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Journal of Applied Psychology Copyright 1996 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.

1996, Vol. S I . No. 2, 123-133 002I-90IO/96/S3.00

A Meta-Analytic Examination of the Correlates of the


Three Dimensions of Job Burnout

Raymond T. Lee Blake E. Ashforth


University of Manitoba Concordia University

This meta-analysis examined how demand and resource correlates and behavioral and
attitudinal correlates were related to each of the 3 dimensions of job burnout. Both the
demand and resource correlates were more strongly related to emotional exhaustion than
to either depersonalization or personal accomplishment. Consistent with the conserva-
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tion of resources theory of stress, emotional exhaustion was more strongly related to the
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demand correlates than to the resource correlates, suggesting that workers might have
been sensitive to the possibility of resource loss. The 3 burnout dimensions were differ-
entially related to turnover intentions, organizational commitment, and control coping.
Implications for research and the amelioration of burnout arc discussed.

Over the past dozen years, the phenomenon of job lated to burnout. The theory suggests that burnout oc-
burnout has been investigated in a variety of service oc- curs when certain valued resources are lost, are inade-
cupations and settings. The construct has been linked to quate to meet demands, or do not yield the anticipated
job stress and is thought to represent a unique response returns. The major demands of work include role ambi-
to frequent and intense client-patient interactions guity, role conflict, stressful events, heavy workload, and
(Cordes&Dougherty, 1993; Maslach, 1982). pressure. The major resources include social support
According to Maslach (1982), burnout consists of from various sources; job enhancement opportunities,
three dimensions: emotional exhaustion, depersonaliza- such as control, participation in decision making, and au-
tion (felt distance from others), and diminished personal tonomy; and reinforcement contingencies (Burke & Ri-
accomplishment. Recent efforts have been made toward chardsen, 1993; Cordes& Dougherty, 1993). The theory
understanding how various correlates are associated with also states that certain behavioral and attitudinal out-
each of the three dimensions (Burke & Richardsen, comes arc likely to occur as a result of resource loss and
1993; Cordes& Dougherty, 1993;Shirom, 1989). burnout. The major outcomes include behavioral coping
The conservation of resources theory of stress responses; turnover intentions; and erosion of organiza-
(Hobfoll, 1989; Hobfoll & Freedy, 1993) provides a tional commitment, job involvement, and job satisfac-
framework for understanding how such correlates are re- tion (Burke & Richardsen, 1993; Kahili, 1988).
Using the conservation of resources framework, recent
studies have investigated how certain demand and re-
Raymond T. Lee, Department of Business Administration.
source predictors are associated with each of the burnout
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada; Blake
dimensions (Lee & Ashforth, 1993a; Leiter, 1993;Leiter
E. Ashforth, Department of Management, Concordia Univer-
& Maslach, 1988). Leiter and Maslach suggested that
sity, Montreal. Quebec, Canada.
Portions of this study were presented at the 13th World Con- work demands and resources are potential sources of
gress of Sociology: Sociology of Mental Health Working Group, stress in the stress-strain-coping-self-evaluation process
Bielefeld, Germany, July 1994. (Cummings & Cooper, 1979; Lazarus & Folkman,
This study was funded in part by a 1993-1994 University of 1984). Emotional exhaustion as a form of strain is di-
Manitoba, Faculty of Management research support grant. rectly affected by these correlates, whereas depersonaliza-
We are indebted to Monica Filz for assistance with the data tion as a form of defensive coping and personal accom-
collection and Stephen Hladkyj for assistance with the meta- plishment as a form of self-evaluation are indirectly
analysis.
affected through emotional exhaustion.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed
to Raymond T. Lee, Department of Business Administration, Leiter and Maslach's (1988) model has received par-
Faculty of Management, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, tial support. Lee and Ashforth (1993a, 1993b) found
Manitoba, Canada R3T 2N2. Electronic mail may be sent via several of the correlates to be associated with emotional
Bitnet to lee@ccm.umanitoba.ca. exhaustion and depersonalization, but the correlates

123
124 LEE AND ASHFORTH

were only weakly associated with personal accomplish- lach Burnout Inventory," the computer search scanned the ab-
ment. Moreover, Golembiewski's (1989) model and Lee stract databases of clinical psychology, education, management,
and Ashforth's (1993b) data have raised some doubts re- nursing, psychology, social work, and sociology from 1982 to
1994. The manual search scanned the reference lists of Burke
garding the sequential ordering among the burnout di-
and Richardsen (1993), Cordes and Dougherty (1993), Kahili
mensions as posited by Leiter and Maslach.
(1988), and Shirom (1989) for published sources not found in
In light of these findings, Leiter {1993) proposed a re-
the aforementioned abstracts.
vised model in which the demand and resource correlates The search yielded 77 sources, of which 58 provided suffi-
are posited to be differentially associated with the three cient information to conduct the meta-analysis. Of the remain-
dimensions. Specifically, the demands are posited to be ing 19 sources, 11 examined a correlate unique to that study,
more strongly related to emotional exhaustion, whereas and 8 did not provide information on reliability estimates, in-
the resources are posited to be more strongly related to tercorrelations among the variables, or both. A letter requesting
either depersonalization or personal accomplishment. As the missing information was sent to one of the authors of each
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Hobfoll and Freedy (1993) stated, demands trigger strain of these 8 articles. This request yielded 3 additional sources, for
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

in the form of physical and emotional exhaustion, a total of 61.1 The remaining 5 and the 11 with unique corre-
whereas resources help to overcome the need for defen- lates were excluded from the analysis.
The 61 studies used in the meta-analysis covered 33 corre-
sive coping and enhance one's self-efficacy. Leiter (1991 b,
lates based on 56 independent samples. The sample sizes ranged
1993) also posited that outcomes reflecting withdrawal
from 34 to 906 (M = 198.07, SD = 172.08). Approximately
tendencies (e.g., escape coping, low job involvement, and 80% of the studies sampled human service providers (e.g.,
desire to quit) are more related to either emotional ex- teachers, nurses, counselors, police officers, and social workers),
haustion or depersonalization, whereas outcomes re- whereas most of the remaining studies sampled supervisors and
flecting positive self-efficacy (e.g., control coping and fa- managers of such service providers. Because the symptoms of
vorable work attitudes) are more related to personal burnout appear to be fundamentally similar across hierarchical
accomplishment. levels (Lee & Ashforth, 1993a, 1993b; Maslach & Jackson,
Leiter's (1993) revised model also posits how the burn- 1986), we did not differentiate the results on these bases.
out dimensions themselves may be interrelated (cf. Go- Each study was coded on whether the MBI used the frequency
lembiewski, 1989; Leiter, 1989). Specifically, it is now response format, the intensity response format, or both (see
Maslach & Jackson, 1981); the reliability estimates of all mea-
believed that both emotional exhaustion and personal ac-
sures; and the correlations among the burnout dimensions and
complishment develop in parallel with (rather than fol-
correlates.
lowing from) each other. Hence, both of these dimensions
are posited to be "reactions to different aspects of the
work environment that pose difficulties for human ser-
Mela-Analytic Procedure
vice workers" (Leiter, 1993, p. 246). We followed the procedure given by Hunter and Schmidt
Although the recent models are based in part on Hob- (1990). This procedure determines the extent to which corre-
foil's (1989) conservation of resources theory, the empir- lation differences across studies can be attributed to certain sta-
ical evidence has been piecemeal and limited in scope. tistical artifacts. It is only after such artifacts are taken into ac-
Thus, our meta-analysis assessed the associations be- count that the corrected correlations between variables, as well
as the variance in correlations across studies, can be estimated.
tween various correlates and each of the burnout dimen-
First, we calculated the uncorrected weighted mean correla-
sions. Only studies using the Maslach Burnout Inventory
tion (/•) by using the zero-order correlations. Second, because
(MBI; Maslach & Jackson, 1981, 1986) were included reliability estimates might have varied widely across studies, we
because the scale is the most widely used operationaliza- corrected each within-study zero-order correlation for mea-
tion of burnout. As a multidimensional measure, the surement unreliability (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). Where reli-
MBI makes it possible to determine whether the symp- ability estimates were not reported, we substituted the weighted
toms of burnout are empirically distinct from each other mean reliability (see Table 1) into the correction formula.
and whether they are differentially associated with other Then, we calculated the individually corrected weighted mean
variables. Therefore, our study provides a summary of correlation (rc). Because so few studies reported scale ranges,
the bivariate associations reported in the literature and means, and standard deviations, it was not possible to correct
has implications for the diagnosis and the amelioration for range restrictions.
Third, we computed the variance of the individually cor-
of burnout.
rected weighted mean correlation after removing the variances
Method
Literature Search 1
The correlations were provided upon request for the articles
We undertook both computer and manual searches for pub- by Constable and Russell (1986); Ross, Altmaier, and Russell
lished articles that used the MBI. Using the key phrase "Mas- (1989); and Russell, Altmaier, and Van Velzen (1987).
META-ANALYSIS OF JOB BURNOUT 125

Table 1
Weighted Mean Reliability Estimates oj All Variables

Correlate k N «xx Correlate k N Rxx

Job stressors Reinforcement contingencies


Role ambiguity 6 1,518 .78 Unmet expectations 2 248 .59
Role clarity 6 929 .85 Contingent rewards 2 496 .96
Role conflict 10 2,612 .79 Noncontingent rewards 2 496 .69
Role stress 3 703 .76 Contingent punishments 2 496 .84
Stressful events 4 903 .87 Noncontingent punishments 2 496 .80
Workload 5 1,238 .76 Frequency response format
Work pressure 5 681 .79 Emotional exhaustion 47 9,668 .86
Physical comfort 4 433 .80 Depersonalization 47 9,668 .76
Support Personal accomplishment 47 9,668 .77
Social support 6 1,010 .69 Intensity response format
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Supervisor support 12 3,377 .85 Emotional exhaustion 9 1,637 .82


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Coworker support 13 3,340 .86 Depersonalization 9 1,637 .78


Work friends 2 153 .80 Personal accomplishment 9 1,637 .79
Community bond 4 433 .80 Behavioral and attitudinal outcomes
Family resources 2 244 .70 Control coping 3 425 .83
Peer cohesion 5 657 .74 Preventive coping 2 470 .64
Team cohesion 2 156 .86 Turnover intentions 7 1,231 .78
Job enhancement opportunities Organizational commitment 6 1,866 .87
Autonomy 11 2,177 .79 Job involvement 8 1,077 .72
Innovation 4 433 .80 Job satisfaction 16 3,788 .79
Participation 6 1,763 .83 Attitudes toward workplace climate 2 227 .80
Skill utilization 6 1.489 .80
Task orientation" 4 433 .75

Note, k = number of samples providing reliability information; N = total number of individuals in the k samples; 7?Xx = weighted mean reliability
estimate of each variable across the k samples.
" Extent to which the work environment emphasizes efficiency and good planning.

due to sampling error and measurement unreliability. We also significant (either case indicated that a moderator was probably
computed the percentage of variance due to uncorrected arti- operating). We computed the confidence interval for heteroge-
facts. Fourth, we computed both the credibility and confidence neous effect sizes by using the formula provided by Whitener
intervals (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). The credibility interval (1990, p. 317).
was based on the standard deviation of the distribution of effect
sizes after correcting for statistical artifacts and provided infor- Results
mation on whether moderators were likely to be present.2 The
confidence interval was based on the standard error of the mean Table 1 reports the number of studies, the total sample
effect size and provided information on the accuracy of the in- size, and the weighted mean reliability estimate for each
dividually corrected weighted mean correlation estimate. Last, variable. Tables 2-5 report the uncorrected weighted
we conducted a test for the homogeneity of effect sizes across mean correlation, the individually corrected weighted
samples by using Hunter and Schmidt's (1990) Q statistic. Be- mean correlation, the variance, the lower and upper
cause of disagreements over the appropriate ratio of artifacts to range of the uncorrected weighted mean correlation
sample variance to infer that the effect sizes are homogeneous based on the 95% confidence interval, and the results of
(cf. Hunter & Schmidt, 1990), we used both the credibility in-
the Q test for each correlate.
terval and the Q statistic to detect moderators (Whitener,
1990). Where the Q statistic could not be calculated, we used
only the credibility interval. Mela-Correlations Among the Burnout Dimensions
To determine if the effect sizes are homogeneous, Whitener Of the 61 studies included in the meta-analysis, 33
(1990, p. 317) recommended that the credibility interval be
used the frequency response format, 11 used the intensity
checked to see if it is "sufficiently large" or includes zero. How-
ever, it is unclear what qualifies as a sufficiently large interval.
2
Thus, the effect sizes were considered homogeneous if the cred- A credibility interval that includes zero indicates the prob-
ibility interval did not include zero and the Q statistic was not ability of a disordinal moderator, where the relationship be-
significant. We computed the confidence interval for homoge- tween two variables is positive in certain samples and negative
neous effect sizes by using the formula provided by Whitener in others. However, a moderator is still possible even when the
(1990, p. 316). The effect sizes were considered heterogeneous interval does not include zero but is large enough to suggest that
if the credibility interval did include zero or if the Q statistic was the effect sizes are heterogeneous (Whitener, 1990).
126 LEE AND ASHFORTH

response format, and the remaining 17 used both, as of 33 correlates; and for personal accomplishment, the
Maslach and Jackson (1981) did originally. Of the 17 effect sizes were horn ogeneous for 10 of 3 2 correlates. Be-
studies that used both formats, 9 provided intradimen- cause of the small number of studies per variable, it was
sional correlations between response formats. Across all not possible to conduct any moderator analysis on corre-
three dimensions, the individually corrected weighted lates with heterogeneous effect sizes. Their individually
mean correlations were greater than .90, suggesting that corrected weighted mean correlations should thus be in-
the two formats are largely redundant and that only one terpreted with caution, especially where both the credi-
is necessary (Maslach & Jackson, 1986; Schaufeli, Enz- bility and confidence intervals include zero (Whitener,
mann, & Girault, 1993). 1990).
Table 2 shows the meta-correlations among the three
burnout dimensions. For the frequency response format, Mela-Correlations Between the Correlates and the
emotional exhaustion was strongly related to depersonal- Burnout Dimensions
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ization (r c = .64), whereas both dimensions were moder-


For the demand correlates, Table 3 shows that the indi-
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ately negatively related to personal accomplishment (rcs


vidually corrected weighted mean correlations between
= —.33 for emotional exhaustion and —.36 for
emotional exhaustion and role conflict, role stress, stress-
depersonalization). The individually corrected weighted
ful events, workload, and work pressure were all greater
mean correlations among the three dimensions for the
than or equal to .50. Table 4 shows that the individually
intensity response format were similar in magnitudes.
corrected weighted mean correlations between deperson-
Given the high correlations between the two response for-
alization and role ambiguity, role conflict, role stress,
mats and that only a few studies used the intensity re-
stressful events, and workload were all greater than or
sponse format, all subsequent meta-analyses examined
equal to .34. Table 5 shows that the individually corrected
the three dimensions using only the frequency response
weighted mean correlations between personal accom-
format.
plishment and the demand correlates were generally
weak, with the highest being .22.
Homogeneity of Effect Sizes
For the resource correlates, Table 3 shows that the in-
Before examining the individually corrected weighted dividually corrected weighted mean correlations between
mean correlations between the correlates and the burn- emotional exhaustion and social support, supervisor sup-
out dimensions, we determined the number of homoge- port, community bond, innovation, participation, unmet
neous effect sizes. For emotional exhaustion, the effect expectations, and noncontingent punishment were all
sizes were homogeneous for 13 of 32 correlates; for de- greater than or equal to | .301. Table 4 shows that the in-
personalization, the effect sizes were homogeneous for 16 dividually corrected weighted mean correlations between

Table 2
Mela-Correlations Among the Job Burnout Dimensions

95% CI
% due to
Burnout dimension-burnout dimension k N r rc VAR Lower Upper artifacts Q statistic

Frequency response format

Emotional exhaustion-depersonalization 47 9,668 .52 .64 .029 .54 .75 88.76 36.40
Emotional exhaustion-personal accomplishment 47 8,977 -.27 -.33 .024 -.46 -.21 55.69 10.44
Depersonalization-personal accomplishment 47 8,977 -.29 -.36 .053 -.52 -.26 88.00 49.01*

Intensity response format

Emotional exhaustion-depersonalization 9 1,637 .53 .65 .050 .53 .77 86.67 69.53**
Emotional exhaustion-personal accomplishment 9 1,637 -.18 -.22 .082 -.37 -.08 86.69 67.70**
Depersonalization-personal accomplishment 9 1.637 -.27 -.34 .085 -.54 -.15 87.48 71.92**

Note. The boldface r^s indicate that the 95% credibility interval did not include zero. In cases where the corrected variances were less than zero, the
Q statistic could not be calculated. When credibility intervals did not include zero and the Q statistic was not significant, the confidence interval (CI)
for homogeneous effect sizes was constructed. Otherwise, the CI for heterogeneous effect sizes was constructed, k = number of studies; N = combined
sample size; r = uncorrccted weighted mean correlation; rc = weighted mean correlation after correcting for within-study measurement unreliability;
VAR = variance of ^ after correcting for sampling error and measurement unreliability; % due to artifacts = percentage of variance due to artifacts
other than sampling error and measurement unreliability.
V :£.()]. **/><.001.
META-ANALYSIS OF JOB BURNOUT 127

Table 3
Meta-Correlations With Emotional Exhaustion (Frequency)

95% CI
% due to
Correlate k N r rc VAR Lower Upper artifact Q statistic

Job stressors (demands)


Role ambiguity 6 1,518 .16 .21 .215 -.11 .54 97.51 244.74**
Role clarity 6 929 -.30 -.35 .012 -.51 -.19 64.01 16.67*
Role conflict 11 2,824 .42 .53 .032 .41 .65 89.01 129.78**
Role stress 3 703 .50 .62 .002 .41 .72 41.18 7.93
Stressful events 4 903 .45 .52 .039 .33 .71 92.36 52.88**
Workload 6 1,450 .52 .65 .009 .55 .75 69.70 34.94**
Work pressure 5 681 .41 .50 .006 .35 .65 48.62 9.84
Physical comfort 4 433 -.09 -.11 <0 -.28 .05
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Support (resources)
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Social support 6 1,010 -.26 -32 .018 -.48 -.16 65.94 19.72*
Supervisor support 13 3,589 -.31 -.37 .018 -.49 -.25 82.64 75.02**
Coworker support 14 3,552 -.18 -.22 .019 -.35 -.08 79.88 69.58**
Work friends 2 153 ,05 .05 .044 -.28 .39 71.10 6.92*
Community bond 4 433 -.38 -.48 <0 -.64 -.31
Family resources 2 244 -.16 -.17 .002 -.35 .00 12.77 2.34
Peer cohesion 5 657 -.08 -.10 .207 -.45 .26 94.48 90.77**
Team cohesion 2 156 -.20 -.22 .011 -.44 -.01 42.51 3.48
Job enhancement opportunities (resources)
Innovation 4 433 -.24 -.30 .008 -.48 -.12 39.13 6.57
Autonomy 11 2,177 -.13 -.15 .131 -.35 .10 94.78 211.15**
Participation 6 1,763 -.26 .31 .002 .41 -.20 41.43 10.31
Skill utilization 7 1,701 -.20 -.28 .005 -.40 -.16 49.35 14.33
Task orientation' 4 433 -.20 -.26 .002 -.44 -.07 11.90 4.55
Reinforcement contingencies (resources)
Unmet expectations 2 248 .38 .53 .007 .36 .69 35.04 11.30**
Contingent rewards 2 496 -.24 -.26 <0 -.38 -.14
Noncontingent rewards 2 496 .12 .15 <0 .06 ,24
Contingent punishments 2 496 .09 .10 <0 -.02 .23
Noncontingent punishments 2 496 .27 .32 <0 .23 .40
Behavioral and attitudinal outcomes
Control coping 3 425 -.26 -.30 <0 -.46 -.14
Turnover intentions 7 1,231 .37 .44 .001 .31 .57 62.25 20.14*
Organizational commitment 7 2,078 -.38 -.43 .002 -.54 -.33 39.75 11.66
Job involvement 8 1,077 -.03 -.04 .356 -.21 .13 96.65 238.80**
Job satisfaction 17 4,000 -.26 -.31 .264 -.44 -.19 98.02 879.82**
Attitudes toward workplace climate 2 227 -.11 -.13 <0 -.26 .00

Note. The boldface rcs indicate that the 95% credibility interval did not include zero. In cases where the corrected variances were less than zero, the
Q statistic could not be calculated. When the credibility interval did not include zero and the Q statistic was not significant, the confidence interval
(CI) for homogeneous effect sizes was constructed. Otherwise, the CI for heterogeneous effect sizes was constructed, k = number of studies; N =
combined sample size; r = uncorrected weighted mean correlations; rc - weighted mean correlation after correcting for within-study measurement
unreliability; VAR - variance of rc after correcting for sampling error and measurement unreliability; % due to artifacts = percentage of variance
due to artifacts other than sampling error and measurement unreliability.
" Extent to which the work environment emphasizes efficiency and good planning.

depersonalization and community bond, team cohesion, than or equal to ].34| with depersonalization (Table 4),
and skill utilization were all greater than or equal to and 3 of the 26 demand and resource correlates had indi-
| -.341. Table 5 shows that the individually corrected vidually corrected weighted mean correlations greater than
weighted mean correlations between personal accom- or equal to . 301 with personal accomplishment (Table 5).
plishment and work friends, participation, and team ori- For the behavioral and attitudinal correlates, Tables 3-
entation were greater than or equal to . 301. 5 show that the burnout dimensions were differentially
In summary, 13 of the 26 demand and resource corre- associated with three of the outcomes. Emotional ex-
lates had individually corrected weighted mean correlations haustion was positively associated with turnover inten-
greater than or equal to | .301 with emotional exhaustion tions (r c = .44) and negatively associated with organiza-
(Table 3), 8 of the 26 demand and resource correlates had tional commitment (r c = -.43), depersonalization was
individually corrected weighted mean correlations greater negatively associated with organizational commitment
128 LEE AND ASHFORTH

Table 4
Meta-Correlations With Depersonalization (Frequency)

95% Cl
% due to
Correlate k A" /• re VAR Lower Upper artifact Q statistic

Job stressors (demands)


Role ambiguity 6 1,518 .25 .34 .030 .20 .49 84.32 39.02"
Role clarity 6 929 -.28 -.27 .004 - .41 .11 34.04 9.23
Role conflict 11 2,824 .27 .37 .056 22 .52 91.57 130.82"
Role stress 2 286 .41 .54 <0 .30 .68
Stressful events 4 903 .39 .50 .051 .28 .70 91.62 58.45**
Workload 5 1,033 .24 .34 .045 .17 .52 83.95 34.39**
Work pressure 5 681 .18 .22 <0 .06 .39
Physical comfort 4 433 .04 .06 .002 -.14 .25 11.27 4.51
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Support (resources)
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Social support 7 1,176 -.16 -.21 .070 -.41 .00 87.49 57.43**
Supervisor support 12 3,172 -.19 -.24 .004 -.36 -.12 39.16 20.52*
Coworker support 13 3,135 -.17 -.22 .015 -.34 -.09 71.65 47.19**
Work friends 2 153 -.07 -.08 .019 -.35 -.08 47.87 3.84
Community bond 4 433 -.36 -.46 .016 -.62 - .29 63.32 10.91
Family resources 2 244 -.15 -.21 .011 -.39 -.04 40.91 3.38
Peer cohesion 5 657 -.14 -.20 .189 .35 .30 92.90 70.45**
Team cohesion 2 156 -.28 -.34 .024 -.71 -.12 61.88 5.30
Job enhancement opportunities (resources)
Innovation 4 433 -.22 -.28 .007 -.46 -.10 37.22 6.37
Autonomy II 2,177 -.10 -.13 .068 -.31 .05 89.56 105.37**
Participation 5 1,346 -.14 -.17 .010 -.29 -.05 64.12 14.16*
Skill utilization 6 1,663 -.29 -.39 <0 -.50 -.28
Task orientation" 4 433 - .23 -.29 .016 -.47 -.11 55.77 9.10
Reinforcement contingencies (resources)
Unmet expectations 2 496 .13 .19 .007 .07 .31 44.32 3.81
Contingent rewards 2 496 -.10 -.11 <0 -.19 -.02
Noncontingent rewards 2 496 .18 .25 <0 .13 .37
Contingent punishments 2 496 .08 .10 <0 -.03 .22
Noncontingent punishments 2 496 .20 .25 <0 .17 .34
Behavioral and attitudinal outcomes
Control coping 3 425 -.24 -.28 <0 -.43 -.12
Preventive coping 2 470 -.25 -.37 <0 -.46 -.28
Turnover intentions 4 564 .24 .31 <0 .18 .44
Organizational commitment 7 2.078 -.33 -.42 .008 -.53 -.32 59.94 25.55**
Job involvement 6 749 -.09 -.11 .163 -.29 .06 92.32 78.34**
Job satisfaction 12 2,102 -.33 -.44 .136 -.57 -.31 95.29 262.89**
Attitudes toward workplace climate 2 227 -.12 -.15 <0 -.28 -.03

Note. The boldface r^ indicate that the 95% credibility interval did not include zero. In cases where the corrected variances were less than zero, the
Q statistic could not be calculated. When the credibility interval did not include zero and the Q statistic was not significant, the confidence interval
(CI) for homogeneous effect sizes was constructed. Otherwise, the CI for heterogeneous effect sizes was constructed, k = number of studies; N -
combined sample size; r = uncorrected weighted mean correlation; rc = weighted mean correlation after correcting for within-study measurement
unreliability; VAR = variance of rc after correcting for sampling error and measurement unreliability; % due to artifacts = percentage of variance
due to artifacts other than sampling error and measurement unreliability.
* Extent to which the work environment emphasizes efficiency and good planning.

(r c = -.42)andjobsatisfaction(r c = —.44), and personal (Cordes& Dougherty, 1993; Schaufelietal., 1993). The
accomplishment was positively associated with control results are also consistent with Leiter's f 1993) belief that
coping (r c = .52). personal accomplishment develops largely independently
of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization.
Discussion The patterns of associations between the demand and
resource correlates and the three dimensions appear to
Major Findings
be consistent with the conservation of resources explana-
The meta-correlations found among the three burnout tion of burnout (Hobfoll & Freedy, 1993; Leiter, 1993).
dimensions are similar to those reported in Maslach and Five of the eight demand correlates were strongly (r c s >
Jackson's (1986) manual and in other recent reviews .50) associated with emotional exhaustion, whereas only
META-ANALYSIS OF JOB BURNOUT 129

Table 5
Meta-Correlations With Personal Accomplishment (Frequency)

95% CI
% due to
Correlate k N r rc VAR Lower Upper artifact Q statistic

Job stressors (demands)


Role ambiguity 6 1,131 .09 .11 .374 -.29 .51 97.71 26 1 .52**
Role clarity 6 929 -.03 -.03 .066 -.26 .20 87.26 47.10**
Role conflict 10 2,271 -.15 -.21 .105 -.41 -.02 93.94 165.13**
Role stress 3 703 .00 .00 .040 -.21 .21 84.27 19.07**
Stressful events 4 903 .18 .22 .160 -.13 .57 96.56 116.88**
Workload 7 1,616 -.07 -.09 .068 -.29 .09 89.79 68.60**
Work pressure 5 681 -.07 -.09 .007 -.27 .09 40.37 8.39
Physical comfort 4 433 -.06 -.07 <0 -.26 .11
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Support (resources)
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Social support 7 1,176 .16 .20 .114 -.04 .44 92.01 90.11**
Supervisor support 13 3,589 .11 .14 .073 -.03 .30 93.01 187.79**
Coworker support 15 3,614 .10 .13 .083 -.04 .30 93.11 219.22**
Work friends 2 153 .37 .49 <0 .36 .62
Community bond 4 433 -.21 -.26 .010 -.44 -.07 46.16 7.43
Family resources 2 244 -.09 -.12 <0 -.27 .02
Peer cohesion 5 657 -.17 -.22 .078 -.47 .03 86.53 37.15**
Team cohesion 2 156 .09 .12 .345 -.56 .79 94.41 35.92**
Job enhancement opportunities (resources)
Innovation 4 433 -.21 -.26 .094 -.56 .03 88.40 34.18**
Autonomy 11 2,177 .06 .07 .103 -.13 .28 92.91 155.18"
Participation 6 1,763 .23 .30 .017 .16 .43 78.95 29.42**
Skill utilization 6 1,663 .13 .24 .178 -.04 .52 97.02 202.69**
Task orientation8 4 433 -.26 -.33 .003 -.51 -.16 19.96 5.04
Reinforcement contingencies (resources)
•}
Unmet expectations 496 -.13 .19 .002 -.31 -.07 24.56 2.90
Contingent rewards 2 496 .13 .14 <0 .02 .27
•y
Noncontingent rewards 496 -.13 -.17 <0 -.29 -.04
Contingent punishments 2 496 .02 .02 <0 -.09 .15
Noncontingent punishments 2 496 -.13 -.16 <0 -.25 .07
Behavioral and attitudinal outcomes
Control coping 3 425 .42 .52 <0 .42 .62
Turnover intentions 2 286 -.13 -.16 <0 -.05 -.27
Organizational commitment 7 2,078 -.02 -.02 .132 -.27 .22 96.26 187.24**
Job involvement 6 749 -.10 -.11 .182 -.29 .21 92.19 76.96**
Job satisfaction 1] 2,241 .22 .29 .394 -.16 .42 98.28 641.61**
Attitudes toward workplace climate 2 227 .23 .28 <0 .16 .40

Note. The boldface rcs indicate that the 95% credibility interval did not include zero. In cases where the corrected variances were less than zero, the
Q statistic could not be calculated. When the credibility interval did not include zero and the Q statistic was not significant, the confidence interval
(CI) for homogeneous effect sizes was constructed. Otherwise, the CI for heterogeneous effect sizes was constructed, k = number of studies; A' =
combined sample size; r = uncorrectcd weighted mean correlation; rc = weighted mean correlation after correcting for within-study measurement
unreliability; VAR = variance of rc after correcting for sampling error and measurement unreliability; % due to artifacts = percentage of variance
due to artifacts other than sampling error and measurement unreliability.
' Extent to which the work environment emphasizes efficiency and good planning.
"ps.OOI.

unmet expectations as a resource correlate had the same sources expended to prevent further loss are greater than
magnitude of association with emotional exhaustion (r c the threat of losses presented by the demands (Tversky
= .53).3 Consistent with the primacy of resource loss ar- & Kahneman, 1981). This overcompensation may partly
gument made by Hobfoll and Freedy, the results suggest explain why service workers seem to be more adversely
that individuals may be more sensitive to demands placed
on them than to the resources received. 3
Expectations can be perceived as either resources or de-
Work demands are generally perceived to be losses be- mands, depending on the degree to which they are met. Unmet
cause meeting such demands requires the investment of expectations would likely be viewed as demands because they
valued resources, viewed as gains (Hobfoll & Freedy, threaten one's work adjustment, whereas met expectations
1993). According to prospect theory, to the extent that would likely be viewed as resources because they confirm or
individuals overweigh the consequences of losses, the re- support one's adjustment.
130 LEE AND ASHFORTH

affected by the stressors. For many service providers, the may be offset by outcomes that stem from personal ac-
key decision is the amount of one or more resources they complishment and reflect the desire to seek control.
need to invest to meet the demands and to protect them- Whichever response (either withdrawing or seeking
selves from further resource depletion. Strain occurs when control) predominates may thus depend on the relative
the workers feel they no longer have sufficient emotional strengths of emotional exhaustion and personal accom-
resources to handle the interpersonal stressors (cf. Hob- plishment as each develops independently over time (Lee
foil, 1989; Maslach, 1982). Instead, many adopt the de- & Ashforth, 1993a; Leiter, 1993).
fensive strategy of withdrawal (rather than engagement)
through depersonalization (Lee & Ashforth, 1993a). Study Limitations
Thus, it is not surprising to find that depersonalization was
One limitation is that the meta-correlations show only
also strongly associated with role stress (rc = .54) and
the strength of the relations among the burnout dimen-
stressful events (rc = .50).
sions and by no means deal with the controversy regard-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

A surprising finding was the weak associations (i.e., rcs


This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

ing their sequential ordering (Golembiewski, 1989;


< ± .30) between personal accomplishment and most of
Leiter, 1989). The arguments over the correct sequence
the resource correlates. The two exceptions were work
are based on circumstantial evidence of how strongly
friends (r c = .49) and participation (r c = .30). To the
each dimension is related to certain antecedent and out-
extent that work acquaintances provide individuals with
come variables (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993; e.g., see Lee
a sense of competence through support, self-efficacy and
& Ashforth, 1993b).
self-appraisal may be heightened (Jayaratne & Chess,
A second limitation is that the strong association found
1986). Similarly, to the extent that participation leads to
between emotional exhaustion and five of the demand
greater felt mastery and control (i.e., empowerment) over
stressors may be partly attributed to a measurement arti-
the work environment, self-efficacy and self-appraisal
fact. Three of Maslach and Jackson's (1981, 1986) emo-
may also be enhanced.
tional exhaustion scale items (i.e., "I feel emotionally
Although gains in resources are viewed by most work-
drained from my work," "Working with people directly
ers as less salient than the prevention of loss, gains are not
puts too much stress on me," and "Working with people
inconsequential (Hobfoll & Freedy, 1993). Resources
all day is really a strain for me") are direct measures of
may directly compensate for certain losses, but they may
individual stress reactions. These items correspond
also indirectly help workers cope with work demands. For
closely to items that tap perceived stress found in fre-
example, with weak social support, interpersonal stres-
quently used scales of role overload, role conflict, role
sors will likely lead to emotional strain, but with strong
ambiguity, stressful events, and work pressure.
support, their relationship will likely be attenuated
A third limitation is that only certain demands and re-
(Jayaratne & Chess, 1986; Russell, Altmaier, & Van Vel-
sources were examined here. The fact that emotional ex-
zen, 1987). This proposition is consistent with interac-
haustion was strongly associated with several of the cor-
tionist accounts of organizational behavior (see Mitchell
relates does not necessarily imply the absence of other
& James, 1989).
correlates that may be more strongly associated with the
Consistent with Leiter's (1993) model, our findings re-
other two dimensions.
veal that the three dimensions were differentially associ-
Two sets of correlates not examined here are demo-
ated with several of the behavioral and atliludinal corre-
graphic (e.g., sex, age, and education) and dispositional
lates. Emotional exhaustion and depersonalization were
attributes (e.g., Type A personality, psychological hardi-
strongly associated with turnover intentions and organi-
ness, and locus of control). Although these attributes
zational commitment but were weakly associated with
have been linked to burnout (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993;
control coping. As a caveat, it is unclear whether the weak
Mclntyre, 1984;Nowack, 1986), their potential as mod-
associations reflect the underuse of such a coping behav-
erators requires further clarification and investigation.
ior or its lack of effectiveness and subsequent abandon-
ment. In any case, the lack of an effective coping response
Implications for Future Research
might have served to reinforce subsequent feelings of
helplessness and futility (Lee & Ashforth, 1993a). In Although the demand and resource correlates of job
contrast, personal accomplishment was strongly related burnout have been the focus of much attention, their
to control coping, suggesting that a problem-focused re- links to stress-coping and adjustment require further
sponse and a positive self-appraisal may be mutually re- study. According to the primacy of loss hypothesis, indi-
inforcing (Lazarus &Folkman, 1984;cf. Leiter, 1991b). viduals are more sensitive to demands and thus overcom-
Our findings suggest that outcomes that stem from pensate in the amount of resources expended to prevent
emotional exhaustion and reflect the desire to withdraw further loss (Hobfoll & Freedy, 1993). To the extent that
META-ANALYS1S OF JOB BURNOUT 131

burnout develops because of this overcompensation, two •Bloom, K. D., Buhrke, R. A., & Scott, T. B. (1988). Burnout
questions are worth investigating: (a) To what extent can and job expectations of state agency rehabilitation counsel-
individuals deal with or even overcome burnout by reap- lors in North Dakota. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation
Counseling, 19, 32-36.
praising their demands as potential gains (challenges)
*Brookings, J. B., Bolton, B., Brown, C. E., & McEvoy, A.
rather than certain losses (obstacles; Lazarus & Folkman,
(1985). Self-reported job burnout among female human ser-
1984; Tversky & Kahneman, 1981) and (b) if demands
vice professionals. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 6,
can indeed be reframed as potential gains, how can re-
143-150.
sources be used to change the way stressors are appraised? Burke, R. J., & Richardscn, A. M. (1993). Psychological burn-
For example, with the right kind of supervisory support, out in organizations. Unpublished manuscript, York Univer-
workers may come to perceive ambiguous role expecta- sity, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
tions as opportunities to carry out their own initiatives •Clanton, L. D., Rude, S. S., & Taylor, C. (1992). Learned re-
(potential gains) rather than as restrictions on their ac- sourcefulness as a moderator of burnout in a sample of reha-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

tions (certain losses). bilitation providers. Rehabilitation Psychology, 37, 131 -140.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

A broader question that needs to be addressed is the *Constable, J. F., & Russell, D. W. (1986). The effect of social
extent to which the burnout phenomenon is generaliz- support and the work environment upon burnout among
able to occupations other than human services (Shirom, nurses. Journal of Human Stress, 11, 20-26.
1989). Perhaps the most distinguishing aspect of burn- Cordes, C. L., & Dougherty, T. W. (1993). A review and inte-
gration of research on job burnout. Academy of-Management
out is not so much its psychological and behavioral symp-
Review, 18, 621-656.
toms but rather the demands and the resources perceived
*Corrigan, P. W., Holmes. E. P., Luchins, D., Buican, B., Basil,
to be the most salient in service settings (cf. Cordes &
A., & Parks, J. J. (1994). Staff burnout in a psychiatric hos-
Dougherty, 1993). Service providers may work in situa- pital: A cross-lagged panel design. Journal of Organizational
tions with demands and resources that are different from Behaviour, 15, 65-74.
those experienced by, say, production workers in manu- Cummings, T. G., & Cooper, C. L. (1979). A cybernetic frame-
facturing settings. If true, this suggests that stress re- work for studying occupational stress. Human Relations, 32,
searchers should identify and include demands and re- 395-418.
sources perceived by their study participants to be the *Davis-Sacks, M. L., Jayaratne, S., & Chess, W. A. (1985). A
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Moreover, a comparison of the perceived importance of a of burnout. Social Work, 30, 40-44.
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officers. American Journal of Community Psychology, 14,
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177-193.
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and social determinants of managerial burnout: A multivari-
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