive
For rural catchments greater than 5 km2, the and difficult to determine. Therefore a
Modified Friend Formula was used to wide range of results was possible.
estimate tc. The use of these two methods was
The Modified Friend Formula is: complicated and time consuming.
Assumptions and interpretations were
8.5  L
tc  0.4
subjective and open to debate. There also
Ch  A 0.1  S e existed a discontinuity between methods
The variables L, A and Se were reasonably when assessing catchments around the 5
straight forward to determine. Chezy’s km2 size.
coefficient (Ch) was determined using the Despite both methods being published
following formula: within the Section ‘Main Roads
Department Rational Method’ Book 4 of
R 0.166
Ch  AR&R (IEAust. 2001), neither method
n
conformed to the recommended practices as
The variable R (hydraulic radius) was described by AR&R. In future releases of
determined using a simple but highly AR&R, these methods should be removed.
subjective formula (R=0.75Rs or R=0.65Rs,
The Bransby-Williams formula was
where Rs is the hydraulic radius at an
selected to replace the above methods to
initially assumed flood level).
simplify the design procedure and to
Interpretation and assumptions were
improve consistency of results. Test work
required and if the assumed flood level used
showed no significant or consistent
differed from the flood level determined
difference in results (estimates of tc)
after all hydrologic and hydraulic (stream
between the methods. Also, the basis of the
March 2010
5-25
Bransby-Williams formula conformed to discontinuity within the component for

the accepted practices in AR&R. Rainfall Intensity. The table was reviewed
and modified to remove the discontinuity
5.12.2 Runoff Coefficient and to improve interpretation / selection of
appropriate values for the other catchment
The previous method to determine the
characteristics. The revised table is Table
Runoff Coefficient for the ARI 50 year
5.9.1(a) within this chapter.
(C50) was by using Table 3.5 as shown in
Figure 5.12.2. This table was somewhat
difficult to interpret and also contained a
Figure 5.12.2 - Table 3.5 from previous MR Road Drainage Design Manual
March 2010
5-26

Chapter 5 - Hydrology

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Chapter 5 - Hydrology

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 5

Road Drainage Manual Hydrology

Chapter 5 Amendments – Mar 2010

runoff from a catchment. This is normally

 is economical; 5.2 Rainfall

2000 Actual or Recorded Hydrograph

Synthetic Hydrograph 200

Figure 5.3 - Actual and Synthetic Hydrographs

Methods and techniques for determining

While there are many methods for flood Where:

 Itc,y = average rainfall intensity, I 5.7 Time of Concentration

5 hectares or km2), is typically determined

 F = a conversion factor. F = 58.5 following has been extracted from QUDM

5 the required analysis. Ultimate flow

(a) Predominantly piped or channelised Equation, refer Section 5.7.3.6.

5 as for rural catchments but only if the

Figure 5.7.3.1 - Application of Standard Inlet Time

Table 5.7.3.1 - Recommended Standard Inlet Times

Table 5.7.3.2 - Recommended Roof Drainage System Travel Times

Typical Roof Drainage Systems

Friend’s Equation is: Surface roughness values for Horton’s n are

Table 5.7.3.3(a) - Recommended Maximum Length of Overland Sheet Flow

Steep (say >10%) bushland (Horton’s n = 0.035) 50

Medium gradient (approx. 5%) bushland or grassland 100

Flat (0–1%) bushland or grassland 200

Source: AR&R (IEAust 1977)

Table 5.7.3.3(b) - Horton’s Roughness overall time of concentration, then an

Bare soil surface 0.0275

5.7.3.4 Kerb Flow

Grass swales Flows can reach drains / channels via roof

5.7.3.7 Estimate of Kerb, Pipe and

For checking or preliminary design

Figure 5.7.3.7 - Flow Travel Time in Pipes and Channels

 F50 - Geographical Factor.

The runoff coefficient includes effects of Average

Table 5.9.1(a) - Estimation of the Runoff Coefficient for Rural Catchments

Runoff producing values (in brackets) as % in calculation of ‘C’ for a 50

Table 5.9.2(a) - Fraction Impervious vs. The relationships shown in Book 8 of

Urban Residential - High

Table 5.9.2(b) - C10 Values

39-44 0.44 0.55 0.67 0.78 0.84 0.90

45-49 0.49 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.85 0.90

50-54 0.55 0.64 0.72 0.81 0.86 0.90

55-59 0.60 0.68 0.75 0.83 0.86 0.90

60-64 0.65 0.72 0.78 0.84 0.87 0.90

65-69 0.71 0.76 0.80 0.85 0.88 0.90

5 70-90 0.74 0.78 0.82 0.86 0.88 0.90

Table 5.9.2(c) - C10 Values for 0% Fraction Impervious

Medium density bush,

Intensity Soil permeability Soil Permeability Soil Permeability

Derived from Qld Department of Natural Resources & Mines (2005)

areas are presented in the following

Two generally accepted procedures for use

In catchment (I), the whole catchment is A simplified procedure is given in Argue

Figure 5.11 - Progressive Catchments

analysis) calculations were made, then a

Bransby-Williams formula conformed to discontinuity within the component for

Вам также может понравиться