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COMMUNICATION

SKILLS

LECTURES

BY

TANVEER LODHI

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PART I

1. COMMUNICATION PROCESS

1.. DEFINITION, HISTORY AND PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION

Man is a social animal and his very existence and quality of life depends
upon living in a society. Communication is the means through which he interacts
with the society. Communication normally means to communicate a message or
letter or information to another person or persons. However, It is defined as
“exchange of information or giving or taking of it” or “ a process through which
facts, ideas, experiences and emotions are mutually exchanged” or “ the process
of sharing of information” or “ any behavior that results in exchange of meaning
( American Management Association)”, or “ exchange of facts, ideas or emotions
by two or more persons ( Newman and Summer )”. In fact all those means
through which we communicate our views, facts, attitudes & feelings to other
persons come under the purview of communication, whether it is through face to
face verbal talks or through telephone, TV, Radio, etc. or through written letters,
fax message, telephones, light or smoke signals or gestures. In short listening,
speaking, reading and writing are four means or components of communication.

In organizations communication acts as lifeblood through, which

organizational activities are unified. Through it we can bring changes in
employee’s behavior or attitudes towards achievement of organizational goals.
Every person of an organization is responsible for good communication and
through words, letters, symbols, or messages, organizational members share
meaning and understanding with another.

The history of communication as a discipline starts from 1930s when US

Social scientists like Havold Lusswall, Paul Lazarifild, Kurt Lewin & Karl Havland
started its study. C.I.Bernard was one of the pioneer who gave serious
consideration to communication in a large scale enterprises. The importance of
communication emerged in 2nd World War and in 1950s it emerged as academic
discipline. David Berle wrote in 1961 the famous book “The Process of
Communication”. From 1980s the information revolution started through

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Computers & internet. The world has now become global village and
communication has become basis of human contacts & economic development.

The purposes of communication are:-

i. The same may be understood what is intended to be understood.

ii. To obtain reply / response / feedback, preferably favorable.
iii. To maintain good relations with communicator.

In business / organizations the communication purposes could be:-

i. Personal development
ii. Business / organizational development
iii. Solution of problems
iv. Continuity of Business and its critical analysis
v. To make the jobs more effective
vi. Link between management & work-force
vii. Link between departments
viii. Communication / exchange of ideas, messages & experiences
ix. Means of human contracts and ascertaining feed back
x. Achievement of business / organizational goals

1.2 COMMUNICATION FOR SELF DEVELOPMENT

Communication helps in self development by following ways:-

i. In acquiring knowledge.
ii. In acquiring information.
iii. In avoiding mistakes.
iv. In making correct decisions or planning.
v. In contacts / coordination with others.
vi. In exchanging / acquiring experiences.
vii. In acquaintance with latest conditions.
viii. In knowing other's expectations from you.
ix. In enhancing confidence.
xi. In development of self- capabilities.

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1.3 COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication process is an interactive process involving two agents i.e.
Sender and the Receiver. Both the agents exert a reciprocal influence on each other
through interestimulation and response. Communication process is a complex process in
which our all the senses, experiences and feelings are involved and this is not merely
letters, gestures or words, but a continuous inter-action between two persons. The
interpretation is done not only of words, but of inflexion, face impressions, eye
impressions, taping the floor with heal of shoes, etc. as well. Our own emotions, feelings,
experiences and personal goals also affect them, but normally the communication
process comprises of following elements:-

Sender Receiver
i. Idea v. Receive Message
ii. En-coding vi. Decoding or Interpreting
iii. Message vii. Action (No action is also action)
iv. Transmission through any viii. Feed back.
medium & route
Ix Follow up

Graphically it can be presented as follows:-

Encoding or
Sender Translation of Message
having the Message Transmission Receiver
Ideas into Decoding on
Idea Message basis of
knowledge,
experience &
view point

Feed Action
Back Follow Up

Some authors have described the process in five steps as follows:-

Ideation It is formation of the idea or selection of a message to be
communicated. Messages generally have logical and emotional contents. Logical
content consists of factual information, while emotional content consists of
feelings and emotions.

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Encoding It is process of changing the information into some form of logical and
coded message. It involves selecting a language, selecting a medium of
communication, and selecting an appropriate communication forum (i.e. face to
face communication, or group discussion, or written or speaker-audience
communication).
Transmission It refers to flow of message through a chosen channel. For
communication to be effective, right time, right place and right method is essential.
Decoding It is process of converting a message into thoughts by translating the
received stimuli into an interpreted meaning in order to understand the message
communicated. It involves interpretation and analysis of message.
Response It is action or reaction to message i.e. feedback.

Sender Receiver

Sender Message Receiver Receiver

Sender Converts the travels decodes Responds
has idea idea into over message
Words or Channel
Gestures
Ideation Encoding Transmission Decoding Feedback
In short the idea emerges in the mind of sender due to some physical or
psychological urge or need, which he interprets according to his experiences,
knowledge and mental state and thereafter converts / encodes into message. The
message is sent to receiver through any means. The receiver interprets / decodes
the message according to his experiences, knowledge and mental state and
thereafter gives response / feedback to sender. The sender finally has follow up
action to see the results of his message.
1.4 FEEDBACK
Feedback means the response / reply of one’s message. Communication
cycle completes only when feedback is received. In other words if there is no
feedback, the message communication is faulty, particularly in organizations and
in business the feedback is most essential. In business communication we want to
inspire the consumers/customers and their feedback help to analyze / conclude
and make the right decision. Similarly in a factory, a foreman receives weekly
schedule of production from the supervisor, like 2000 units are to be produced of
job ‘A’ in 20 hours and 500 of job ‘B’ in 5 hours. The supervisor gives feedback

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after the week. If job ‘A’ took 21 hours and job ‘B’ produced 400 units, then their
analysis has to be done to take remedial measures to rectify them. This is
possible only through feedback.
1.5 COMMUNICATION FLOW / CHANNELS IN AN ORGANIZATION
C.I.Bernard described communication as the means by which people are
linked together in an organization in order to achieve a central purpose. Group
activity is impossible without information transfer because, without it, co-ordination
and change cannot be affected. Communication is used as a media for issuing
instructions in an organization so that the employees could perform their duties in
right direction. The duties of different persons differ in an organization, and
communication plays its part in meaningful coordination between them. Officers
control their sub-ordinate through communication and get feedback of their
achievements. The communication flow is of following 3 types:-
z

Upward Communication Downward Communication

x y
Lateral Communication

i. Upward communication - From X to Z. This is feedback of duties /

jobs entrusted to subordinates. This information is analyzed
at every stage and quantity reduces. The top gets only the
summary.

ii. Downward communication - From Z to Y. These are orders and

instructions flowing from top to bottom. At every stage these orders /
instructions are re-designed in detail and their quantity manifolds.
iii. Lateral communication - From X to Y. It is exchange of information
between various persons or department of same stage.

If there is any obstacle in communication flow, communication gap

emerges, which is essentially required to be abridged. Interaction between

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different individuals working in an organization takes place through formal and

informal channels, known as Channels of Communications, which are
following:-

Communication Communication Communication Communication

from the decision from Employees among workers at flows in all
makers to to Management the same level directions
workers.

Seniors Sub-ordinates Seniors Seniors No Protocol

Sub-ordinates Seniors Employees
Employees

Downward Channel Upward Channel Horizontal Channel Diagonal Channel

1.6 BARRIERS AND DISTORTIONS IN COMMUNICATION

There is no such thing as perfect communication because of human angle and
system faults. Human beings have certain limitations and man-made systems need
continuous improvements to overcome hindrances and shortcomings. Therefore there
are possible barriers in communication processes and distortions in communicated
messages, which affect the quality of communication. Barriers could be-------Badly
expressed messages (by sender),faulty translations / interpretations (by receiver), loss
by transmission (30% in each oral transmission), poor retention (50% by employee and
60% by supervisor), inattention (of receiver), un-clarified assumptions (of sender),
bypassing ( it is misunderstanding from missing meanings because of the use of abstract
words or phrases on which both parties do not agree, insufficient adjustment period
(given to receiver for action), distrust of communicator, premature evaluation (by
receiver), fear (could be on part of either or both), failure to communicate (by manager in
organization). However, the Distortion is changes in message when the receiver sends /
transmits it further. The reason is that the listener or receiver filters the message. The
filters are of following type:-

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Level Deliberate Un-intentional

Wish to look good Confidence on seniors

Avoiding responsibility Encouraging sub-ordinates
Upward
Avoiding wrong info to boss Lack of job security
By-passing Distances

Inadequate feedback
Downward
Wish to avoid bad news
Management’s worries
More than one means of
communication

Lateral / Rumors, Gossips Substitute of communication in

Horizontal High skill in job downward or upward direction

Diagonal Avoiding levels Communication Group

All
Ownership of information Indefinite state to absorb message
directions

1.7 SEVEN ‘Cs’ OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

COMPLETENESS: Message is complete from all angles and replies all possible
questions. Thus it requires remembering five W’s i.e. who, what, when, where, and why;
answers all questions; and gives extra information when desirable.
CONCISENESS It is saying what we have to say in the fewest possible words without
sacrificing other ‘C’ qualities. Thus only relevant material is given and un-necessary
details or repetitions avoided.
CONSIDERATION: ‘You’ instead of ‘I’ attitude. Receiver could see his personal
benefits. Such messages are prepared by putting oneself in receiver’s situation and
looking from his angles. Positive and interesting facts are highlighted.
CONCRETENESS: The communication should be specific, meaningful and explicit, no
vague or general message. Understandable facts / will for action is expressed.
CLARITY: Simple and forceful language, no confusing words or sentences, so that the
message is understood as it is intended. Thus it will require choosing precise, concrete,
and familiar words; constructing effective sentences and paragraphs.

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COURTESY: Such words and phrases be used which do not show offensiveness
or irritate a person, unless so intended. Normally ‘humble’ style is preferred. It, thus,
involves being aware not only of the perspectives of others, but also their feelings. It
stems from a sincere you-attitude and requires one to be sincerely tactful, thoughtful and
appreciative; uses expression that shows respect and chooses non discriminatory
expression, and omits questionable humor.
CORRECTNESS: Free from grammatical mistakes and figures & facts are correct. It ,
thus, is use of right level of language i.e. grammatically correct with no spelling mistakes;
accuracy of figures, facts and words; and maintains acceptable writing mechanics.,

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PART II

2 THE LISTENING PROCESS

2.1 NATURE AND PROCESS OF ACTIVE LISTENING

Listening is an important communication process & is crucial to effective
communication. We listen with our ears. There is difference between listening and
hearing. In hearing only the ears are involved, while in listening our ears, eyes
and mind is also involved i.e. in hearing one just listens without bothering to
understand or concentrate, while in listening one concentrates and tries to
understand. The hearing happens automatically, while listening requires
conscious efforts. Hearing is a passive and one way process, while listening is an
active and two way process. Research results show that 25 – 30% is understood
by listening of verbal messages, out of which they forget more than 50% the very
next day. Hence for improving listening skills one should know the difference
between hearings and listening and one should become a good listener because
what one hears once may not be heard again. The active listening thus demands
concentration, involvement and responsibility..
The listening process has four stages ----- (a) Sensing i.e. the listener
hears sounds and does focus on them; (b) Encoding i.e. decoding or interpreting
the message; (c) Evaluation i.e. evaluating the message; (d) Response i.e. the
respond.
2.1 LISTENING COMPREHENSION
It is the act of understanding an oral message. It involves speech decoding
(i.e. sound perception and recognition, word recognition & accent recognition),
comprehending ( i.e. ability to identify the central theme, main idea and supporting
details) and oral discourse analysis ( i.e. critical skills to distinguish between
relevant & irrelevant information; attitude analysis of speaker and inferential skills
to understand explicit & implicit meaning of message ).
2.3 TYPES OF LISTENING
We listen to different kinds of messages for different purposes like to get a
specific information, or get main idea, or get main points; or get new information
or acquire knowledge, etc. The types of listening are following:

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a. Superficial Listening--- When listener has little awareness of

content and what is being said. The output is zero.
b. Appreciative Listening--- For getting enjoyment and pleasure.
c. Focused Listening --- Listening for specific purpose.
d. Evaluative Listening---Evaluation of the oral message or
commentary and developing a line of thought.
e. Attentive Listening--- Listening with complete attention, like in
group discussions, interviews and meetings. It requires
conscious effort.
f. Emphatic Listening--- Listening not only to what the speaker
is saying, but also to how he is saying i.e. understanding non-
verbal part as well.
2.4 PRINCIPLES OF ACTIVE / GOOD LISTENING
The ten thumb rules for good listening are stop talking, stop thinking,
remove distractions, do not let your mind wander, put speaker at ease, do not pre-
judge, be patient, do not be angry, emphathise with the speaker i.e. put yourself in
speakers position, and take notes. However the detailed principles of active /good
listening are:-
i. Doing homework - Collection of information about topic and
becoming mentally alert for listening.
ii. Adopt proper Attitude - It is possible that you may not agree with
what you listen, but never become impatient or rude.
iii. Avoid prejudice and listen with open mind.
iv. Keep eye-contact with speaker and never give him impression that
you are disinterested in listening.
v. Concentrate on central idea.
vi. Let the speaker speak and given ample time without interrupting him
and don’t stand up or start walking while listening.
vii. Try to understand with no intention to find faults.
viii. Avoid criticism and do not jump at the conclusion without listening
the full talk.
ix. Only ask relevant questions when asked to do so.
x. Prepare notes of important points of what you listened.
xi. Prepare summary of what you listened and analyze it.

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2.5 BARRIERS TO LISTENING / REASONS FOR POOR LISTENING

i. Prejudice against the speaker - If not overcome, one will not listen
properly, try to interrupt or search only mistakes/flaws in his speech.
ii. Physical barriers or external distractions like noise, presence of
irrelevant persons or things, distances, physical discomforts.
iii. Thinking speed--- Mostly people speak with speed of 80 – 160
words per minute, but think 800 words per minute. Thus if mind is
not doing analysis of what one listens, it will be distracted and may
miss important points.
iv. Premature evaluation or jumping at the conclusion is prone to
mistakes.
v. Semantic stereo types i.e. one does not feel comfortable or like
certain ‘words’ and gets negative impression from these.
vi. If speech or style is monotonous, the listener’s interest vanishes and
he is either distracted or feels sleepy. If message is below
expectations, it may also cause distractions or loss of interest.
vii. Difficult subject also causes distractions.
viii. Misunderstanding of gestures leave to wrong interpretation of
message.
ix. Linguistic barriers due to ambiguous language or improper message
decoding.
x. Cultural barriers due to cultural differences, different values and
norms.
xi. Psychological barriers like abnormal mental conditions or mental
state of listener (emotional disturbances, anxiety, etc.).
2.6 NOTE TAKING
Instead of trusting 100 % memory, it is better to take notes or write down briefly
the important points of speech or message or presentation. Note taking has four steps:-
a. Listening---- Listen carefully and interpret the oral message.
b. Filtering--- Identify the main points.
c. Paraphrasing--- Rephrase them suitably.
d. Noting--- Jotting down on paper. Full sentences are not used.

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3. ORAL COMMUNICATION / SPEAKING

3.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF ORAL COMMUNICATION / SPEAKING

God has given one tongue to man for speaking and two ears for listening and
these are main means of oral communication. The man needs oral
communications most of the time while dealing with fellow persons. In
organizations the jobs are mainly done in writing and according to procedures, but
oral communication also plays vital role over there, particularly as we move
downwards, oral communication increases. The meetings, lectures and
presentations are all oral communications. Thus oral communication helps:-

i. In interviews for selection purposes.

ii. In promotion as the impression is created by it.
iii. In business expansion as all advertisements/marketing is done
iv. In society’s development as speech is the most effective mean to
create awareness and impress people.

3.2 SPEECH PROCESS

Like listening, speaking is crucial to effective communication. Speaking is the
purposeful process by which people, using audible and visible symbols, communicate
meanings in the mind of their listeners. The speech process comprises of five factors,
which are message, style of speaking (It is the manner in which the content of the
speech is presented. It could be formal or informal depending upon the purpose of
speaking and the relations of speaker with the listener.), audience i.e. the listener,
encoding (selecting a language, an appropriate oral form and positive non-verbal
signals), and feedback ( from listener ).
3.3 VERBAL & NON-VERBAL MESSAGES
In oral messages, the words are uttered by tongue, which the other person listen
and interprets, while message in which spoken words are not used are called non-
verbal messages and include facial expressions ( use of eyes, forehead and
mouth), gestures (bodily action that may express implicit meaning. It refers to the
use of fingers, hand and arms for expressions), style, body language /body
movements / posture, voice / tone variation, quietness, etc. In oral messages
effective words are very important, which the other can understand. The listener’s
attitude and needs are also required to be kept in mind. One must speak in low
tone in the beginning, clear the purposes of speaking and change the message
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according to changing situation, use understandable language, speak consistently

with proper intervals and keep the message short. However, experts believe that
verbal communication communicates only 7% message while 93% message is
conveyed by non-verbal communication (38% by change in tone /voice variation &
55% from gestures / body language / facial expressions). In fact non-verbal
messages help to read between the lines and one can understand the real
message, which words may not be conveying.

3.4 STRATEGIC STEPS OF SPEAKING

i. Only a good listener can be a good speaker.
ii. While speaking the speaker must have some purposeful substance
to speak, use language which listener can understand, message
must be clear and repeated if needed, central idea must be simple
and summarized, use listener’s name or ‘you’, give replies if
possible, keep eye contact with listener, express in natural way and
keep listener’s interest in view.
iii. Listen patiently, keep eye-contact, utter ‘yes’ or ‘I agree’ or nod the
head in affirmative, show interest, avoid interference or interruption
of his speech, avoid looking in this side or other and concentrate on
speakers views.
iv. People who can impress with oral communication are considered
successful. In order to make their presentation more impressive they
must have fair assessment of listeners, determine the purpose,
select the topic, gather information, organize information and
prepare outline of presentation, then do proper planning and if
possible practice it.

3.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE ORAL MESSAGES/SPEACHES

ii. Do not exaggerate and keep peoples trust on you.
iii. Express keen interest with topic and listeners.
iv. Face criticism with open heart.
v. Respect the feelings of others.
vi. Keep the tone low.
vii. Clear your objectives.
viii. Give message according to situation.

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ix. Use words or language, which is understandable.

x. Speech must have continuity and flow.
xi. Message must be short.
xii. Keep listener’s response / expressions in view.
xiii. Emphasize the main points.
xiv. Keep the physical distance to the shortest with listeners.
xv. Clarify main points with gestures and expressions. Keep one’s ideas
from loosing track and concentrate on message.
xvi. Keep your status, rank, position in mind.
xvii. Have maximum knowledge of listeners.
xviii. Note the main points on paper so that one may not miss any one of
them.
xix. Never forget the main purpose in whole speech.

3.6 FACTORS AFFECTING RECEIVER’S UNDERSTANDING OF MESSAGE

a. The audience or receiver is a human being and thus all human
factors like age, culture, education, work environment, attitudes and
interests and relationship do play their role.
b. Physical conditions like noise in the background, inappropriate
audience size, fault in communications medium like low sound in
phone, distractions (due to interruptions, un-comfortable physical state,
thirst, hunger, full bladder, etc.) and disablement disturbs understanding
of message.
c. Psychological conditions like pressure and stress, pre-occupation;
presence of others, mode of conveyance as private or sensitive
messages should be confined only to specific receiver; fluctuation in
receiver’s concentration and energy level; the role in which the recipient
receives the message and its relationship to sender in perceived role.

3.7 CONVERSATIONS
Every person is involved most of the time in formal or informal conversations,
which may involve two or more persons. A conversation is a continuous dialogue in
which every participant can participate or speak at any moment. Formal conversations
have formal content, objective approach, always factual, have accepted rules, are
logically organized and structured; while informal conversations have personal or

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emotional content, either objective or subjective approach, may or may not be always
factual, have no accepted rules, and not always structured. However for good
conversation, the participant has to be a good listener, a subtle speaker (carefully speaks
and does not say whatever comes in his mind), speaks with clarity and simplicity, uses
appropriate pauses, is polite and friendly, is flexible and tactful, does not argue for
argument sake and exhibits keen interest in conversation.

4 THE READING PROCESS

4.1 NATURE OF READING PROCESS

Reading means to read and understand the written material. If the effort to
understand is missing, then it cannot be termed as reading. Reading is a complex
communication process of receiving and interpreting the written words. It involves
what is written and its clear understanding. Its process has four factors----
Decoding i.e. changing the coded message into information; Comprehending i.e.
identifying the central theme and main ideas; Text Analysis i.e. evaluation and
drawing conclusions; and Response i.e. action or reaction to written message.
4.2 TYPES OF READING
Reading is however primarily a mental activity. It is a skill, a developed or
acquired ability, which can be developed further, refined and improved. Speed improves
comprehension, reduces fatigue and makes for completeness of thought. Reading can
be divided into three types depending upon the reading speed:

(a) Study with concentration in which every word is read and effort is made to
understand it .Normally it is of difficult arguments, views and theories. An
ordinary reader has speed of 90 – 125 words per minutes in it and a good
reader 200 – 300, while 80 – 90% text is understood by them.
(b) Casual reading or light readings of magazines, novels, newspapers, etc.
which does not tax the mind much, in which ordinary reader has speed of 150
– 180 w.p.m. and good reader 250 – 500, with 70% understanding.
(c) Skimming in which the full text is not read and only the central idea or
theme or main ideas are extracted. An ordinary reader cannot do it and a good
reader can read 800 w.p.m. with 50% understanding. Skimming means
reading something very quickly in order to find out more or less what it is

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about. By ‘running our eyes quickly over the text’ we can get the jist or main
idea without worrying about the details. Skimming is done when we:
i. Do not have time or may not be interested to read everything in great
detail. Our requirement is just to discover the main idea without bothering
about its details.
ii. Have to decide whether the book or the article requires/deserves a detailed
and careful reading or not.
iii. The skimming could be sometimes in the form of scanning, which means
looking for a specific piece of information in the text, like a word in
dictionary, finding out train time table, etc.
4.3 READING PROBLEMS
Following problems are, however, faced in various types of readings:-
i. Vocalized Problem --- Some people read loudly with tongue and that
reduces speed. Reading silently accelerates the speed.
ii. Lipping--- Reading with lips instead of eyes reduces speed.
iii. Regression Problem--- Repeated readings even after understanding
the sentences with a view if nothing has been missed. This happens
when reader is mentally or physical tired and cannot concentrate.
iv. Progression Problem--- When mind is elsewhere or one is not
concentrating, then one reads page number, sees how many pages are
left, etc.
v. Wasted Eye Movement / Poor Vision Span--- Average reader fixes
eyes on words and then moves with jerks, which slows speed.
Continuous, rhythmic movement of eyes from one end to other end of
line accelerates speed. Moreover there should be wider / larger area of
page for eye fixation to have rhythmic movement of eyes.
vi. Failure to understand the structure of Paragraph--- Each paragraph
contains certain idea, explanation or analysis and the start of paragraph
is with that view and end is with conclusion. The logic of paragraph is
essentially required to be understood, otherwise repeated readings
would be required.
vii. Distractions--- Same readers use pencil, finger, card or ruler for
reading, which retards speed. Full page must be open in front. Proper

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atmosphere and proper seating posture for peaceful reading is also

essential.

4.4 READING SKILLS

i. Skimming--- First of all the purpose of reading is determined then a
large book or long report is skimmed with the aim of getting basic
information. Table of contents or abstract will help in this regard.
ii. Proper eye movements so that eye span is not much, it is fixed on
full page and eyes move smoothly without a jerk with only eyes
reading and not the tongue or jaws.
iii. Reading should be with comprehension and concentration so that it
is understood; critical study or scrutiny helps to find out the facts. It
may however need comparison with other writings as well.
iv. Identification of basic words & sentence, vocabulary increase,
understanding of structure of paragraph and studying while sitting in
a proper manner helps in speed increase.

In short reduction of eye movements, minimizing regression (i.e. habit of

looking back to see what is missed in first reading), minimizing progression (i.e.
reading page number and checking pages left), minimizing distraction (i.e. eyes
moved totally off the page), reducing wasted eye movements and poor vision
span (i.e. movement of eyes in jerks and stopping after every word), avoiding
vocalization (i.e. loud reading) and avoiding lipping (i.e. reading only with eyes )
can help to improve speed.
4.5 EFFECTIVE REVIEW OF WRITTEN MATERIAL
A student or engineer has to do lot of reading of books, reports and articles
all his life. Reading of the whole book, report or articles consumes lot of time. The
real purpose of reading is normally the extraction of relevant material and ideas.
This is possible by ‘effective review’ instead of reading word by word from A to Z.
Book Review
Study the title, find out about author, check the publisher, read all the printed
information on the outside of the book, read Forward to know the purpose, study
the Table of Contents, read Abstract or Summary and then the relevant portion in
text.

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Chapter Review
Study the title, question the title, and count the pages, read the first paragraph,
which is normally introductory to chapter and content, read the last paragraph,
read Summary or Conclusion if available. Look over any study questions or
problems at the end. Quickly page through the chapter and briefly check graphics
and sub-headings. Reflect upon what you have learned already and what you
expect to get from the study. Finally read the relevant parts as necessary.
Report Review
Check the title, note the writer or Company / Department who prepared it, review
the date of publishing and preparation, note for whom prepared and for what
purpose, study Table of Contents, read Summary or Abstract carefully, pursue all
front or back matter, thumb through sub-headings organization, and typography,
study all charts, read as necessary.
Article Review
Read the title and any sub-headings, check the author’s name and his
biographical note, examine all graphics, read first few paragraphs for the theme,
now read first sentence or topic of all succeeding paras, read more care carefully
near the end when you sense the writer is giving his conclusions.

5 THE WRITING PROCESS

5.1 NATURE OF WRITING PROCESS

The writing process is an important communication process in which the

messages are written and sent through publications, letters, computer networks, faxes,

etc. Writing process helps to create and retain data / information / messages for ever and

develop the libraries. The writing process comprises of encoding the message, selection

of a proper style, use of proper language and write up in a manner that effectively

conveys the message.

5.2 STYLES OF WRITING

Style means the way of writing. The writing is always in a style, which could be
any of the following:-

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a) Narrative - In style of narrating stories. Such write ups are longer,

include unnecessary details, one has to read from first to last word, and
keeps the interest of reader alive.
b) Descriptive - The concentration is on physical details and
characteristics of the things.
c) Argumentative or analytical - The ideas are logically presented and
proved with the help of arguments.

5.3 DIFFERENCE OF REPORT AND LITERARY WRITINGS

i. The central subject of literature is any aspect of life while that of
report can be non-human or materialistic things.
ii. Literature is narrative or descriptive but report is analytical
iii. Literature satisfies mental or spiritual requirements, while report
satisfies materialistic requirements.
iv. The reader is left to draw conclusions in literature, while the report
writer has to give conclusions.
v. Literature can be about imaginary things, while report is only of
facts.
vi. The writer can propagate his views in literature but not in report
unless it is supported by facts.
5.4 USE OF LANGUAGE
Writing is always for a specific purpose and format of various writings differ, like
essay has different format, book has different format, report has different format, etc.
However the correct use of language is essential for any writing and following factors are
required to be kept in view;-
SENTENCE FORMATION
It is the largest unit of grammar that contains a subject, a verb and an object and
expresses a statement, a question or a command. A sentence contains a subject and a
predicate. The word or group of words that we speak about in a sentence is called the
subject, while the word or group of words that tell us something about the subject is
predicate. In sentence ‘The poor wood cutter has lost his axe’, the ‘poor wood cutter is
subject and ‘lost his axe’ is predicate. If a sentence has one subject and one predicate, it
is simple sentence; if more, then compound or complex or multiple sentences. The
sentences are of following types:-

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a. Declarative --- Which makes a positive or

affirmative statement, like we live in a big city.
b. Negative --- Which makes a negative
statement, like we do not live in a big city.
c. Interrogative --- which asks a question, like ‘do we
live in a big city’?
d. Imperative --- which contains an order or a
request or an advice, like ‘bring a glass of water’, ‘please help me to
solve the problem’ and ‘always speak truth’

The sentences are written by keeping in view the tenses, active & passive voice
(‘the grocer sells tea’ is active voice & ‘tea is sold by the grocer’ is passive voice)
or direct or indirect speech ( I told her, “He will do it”, is direct and ‘I told her that
he would do it’ is indirect), fully applying punctuations like end punctuation
[sentence ends with a full stop (.) , question mark (?) ,or exclamation mark (!)],
commas [(,) it is used when three or more like words appear in a sentence, or
between two adjectives who still make sense even if reversed, or to interrupt the
flow of main sentence, or for introducing the main subject like ´Friends, you
are……”,or to fuse two complete sentences into a compound or complex
sentence, or for misc. uses like dates, addresses, opening & closing of letters,
numbers,& contrasted material], colon [(:) used to introduce a list of items
following a complete sentence], semi-colon [(;) used to combine two related
complete sentences into one compound sentence], ellipses [(…) used to mark
words left out of direct quote] , slash [(/) used to replace the word ‘or’], hyphen [(-)
used to join two words like full-scale], apostrophe ( combination of two words
similar to some abbreviation like ‘I would’ as I’d], quotation ( information repeated
or reproduced from another source),capital words (first word of each sentence;
names of people, cities, countries, races, religions, nationalities, titles,
abbreviations like Jr; titles of books, magazines, and articles; titles of films &
shows; historic events, famous places, holidays, brand names but not the product
name like IBM computer; first word in quotation, etc). However, sentences should
be reasonably short and not too complex and use understandable language to be
easy to digest. The sentence length should be preferably of 3-20 words, with
average preferably of 17-20 words. Sentence should have unity I.e. only one idea,

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and coherence i.e. words correctly arranged so that the words convey the
intended meanings. The basic principle is that sentences must say what you
mean and use simple and short sentences.
CHOICE OF WORDS
Precision in the use of words be resorted as follows-

a. Knowing what word means. Common omissions are:-

Ability / capacity Anticipate / Expect

Conclude / decide +Few / Less
Indicated / Required Liable / Likely
Maximum / Optimum Practical / Practicable
Theory / Idea, view, opinion Universally / Generally

b. Leave out vague words like ‘connected’ in place of ‘welded’,

‘fastened’ in place of ‘soldered’, etc.
c. Leave out unnecessary words.
d. Use simple & familiar words and phrases.
e. Use familiar comparison like ‘let the sun be the size of an
orange’.
f. Avoid technical jargons i.e. such slang terms which are
understood only by concerned specialists / experienced
persons, like meg (megacycle), optimize (put in the best
possible working order), etc.
PARAGRAPH WRITING
A paragraph is a distinct section of a piece of writing, containing many sentences . It
deals with a single idea. Its writing involves a careful writing plan that ensures proper
length, unity (single idea), coherence (logical relationship between the elements and the
construction), and logical development of ideas.
GRAMMAR
Grammar is a large set of rules – commonly accepted standards for assembling words
so that, together, they make sense and convey meaning. Style is reflected in the choice
of words and the way we supply the rules of programmer in wiring. Correct use of
grammar in technical writing is essential as incorrect use can change the meanings or
make them hard to decipher. Incorrect grammar also does not provide good picture of
sender and can undermine his credibility. More common problem areas are:-

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Punctuation Errors
Punctuation is use of symbols, marks and signs to separate or connect certain parts of a
sentence to clarify meaning. Most common punctuation errors are:-
Comma Splice It occurs when a comma is used to join a sentence instead of a
conjunction. For example:-
‘The circuit operates at DC, Ohm’s law applies’.
This should be using semicolon or conjunction or semicolon with adverb.
‘The circuit operates at DC; Ohm’s law applies’
‘ The circuit operates at DC, and Ohm’s law applies’
‘The circuit operates at DC; therefore, Ohm’s law applies’.
Fused Sentence It is a comma splice without a comma i.e. 2 sentences are fused
without any mark of punctuation.
Example: “The workstation was not designed ergonomically, it
leaves much to be desired”. It is rectified by:-
“The workstation was not designed ergonomically; it leaves much to be desired”
(inserting semicolon)
‘The workstation was not designed ergonomically, and it leaves much to be
desired’. (Adding comma & conjunction)
‘The workstation was not designed ergonomically, consequently, it leaves much
to be desired’ (adding semicolon, adverbial conjunction & common)
Sentence Fragments
For a sentence to be complete, it must contain a verb.
Misplaced – Modifier Errors
Modifiers should be close to the words they are supposed to modify, like in ‘Ignorance of
science is a phenomenon in society that must be destroyed’. Modifier indicates that the
phenomenon & not society be destroyed. Thus ‘In society, ignorance of science is a
phenomenon that must be destroyed’.
Passive Voice Problems
Passive Voice & Active Voice refer to the movement of action through the sentence. In
an active sentence, the subject is the “doer” & comes first, the verb or ‘action word’
follows, then the object receives the verb’s action. In a passive sentence, the subject’s
action, while the object, if it even shows up at all, takes on the function of the “doer”.
Thus ‘the kid broke’ is active voice & its passive voice is ‘The streetlights were broken by
the kid’. Active voice is preferred in technical writing because it is more direct, it is

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clearer, and it provides most information with fewer words, Passive voice is preferred
when some higher authority expects it.

Verb Agreement Errors

Verbs must agree with their subject in person and number.

Example-: ‘The implant, along with its associated circuits, was (& not were)
inserted into the patient’s chest cavity’.
Pronoun Agreement Errors
Pronouns must agree with their antecedents (The words they replace) in person,
number, and gender,
Example: ‘Each person in the lab must replace his (& not their) radiation
badges’.
Pronouns Reference Errors
Pronoun must refer clearly and without question to a specific antecedents.
Example: ‘The coolant leak impaired the CPV’s heat dissipation, resulting
in an erroneous reading at the most critical part of the success,
This coolant leak (& not mere ‘This) had a cascading effect on
the system’.
Case Errors
These occur when noun or pronoun is placed in the wrong case.

Example: ‘The transmission microscope’s (& not simple microscope)

malfunctioning caused the experiment to be delayed’. Or ‘The
malfunctioning of the transmission microscope caused the
experiment to be delayed’.
Spelling Errors
If the sentence starts from a number, then spell them out.
Example: Thirty two degree F is the freezing point of water.
Noun Clauses
Example: The boss decided who (& not whom) will go to the conferences.
5.5 TECHNICAL WRITING STYLE
Technical writing style is distinguished by adaptation to the reader, by attention to the
communication situation, by observance of the scientific attitude, and by certain
conventions in writing symbols, numbers and abbreviations.

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a. Reader Adaptation or ‘Audience Analysis’--- It means the writing is tailored to

meet the needs, the interests, and the capabilities of the expected readers. For
example readers can be classified as laymen, executives, experts, technicians, or
operators according to their relationship to the subject matter being discussed and
their reasons for reading about it. The main difficulty here is the realization of
writer how much he has learned that the intended reader has not read.
b. Communication Situation--- It means what are the uses of the report, like
whether:-
i. As a guide for action.
ii. As a piece of information.
iii. As a long term or short terms aid,
iv. As an aid under specified conditions.
c. Scientific Attitude--- It is tendency on part of scientific experiments to observe
only the physical elements and the report concerns only these events. Thus it is
impersonal, emotionless and objective approach in which ‘I’ plays no part in
writing. This is being questioned now and it is felt that mind and temperament of
experimenter is also required to be given due consideration. It gives more
thoughtful look at what actually happens without changing the reality. Use of
personal pronouns is thus preferred.
Scientific attitude - In conclusion, it would be mistake to
relocate the Factory.
Non-Scientific - In conclusion, the evidence shows that it would
be mistake to relocate the Factory.
d. Technical Exposition--- It means the style and the way of providing information
in your writing, of explaining things and deducing conclusions. It is determined by
the following:-
i. Topics arrangements
ii. Definition
iii. Comparison
iv. Casual analysis - Presentation of theory and arguments to justify it
v. Exemplification
vi. Classification and division into heads, sub-heads, parts, chapter.
(e) Definition--- It means assigning a precise meaning to a term. These are
needed when familiar words are used in an unfamiliar sense or for unfamiliar things or

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when unfamiliar words are used for familiar things and unfamiliar words are used for un-
familiar things. The question of familiarity or unfamiliarity applies to the reader, not to
writer. Definitions may appear in the text of the report, in footnotes, in a glossary at the
end of the report, or in a special section in the introduction. Their proper location
depends upon their importance to the text and on the knowledge of the reader. However,
to define a term, it must be placed into a classification and then differentiated from other
terms in the same classification.
5.6 SUMMARY WRITING
Summary or précis writing is a process of condensing message without changing
the original meaning and focus of a passage. Summarizing or summery writing is a
productive skill integrating both reading and writing skills. It involves adopting an
effective reading strategy (i.e. a careful reading plan to identify the central idea, the
main points and important supporting details), and using appropriate techniques (i.e.
selection, rejection and substitution) of summarizing outlining, and paraphrasing
( Outline is a general statement without details or sketch containing only the main
points, while paraphrasing refer to rewriting a passage or text in different words
without changing or distorting its real meanings). The summery should not exceed
one third of main text.
5.7 LETTER WRITING
Letter writing is done in the form of personal or business/official letter, A personal
letter is an informal letter, where the writer wants to say something and wants response.
The business or official letter is a formal letter written for a specific audience to meet a
specific need. It t is structured and follows specified set of rules. Letter writing involves
three steps:- (a)Pre-writing--- (i) Audience Analysis i.e. who is my reader ?(ii) Purpose
Identification i.e. why I am writing?(iii) Scope Determination i.e. how much I should write?
(iv) Analysis of the action required i.e. what do I want the receiver to do ? (b)
Writing--- Organize the matter, prepare outline, and write the draft. (c) Post-writing---
Revision, editing and evaluation of draft.
A business letter contains 10 elements and is structured as follows:-

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Sender’s Address

Dateline

Reference (Optional)

Inside Address

Subject (Optional)

Salutation

Body

Complimentary Close

Signature

Enclosures (Optional)

The body of the letter contains an opening stating the main idea, a middle with details,
and an action (desiring) closing. The five “Cs” for effective letter are Clarity, Courtesy,
Conciseness, Correct Tone, and Correct Attitude.
5.8 RESUME WRITING
A resume is a selective record of an individual’s background, basically a
professional employment-seeking document that presents the summary of the
individual’s education, professional training, experiences, skills, abilities,
achievements, and reference. A good resume shall have an effective design with
focus on readability and adaptation to audience expectations. A resume contains the
heading, position sought, career objectives, education, work experiences, skills,
achievements, activities, interests and references. The resumes are written in three
different styles depending upon applicants qualifications, career goals, and personal
preferences---- (a) Chronological Resume, which focuses on education and

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experiences; (b) Functional Resume, which focuses on highlighting accomplishments

and emphasizes skills; (c) Combined Resume, which is a mixed style and draws on
best of chronological and functional resumes.
The resume should give a professional look, be factual, complete and objective,
written in appropriate writing style, gives specific details, is organized properly and
written in grammatically correct language.

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PART - III

6. REPORT WRITING

6.1 NATURE & PURPOSE OF REPORT WRITING

Report is presentation of facts on any topic or incident in a logical manner
after collecting relevant information. The report could be oral or written;
informational or analytical; routine or special; formal or non formal. A written report
is a formal document written for a specific audience to meet a specific need. The
report provides factual and systematic account of a specific business or
professional activity. The report helps in the analysis of condition, situation or a
problem for an effective solution. That is why when we talk of formal report or
written report, then it means collection of data on any topic or subject or incident
with specific purpose, organizing it, analyzing it and then presenting conclusions
and recommendations in writing according to a specified format. It is also
essential that report writing should be un-biased and facts/conclusions are
presented without hiding anything/distortions, irrespective of the fact whether the
finding s are in accordance with writer’s personal views/beliefs or not. Since the
report is written according to a specified format, so its selective study should also
be possible.
The objective of the reports could be to obtain agreement to a course of
action (Persuasive reports), explain a specific view (Explanatory report), provide
basis of discussion (Discussive report), and to provide information (Information
report).The purposes of report writing are:-

i. Storage of information/facts about a particular topic.

ii. To provide historical data which helps to determine what has been
done and what is yet to be done.
iii. For providing reference material to others to investigate further.
iv. To help others who are not experts or has no time to spare for it, to
have knowledge of the subject and expert opinion of those who are
competent and can spare time for it.
v. To provide means of expressing or developing one’s creative or
research abilities.
vi. To carry out research and present its results.

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However, in a nutshell the report writing helps to make the job simpler,
improve performance of professional duties, expands business, resolves
problems, do research work, provides explanation of problems, preserves
history/old record and provides communication/co-ordination between the
persons/departments.

6.2 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF REPORT WROTING

The basic requirements are following:-

i. The writer is competent, has the technical background to handle the

subject matter skillfully.
ii. The writer has access to necessary means and facilities like
equipment, information, time finances, etc.
iii. The objective of the report and expectations from it are known
iv. The capabilities of the reader or audience are known.

6.3 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF REPORT WRITING

While report writing following five principles be kept in mind:-
a. Always have in mind the specific reader when writing the report and
always assume that he is intelligent, but un-informed.
b. Before starting to write, decide what the exact purpose of report is
and make sure that every paragraph, sentence & word makes a
clear contribution to that purpose and makes it at the right time.
c. Use language that is simple, concrete and familiar.
d. At the beginning and end of every section of report, check that it is
according to the principle that ‘first tell the reader what you are going
to tell him, then you tell him and finally you tell him what you have
told him’.
e. Make report attractive to look at, arrives by the date it is due, the
purpose and scope of report is clearly given in the beginning
provides essential information, designed in such a way that selective
study is possible, answers readers questions that may arise in his
mind, is unbiased, is free from typographical and grammatical errors
and conveys an overall impression of authority, thoroughness and
soundness.

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f. The report should have a meaningful title, contains authors name

and date of submission.
g. The report is concise (what can be written in 12 words, do not use
200 words), have meaningful beginning (i.e. explain reasons for
report and introduce subject), write content which is readable and
keeps interest, and end by summarizing how the report has
achieved its objective.
6.4 FORMAT OF REPORTS
The reports are written according to different formats. The standard formats are
Printed Forms (meant for repetitive and routine data), Letter Format (short
informal reports to be communicated to someone outside the organization), Memo
Format (short informal reports to be communicated to someone within an
organization), Manuscript Format (formal repots presented on plain papers). The
standard and research reports are written in manuscript format. In memo format,
the report contains all the elements of a standard report, plus a few extra special
sections, if needed.
6.5 STEPS OF REPORT WRITING
i. First step is determination of topic, its scope, terms of reference,
audience expectations and needs and the format of presentation.
Then planning of how to proceed is done.
ii. Second step is collection of data, its analysis and conclusions to be
drawn. The sources of data collection are library, questionnaire,
interview, field observation and experiments.
iii. Third step is arranging / organizing data in logical / tabular form to
allow drawl of conclusions.
iv. Fourth step is writing of report and its presentation as per prescribed
or standard format.
6.6 TYPES OF REPORTS

Formal & Informal Reports - Informal reports are routine reports for limited
circulation and generally contain only the facts. Analysis conclusions, recommendations
are not given and the report is also not presented in standard format; while formal
report is long report, written and presented according to standard format and may have
large circulation. Feasibility Report, Planning Report Survey Report, Research Report,

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Accident Report, etc. are formal reports and Progress Report, Visit Report, Inventory
Report, Lab Report and reports on printed forms or letters, etc. are informal report.
Technical or Non-Technical Reports - Technical reports are about technical &
scientific matters, written by technical experts and use scientific & technical terms,
graphs and diagrams, while non-technical reports are informal and simple reports which
can be written by non-technical persons like reports about worker’s quarrel, standard of
canteen, etc.

Simple Report or Research Report - Simple report is prepared with the help of
historical data available only, while research reports are based on research. The
importance nowadays is of research reports and these may be about scientific or
technical topics.

Information Report or Examination Report - Information report contains mere

information like conference report for persons, who did not attend the conference, but in
examination report the information collected is verified, analyzed and then conclusions
are drawn.

7 TECHNICAL REPORTS
7.1 NATURE OF TECHNICAL REPORT
A technical report is a report on technical subject wherein audience & purpose are
well-defined in advance and it shares objective information with interested, educated
audience. It has following characteristics:-
i. Is about any scientific or technical subject associated with science.
ii. Uses scientific and technical vocabulary, graphic aids, etc. and relies
heavily on visuals.
iii. Uses numerical data to precisely describe quantity and directions.
iv. Is non-emotional, impartial and objective study which conveys
information accurately and concisely?
v. Is written in a way which allows random study, if needed.
vi. Concentrates on a special format in which definition, description of
mechanism, description of process, classification and interpretations
appear compulsorily.
vii. It is accurate and well documented.
viii. It is grammatically and stylistically correct.

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7.2 IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL REPORTS

The mankind has developed tremendously from scientific and technological
developments or in other words from experiences, opinions and experimentation of
various human beings. Gone are the days when knowledge was transmitted verbally to
limited selected persons. Now every information is available in written or recorded form
and anyone can use that information effectively for betterment and development of the
whole mankind. The scientific and technological fields have endless scope of
development and that could be effectively utilized only with the help of technical
reporting. If we eliminate technical reporting, it will:-

i. Retard the pace of scientific and technological development;

ii. Spread benefits of development only to limited areas;
iii. Result in lot of repetitive efforts for the same job for the same
results.
iv. Reduce the scope of development of complex nature.
v. Not allow widespread participation of people in a specific job.

7.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TECHNICAL REPORT

i. It is seriously prepared;
ii. It is purposeful and the purpose is usually spelled out in the opening
paragraphs.
iii. The vocabulary of terminology used is technical / specialized and
generally not defined.
iv. Sentences are highly specific and fact filled.
v. Number and dimensions are numerous and exact rather than
rounded to the nearest whole number.
vi. Signs, symbols and formulas appear in the text.
vii. Graphs and tables may appear in place of prose or to reinforce it.
Figures and illustrations may also appear for the said purpose.
viii. Documentation and references appear in footnotes and indexes.

7.4 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF TECHNICAL REPORT

i. Technical writer must be accurate in their work.

ii. Technical writer must be honest in their work.

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iii. Technical writer must not substitute speculations for facts.

iv. Technical writer must not hide truth with ambiguity.
v. Technical writer must not inject personal bias into the report.
vi. Technical writer must not violate copyright laws.
vii. Technical writer must not lie with statistics i.e. manipulating data or
graphical representation of data, use inappropriate or improper
statistical tests, or employ loaded statistical samples.
viii. Technical writer must not indulge in plagiarism i.e. an act of theft in
which one steals another person’ ideas or his expression of an idea,
and then represents as his own work. Other person’s views must be
acknowledged.
7.5. TYPES OF TECHNICAL REPORTS

FEASIBILITY REPORT
It is a formal report of highly technical nature normally having wider circulation,
which studies the desirability or applicability of any project or system or single
solution from three angles i.e. whether achievable, whether profitable and what
would be appropriate timings for its implementation? In these reports:
a) Problem is defined which is needed to be solved.
b) Identifies one or more candidate solutions.
c) Develops a set of criteria by which to objectively evaluate the
candidate solutions.
d) Collects and interprets data for each criteria as it relates to each
candidate solution.
e) Draws conclusions and make recommendations regarding the
candidate solutions based on one’s interpretation.
RECOMMENDATION REPORT
It is similar to feasibility report, but instead of single solution, it looks at several
approaches and recommends the most feasible approach.
PROGRESS REPORT
It presents information about status of work done on a particular project during a
particular period of time. It is never a report on a completed project. These are
written for those who need to keep in touch with what is going on and as a record
for future reference. It comprises summary of earlier progress, current report and
a brief statement of conclusion. The main emphasis is on how well one is doing in

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terms of each task and overall assessment of current progress. If it is a short

report, presented to one or to a small number of persons, it is given in a letter or
memorandum form. If it is longer report and may have large circulation, then it is
presented in conventional or formal report form.
PROJECT REPORT
It is a research report on any hypothesis or theory that needs to be applied or
tested under highly controlled conditions.
PLANNING REPORT
It is a formal report which describes in detail what and how is to be done in future
for a particular job? Generally this report concentrates more on decisions for
future plans rather than on basis on which these decisions were taken. These
reports may or may not have high circulation.
INSPECTION REPORT
It is formal report in which the writer has to give his specific conclusions and the
are generally regarding the quality of the work or item. These reports have low
circulation.
ACCIDENT REPORT
It is formal report which provides information about the accident, its probable
causes and specific recommendations to avert them in future. These reports
generally have high circulation.
SURVEY REPORT
These reports examine conditions that affect an organization. The quantity of data
collected is generally large and it is presented in graphic forms. The conclusions
may also be given. These reports may have high circulation.
VISIT REPORT
These are informal reports, mostly of descriptive nature describing what was
observed. These may contain some suggestions, but lack the scientific authority
for such suggestions.
LABORATORY REPORT
These are of endless variety of forms and length. These contain identification of
the person being tested, his sex, age, type of test and their results. No
recommendation is given. These reports have standard forms and very low
circulation.

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MANUFACTURING REPORT

It is a simple report which provides production figures of a particular item for a specific
period. It may briefly also describe the reasons if there is any major conspicuous shortfall
in production. These reports have generally low circulation.
PROPOSALS
These are specialized technical documents that offer persuasive solutions to problems.
Thus a proposal can be to highlight the need to look into a neglected or existing
technical problem or expected problem causing less and in-efficiency or a suggested
solution to overcome it.
8 1ST STEP OF REPORT WRITING - PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS

8.1 PURPOSE
Why the report is required to be written? The writer either wants to write it
because he feels the urge to do so or he is given the task by others. In both the
cases the report is required to serve some purpose. This purpose is first to be
determined and be known to the writer.
8.2 SELECTION OF TOPIC OR SUBJECT
Subjects can be of three types: (1) Which represents a project the writer is
actively working on; (2) Which is concerned with the making of a practical
decision; (3) Which will add to practical knowledge.

In selecting a subject, the considerations are (1) That the subject is

interesting to you. (2) It is related to writer’s major field. (3) It is a subject about
which the writer knows enough to be able to read intelligently. (4) It is a subject on
which sufficient printed material is available or sufficient information can be
gathered. (5) Too controversial topic or about which the writer has strong
prejudices should not be selected.

The term ‘Scope’ refers to the limits of a subject. The limits can be (1) The
details in which the subject is to be discussed. (2) The range of the subject matter.
(3) The point of view from which the subject is to be discussed.
8.3 TERMS OF REFERENCE
It is the scope and limit of the subject matter within which the investigations
are to be made and results presented. These are required to be clearly defined
and kept in view while writing the report. This contains the writer from going astray
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and also tells the reader what to expect from the report. The conclusions or
recommendations are given strictly in accordance with terms of reference.
8.4 PRESCRIBED FORM
Every organization prescribes the format of the report and the way to
gather information / conduct investigations. The writer has to have its knowledge
and then adhere to it. In case there are no prescribed formats, then standard
format is followed.
8.5 PLAN OF PROCEDURE
It relates to planning general organization and coverage of the subject, so
as to simplify and chalk out the course of reading and taking notes. For this
purpose first of all the list of things the writer wants to find out about the subject is
prepared. Then the things which the reader is expected to know are added to it.
This will help in taking notes and assembly of data. The assembly of data is
possible through the use of library, questionnaire. Interview, field observation and
experimentation. What and how to collect data is determined at this planning,
stage.

9 2ND STEP OF REPORT WRITING - ASSEMBLY OF DATA

9.1 LIBRARY
Information available in written form in Library like Professional Journals,
Reference Books, Unpublished thesis, Newspaper articles, Govt. Publication,
Computerized Information, etc. are documentary sources of information for
collection.

Libraries have Card catalogue systems which has three types of cards:

Author card, Title Card and Subject Card.

Reference books are Abstracts (brief summaries of articles or books in a

particular field). Almanacs (compilations of basic statistical information about
production, figures, sports, etc.), Atlas (books of maps or other illustrations),
Bibliographies (list of sources of information), Catalogue (complete list of things
like books on a particular subject), Compendiums (small encyclopedia on specific
subjects), dictionaries (alphabetically listed words or names with definitions or
description), encyclopedias (summaries of knowledge), Glossaries (list of

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technical terms with brief definition) and Hand books (compact reference books
for specific fields with more information than in encyclopedia).
9.2 INTERVIEWS
Gathering information by direct meeting the concerned people is called
interview.

TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
i. Non-directive - In which questions are asked as they come mind.
Patterned - In which predetermined sequence of questions is
followed.
ii. Structured - In which series of job-related questions with pre-
determined “preferred” answers are asked.
iii. Serialized or Sequential - In which a panel of persons ask non-
directive and informal questions.
iv. Panel Interview - Interview by a group of interviewers who are
specialist on the subject.
v. Stress Interview - In which the person is made uncomfortable by a
series of questions and his reaction to stress situation is analyzed.

RULES OF GOOD INTERVIEW

i. Interviewer must have information about the abilities, rank, and
importance of person to be interviewed.
ii. Interviewee must have information and confidence about the
interviewer and the purpose of interview.
iii. Interview be conducted in a friendly atmosphere.
iv. Interviewee be allowed to speak freely and more.
v. No effort by interviewer be made to impose one’s ideas.
vi. Questions must be pre-determined and written, though they may not
be asked in the serial order they are written.
vii. Important questions be asked at the end.
viii. No taping of interview without permission.
ix. No one be compelled to give answer if one does not want.
x. Interview to start at scheduled time and be finished within the
minimum possible time.
xi. Good ‘home work’ required by interviewer before interview.

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9.3 QUESTIONNAIRE
The process of sending a set of related questions for getting replies /
information is called questionnaire. It is used where the information from other
sources is not easily available. A good Questionnaire must have: (i) The question
must be ‘reliable’ i.e. they measure what we want to measure; (ii) Questions are
‘valid’ i.e. it is interpreted in the same manner as we intend to interpret it; (iii) It
must contain minimum questions; (iv) The respondent must feel least difficulties in
filling it; and (v) there must be strong probability of its being returned duly filled.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS
i. Dichotomous - In which one has choice between two answers,
like yes or no, manual or electric, etc. It has relatively limited span of
responses.
ii. Multiple – Choice - In which one can choose among several
possible answers. This is most common approach and permits wide
range of responses.
iii. Ranking - In which one is asked to rank several possibilities in
order of personal preference.
iv. Rating - In which one is asked to rate the importance of an item to
mind.
v. Fill in the Blank - The short answer approach used to get factual
answers of opinion:
How many children do you prefer?
vi. Essay - In which the respondent gets maximum freedom in
composing an answer.
9.4 FIELD OBSERVATIONS & EXPERIMENTATION
If the reader visit the place of occurrence and directly observes the process
and thereafter gathers data, it would be called Field Observation. For example to
prepare shop layout plan, one may visit the shop and directly observe the
placement of men, material and machinery and their movements. The data so
collected would be the result of field observation. However, if the writer himself
participates in the process, it would be experimentation. The experimentation is
done by two ways:-

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i. The writer himself performs the duties like others and then gathers
data through personal experience.
ii. The writer observes and then suggests changes and thereafter
observes their outcome. This also helps him to determine whether
his conclusions are correct and whether his recommendations are
practicable?

The writer should not have any pre-conceived conclusions about the
results and should base his findings on the actual results of observation /
experiment.

10. 3RD STEP OF REPORT WRITING

10.1 ORGANIZING & DEVELOPING DATA

After the data is collected, next step is to determine what data is to be
included and what is to be left? The data so selected would be useful only if it is
arranged and divided in a systematic manner or in other words, its classification
and tabulation is done. For example if we have data of accidents, then we can’t
draw any conclusions merely from these figures unless we classify them and
tabulate according to types of accidents, years, nature, etc. The classification is
done on the basis of common characteristics.

i. Make clear what is being classified.

ii. Choose (and state) a significant, useful basis, or guiding principle for
the classification.
iii. Keep all the headings equal.
iv. Apply one rule of classification at a time.
v. Make each classification at a time.
vi. A void overlapping classification as much as possible.

The tabulation principles are:

i. Table should be simple and understandable.

ii. Titles of table should represent the nature of full table.
iii. Titles of columns and rows should be clear.
iv. Table should be according to size of paper.

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v. Major titles of table should be fewer in number, however smaller

titles be in greater number so that the table can be easily
understandable.
vi. If data is so much that it cannot be presented in one table, then it
can be presented in more than one table.

The tables can be simple or complex, but simple present only one
characteristic of data, like:

Major Accidents Minor Accidents

10% 90%

A complex table presents more than one characteristics, like:-

Types of
1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 Total
Accidents
Fire 1 5 0 6
Explosions 3 2 7 12
Elect. Shocks 1 2 1 4
Mech. 7 6 8 21
Road 4 2 3 9

Total : 16 17 19 52

Classification would be as follows:-

Category No. of accidents

Offices 03
Supervisors 10
Workers 37
Others 02

OUTLINE
The writing of report is then done according to outline, which helps to
organize the writing. Normally table of contents provide a good outlines,
though the sequence is not followed and text gets priority over summary,
etc. Three types of outlines are considered useful, which are: sentence,

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topic, and question. In a sentence outline each entry is a complete

sentence. In topic outline each entry is a phrase or a single word, no entry
is in the form of a sentence. In third kind the question outline is of almost
no use to the reader, but it can be very useful to the writer, especially in the
early stages of the writing. In question outline the questions which writer
foresees are to be required to be answered are listed. The grouping and
sub grouping of these questions helps in deciding a plan for the writing
process and a plan for the structure of the paper to be written. After the
questions have been answered, the question outline is transformed into a
sentence or topic outline.
GENERAL APPROACH TO ORGANIZE REPORT
There can be many approaches of organizing a report and various
organizations have different preferences, however, the most popular and
universally accepted format is as follows:-
Preface
Acknowledgement
Table of contents
List of Illustration
Abstract
Summary
Introduction
Text
Conclusion
Recommendation
Appendix / Reference Matter

10.2 ILLUSTRATIONS
Illustrations or graphic aids are form of data presentation which are easy to
prepare and understand. These in their simple or complex form often convey
information or provide dramatic emphasis with an effectiveness that is difficult or
impossible to achieve in writing. The type of illustration selection depends mainly
upon the audience and the purpose of the report.
GENERAL CONSIDERATION FOR VISUAL PRESENTATION
i. There is no need to put into writing the kind of information which can
be easily grasped in the form of illustrations.

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ii. The facts are not restated which have been put into tabular or
graphic form.
iii. Don’t assume that having made a table or graph; nothing needs to
be said about it. A little explanation of how to read it is often helpful.
The significant relationship revealed by the table or graph needs to
be pointed out.
USE OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Illustrations are used in situations:-

i. When words won’t do.

ii. When information is faster and easier to understand in graphic form.
iii. When visuals highlight an important aspect.

PURPOSE
i. To provide a view more vivid and clear than prose.
ii. Emphasize the data which is required to do so.
iii. To pull together diverse data on the basis of similarities or contrasts.
iv. To save time of reader.
v. To condense information.
vi. To present information in a way which is easier to follow and grasp.

TYPES
Tables, Graphs, Diagrams, Photographs, Maps, Computer Graphics,
Charts. (The tables & graphs summaries data and statistics; while charts
and drawings illustrate concepts, processes or concrete objects).
TABLES
These are used to present large amount of data and to give absolute
values where precision is important. Tables show well trends or direction in
data. System of rows and columns of table makes it possible to group data
effectively to make accessible to reader. The guidelines for tables are:
i. Place column to be compared next to each other.
ii. Label each column and row.
iii. Include units of measure in each heading.
iv. Align decimals in a column.
v. Put table number and title at the top.
vi. Use footnotes for more extensive explanations of data or heading.

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GRAPHS
These provide picture of relationship between two variables and show a
comparison, a change over time, or trend. The graphs are of following
types:

a) Line Graph, which shows trend and relationship (number of lines are
limited to 3 or 4 and distinguished by different colours or design)

b) Logarithm graph, which emphasize relative or percentage change.

c) Bar graphs which shows discrete values and set them up for
comparison.

d) Pie Graph, which are used for comparing percentage of money.

Rs. 15

Rs. 50 Rs. 19

Rs. 16

CHARTS
These are interchangeable with graphs. These illustrate relationships, but
are not plotted on a coordinate system. The charts are numbered in order
of appearance (place figure No. & title two spaces below chart); the
headings, quantities and unit of measurement are written horizontally.

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MAPS
These are used to illustrate areas of growth, population density, natural
sources or transport routes.
PHOTOGRAPHS
These provide accurate overall view and show all details as more or less
equal, but fail to emphasize important areas.
DRAWING / DIAGRAMS
These provide sketches or drawings of parts of the item or the steps in a
process. These help to define an object by giving an overview, as in a
technical description and can classify the relationship of parts. The
diagrams can be cut away diagram (which shows the inner side of the item,
the relationships between the inner parts to each other and to the whole);
exploded diagrams (in it the parts seem to be blown apart, yet the parts
appear in their normal arrangements. Such diagrams are useful in
supporting device description or instructions) and process directions and
movement of each part and support process description. These diagrams
also can represent the flow or movement between whole devices or parts
of devices represented only by boxes or circles. These diagrams help an
audience visualize what a device looks like in action or the chorology
between devices in a process).
COMPUTER GRAPHICS
These are primarily for the managers to make quick decision making.

11. 4TH STEP OF REPORT WRITING

11.1 WRITING OF MANUSCRIPT

First of all rough manuscript is written with the help of collected materials
and the outlines. It is prepared to start by expanding the basis of outline and
complete it as a whole, write as quick as possible without stopping to check
spelling, punctuations, etc. and the numbers are missing, but the writer knows
what he wants to say and he may then keep on writing and look up the facts later.
After the writing is completed, its revision is done. While writing manuscript, the
points to be kept in mind are:
i. Achieve a convincing style.

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ii. Eliminate empty words.

iii. Avoid passive voice verbs
iv. Achieve concise style.
v. Achieve logical wording.
vi. Make clear references.
vii. Follow writing standards.
After completing writing, its reading is done to rectify the grammatical
mistakes. The rough draft is now ready. Then it is re-read with the following check
lists:-
i. Expressed yourself in language that conveys exactly what you want
to say?
ii. Used language that is adapted to the principal reader.
iii. Used the fewest words consistent with clearness.
iv. Achieved the tone calculated to bring about the desired response?
v. Tried to produce a style that is not only accurate and clear, and
convincing, but also readable and absorbing.
vi. Present all the pertinent facts and comment upon their significance
where necessary?
vii. Made clear to the reader what action you recommend and why?
viii. Correlated illustration closely with text.
11.2 REVISION
Reading is for the writer and revision is for the reader. In revision, the
check list is that have you:
i. Fulfilled your purpose in terms of the reader’s needs and desires?
ii. Does the paper as a whole develops your thesis statement?
iii. Is there irrelevant material, which can be weeded?
iv. Is logic sound?
v. Have you anticipated counter questions and responded them?
vi. Does the report sound good?

If the revisions make it essential to re-write the entire report or some parts
of it, that is done. The rough draft is again revised till the writer is satisfied. Now it
is ready for final typing.

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12. STANDARD FORMAT OF REPORT

12.1 STRUCTURE OR FORMAT OF REPORT

FRONT PIECE
Cover, title page, preface, acknowledgements, Table of contents, List of
tables and illustrations, Abstract & Summary.
TEXT
Introduction, Main body, Conclusion, and Recommendations.
REFERENCE MATTER
Appendixes, Bibliography, List of Abbreviation, and Glossary.
COVER
It generally contains (1) The title, usually prominently displayed in
underlined capital letters; (2) the report number; and (3) the date.
Occasionally the name of client to whom a report is submitted and the
name or names of authors may also be written, but that is not essential.
Triple spacing between the lines of two and three line titles is advisable.
Normally the companies have their prepared binders, otherwise a plain
Manila folder or one of the readily available pressboard binder can be
used.
TITLE PAGE
It contains title appearing in upper third of the sheet under scored and
centered, all in capital words, with triple spacing between the lines;
recipient of the report; reporter’s names and their professional
identifications; and date of submission.
PREFACE
It is an introduction at the beginning of the report, which explains why the
report has been written or what it is about.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This is normally written after the paper is finished. It is expressing the
thanks for invaluable help provided by others in connection with the report
writing. Acknowledgement can be one independent paragraph on a page or
it can be the closing paragraph of preface.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
It is an analytical outline, modified in form for the sake of appearance. It
provides reference/guide to contents and their page number in the report. Its layout is
follows:-
a) Centre and underscore “Table of Contents” at the top of the page.
Use capitals or lower case letters.
b) Triple space below the words “Table of Contents”, double space
between major items in contents, single space between numerous
subtopics, if any.
c) Begin items with Roman Numerals.
d) Indent second order headings five spaces and third order headings
ten spaces.
e) After last Roman numeral entry, place the word “Index” and write
indexes by labeling them “A”, “B” and so on.
LIST OF TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
If the report contains a half dozen or more illustrations, drawings or other
graphic aids, an index to them follow table of contents. It gives the number,
title, and page reference of each figure in the report.
ABSTRACTS
It presents the report in a nut shell. It provides brief summary of each one
of the major divisions of report. It is usually a single paragraph, double
spaced on a page by itself. It is written in good English, no abbreviation is
used which is not acceptable in main body and no terminology is used
which is unfamiliar for the audience. General guideline for writing abstract
is to state the problem, the scope of work, the significant findings or results,
any major conclusions any major recommendations.
SUMMARY
It is a review or concise restatement of the conclusions / principal points
made in discussions. It contains no new ideas and is always very short as
compared to the length of the report.
INTRODUCTION
It is first part of the text. Its major function is to state exact subject of the
report, its exact purpose, its scope and its plan of development. The
statement of subject may require discussion of background material,

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particularly of history or theory, or both. The statement of scope comprises

range of the subject matter, the detail in which the subject is to be
discussed, and the point of view from which the subject is to be discussed.
The importance of the subject, if needed, is also explained in introduction.
MAIN BODY
It is heart of report. It contains a step by step view of the process by which
the writer moves from introduction to conclusion. It contains the text which
presents the facts and thereafter their analysis. It is generally divided into
major topics and sub topics to present the data in a logical understandable
manner. Whenever any reference of any idea or writing appears in text, its
source is given at the bottom of the page, which is called Footnote.
Generally a line is drawn to separate footnotes from the text and foot note
contains serial number, (consecutive serial number is used throughout the
text) author’s name, Book’s title, date of publication, publisher’s name and
page No. The footnotes are used for (1) Citing necessary information,
(2) additional information or comments not suitable for inclusion in text,
(3) directing the attention of reader to other opinions, or (4) referring the
attention of reader to other pages or section of text.
CONCLUSION
A conclusion is of course an end. In technical writing there are three kinds
of conclusions or way of bringing a report to an end. The first is “aesthetic”,
which brings discussion, smoothly to a stop. In second kind the results of
an investigation or study are stated. The third kind is the decision reached
at the end of a discussion concerning a choice of action, or concerning a
practical problem for which a solution must be presented in the form of a
forthright recommendation as to what action should be undertaken. The
second and third kinds may appear only at the end of the report or both in
the body of the report and at the end. The conclusion contains no new
ideas. It in fact reviews, interprets and clarifies the body.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Recommendations are advices given by writer on the basis of his
conclusions. There are two situations in which recommendations are given.
In first the writer is given specific instructions to prepare recommendations,
and in second, the writer volunteer’s recommendations. The caution

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required for making any for recommendations is that the recommendation

is sound and it has been clearly shown that it is sound; and it does not give
impression that writer is trying to “muscle in” on something. The
recommendations are presented as a numbered list of complete
sentences, each giving separate recommendation.
APPENDIXES
These contain information which is better to be provided to reader, but
which cannot be included in the text. The following information can be
considered for shifting from text to appendixes:
i. Case histories.
ii. Supporting illustrations;
iii. Detailed data; statements,
iv. Copies of letters, statements, govt. orders, etc.
v. Samples, exhibits, photographs, etc.
vi. Extended analysis.
vii. List of personnel.
viii. Suggested
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A type of footnotes, but contains more information. It comes at the end of a
work. As a minimum, it lists, in alphabetical order, all of the works referred
to in the footnotes. The bibliography may often include not only works cited
in footnotes, but also other works consulted but not directly used in the
preparation of paper. Bibliographies are sometimes annotated i.e. they
include after each entry a brief statement about the contents and the value
of the work. Entries in bibliography appear in alphabetical order by the last
name of the author; the items are not numbered.
GLOSSARY
It contains clarifications of technical terms used in the text. If definitions
used are a few then it is appropriate to have it in text with a numeral or
some suitable designating mark or symbol on it and clarification given in
footnote. However, if placing definitions in text gives too many interruptions,
then these are alphabetically placed in glossary.
TYPE SCRIPT STANDARDS
In typed reports, following standards are maintained:

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Paper - white paper of high quality in A4 size.

Margins -
Left side Top Right side Bottom
1 ½ inch 1 inch 1 inch 1 inch
Left hand margin may be extended to 2 inches for binding purposes.
Where quotations are introduced into the text of a report, an
additional five spaces of margin must be allowed, on each side f the
paper.
Spacing and indenting
The text of report should be double spaced throughout, except as
noted below:-
i. Triple - or quadruple - space below centre heading
ii. Single - space center listings ( if items are numerous, number
them).
iii. Single - space long quotations- those that run four or more
lines in length.
iv. Triple space above and below quotations and listings.
v. Single - space individual footnotes more than a line long;
double space between notes.
vi. Single space individual entries in the bibliography; double
space between entries;
vii. Usually, single – space material in Appendix.
viii. Double – space above and below side headings.
ix. Customary indentation at beginning of paragraph is five
spaces.
Paging
Arabic numbers are used in upper right corner, except for
preparatory pages and the first page of the body, and pages that
begin new divisions. The number should be in alignment with right
hand margin, at least two spaces above the first line of text and ¾
inch down from the top edge. The prefatory pages are numbered
with lower-case Roman numerals centered at the bottom of the page

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at least ¾ inch. from the bottom edge. It is customary to omit the

numbers from the title page, although it is counted. The placing of
number on first page of text is also omitted. No punctuation of page
number required.

12.2 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

i. All important titles are written in capital words, while only first and
noun / verb starts with capital words for titles of lesser importance.
Part numbers are either written in roman numerical or in words while
chapter numbers can be written in any fashion.
ii. The chapters have titles and start from new page, while titles are not
required for parts.
iii. Sub-headings have three levels according to their importance.
Underlined or centrally written sub-headings attract more.
iv. Only those abbreviations may be used which very common /
familiar.
v. All contents of Glossary, Appendix, and Bibliography are arranged in
alphabetical order.

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PART - IV

13. ORAL PRESENTATION

13.1 NATURE & TYPE OF ORAL PRESENTATIONS

Oral presentation means communication through oral words and gestures.
In other words these are inter-personal performances in which concise technical
information is provided to an attending audience in meetings or lectures. The
audience could be one person or to a group. It is either short talk (up to 10
minutes) or long talk (for longer periods). Short talk is normally progress report,
introductory words, etc., while long talk is of research or on a given topic.
However for good talk, 7 ‘Cs’ must be kept in mind and visual aids available must
be effectively utilized.

Oral presentations could be any of the following types:-

i. Extemporaneous--- Keep main points on piece of paper, so that no

point is missed. It allows maximum eye contact and more verbal and
non-verbal involvement with the audience.
ii. Reading--- of written speech. It has less eye contact or impact.
iii. Memorization--- Entire speech remembered by heart. In it start is
easy, but one may mix up later. There is also risk of forgetting the
precise words in front of an audience, thus decreasing the credibility
of the speaker.
iv. Impromptu--- Extempore speech, always very effective and conveys
original ideas. In it one is called to speak ‘off the cuff’, without
preparation, and without a forewarning.

13.2 TECHNICAL PRESENTATIONS / BRIEFINGS

Technical presentations or briefings are focused oral presentations that use

visual aids. Normally these are informative, demonstrative (how to work?) and
persuasive (convincing). However, the steps required for effective oral presentations and
briefings are as follows:-

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a) Plan the presentation--- i.e. Define the purpose, analyze the audience
and tailor the presentation accordingly, analyze the occasion and tailor
the presentation accordingly, and choose a suitable title.
b) Preparing the presentation--- i.e. Develop the central idea, develop the
main ideas, gather supporting materials, and plan visual aids.
c) Organize the presentation--- i.e. Introduction, main body, and
conclusions.
d) Rehearse the presentation.
e) Improving delivery for professional performance before the audience---
i.e. Choosing suitable delivery method ( memorizing, reading or
outlining) and handling stage fright ( concentration on planning, setting
realistic goals, avoiding negative thoughts, speaking slowly, starting
with a pause, and adopting stress relieving techniques like deep
breathing, mental relaxation, etc.).
f) Checklist for making an oral presentation:
Start with confidence
Be organized with introduction, main body and conclusions
Stay relaxed
Pay attention to your body language and keep eye contact
Use appropriate visual aids
Pay attention to all details
Close in memorable way

14.3 USE OF VISUAL AIDS

Visual aids capture attention, illustrate important concepts, increase

listener’s ability to absorb information, help the speaker to remember message
details, and help in making more professional impression. Computer software
helps in preparing the slides used for presentation, and Microsoft Power point is
the best example of it. However, visual aids must be used to highlight spoken
words and not as a substitute for them. The visuals are either text visuals or
graphic visuals. Text visuals help listeners follow the flow of ideas and should not
normally exceed six lines with more than six words in each line, while graphic
visuals present and emphasize important facts. Before including visual for
presentation, one must re-check: (i) Is the visual necessary (a few visual can

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clarify and dramatize, but many can bury it)? (ii) Is the visual accurate? , and (iii)
Is the visual properly documented? However, following factors be kept in mind for
visual aids:-
a) These are most effective when they are simple.
b) Visuals are counter productive if the audience cannot see them or
understand them within a few moments.
c) Graphic visuals must be simplified as much as possible.
d) Effective visuals do not distract the audience or upstage the speaker.
e) Limit each visual to one idea.
f) Illustrate main points, not entire presentation.

Normally the format for presentations through visual aids is:-

 Title Chart
 Overview Charts (i.e. topics to be discussed)
 Discussion charts
 Summary charts
 Concluding charts

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