3

Cochin
4
 5

Undoubtedly the commercial and industrial capital

of the state of Kerala, the city of Cochin is where
ancient civilization gracefully mingles with modern
life. Right from the early years, Cochin has had cultural
and trade relations with the outside world. She has
also experienced pulsating episodes of European
colonial rivalry. With its all-weather natural harbour,
serene backwater, beautiful lagoons, wooded isles,
and a magnificent seascape, Cochin is known all over
the world as the Queen of the Arabian Sea.

Cochin has become the epicentre of Kerala's

developmental hopes with global geographical
advantages. Cochin is poised for a big leap forward
in all the sunrise industries such as Information
Technology, Bio-Technology and Tourism, and also
in areas like Multi Model Transport Linkages, IT
Connectivity and Bandwidth Commercial Track
Record. The Cochin Port and the economic activities
associated with it form the major economic base of
Cochin.

This land is also proud of its rich cultural and natural

heritage, cosmopolitan character and high social
index. These strengths in vital areas are the engines
that can propel this city into a real growth centre.

The vibrant cultural landscape of Cochin, wherein

almost sixteen different linguistic and cultural groups
coexist even today, is marked by its rich customs,
traditions and art forms. Cochin is indeed a classical
example of creating an urban environment in which
diversity becomes a source of strength rather than
that of conflict.
6
 7

This book is an attempt to bring information related

to this city's birth, growth and spread in a concise
form. Here, emphasis has been given to historical
data pertaining to the city and its nearby areas.

I am sure this monograph will give you a glimpse of

the land of Cochin and its environs. We will be
comming out with a detailed and well researched
version of this book before long.

C.M.Dinesh Mani
Mayor of Cochin
Kerala, India.
8

Introduction

Cochin, originally known as
Perumpadappu Swaroopam, is the
beautiful cosmopolitan city of Malayalees.
Rightly known as the Queen of the
Arabian Sea, it has attracted many
voyagers and traders over the centuries.
The Greco-Romans and all other east
bound Western trade interests had their
strong presence here in the early period
of trade and commerce. Then there were
the Arabs who were followed by the
Chinese in search of spices. It was the
scene of the first European settlement in
India early in 1500 when the Portuguese,
the Dutch, and then the English came here
and added to the rich history of this land.
Ruled by many Maharajas and Divans,
9
this city evolved through the centuries,
assimilating the cultures of the many
communities from all over the globe who
made it their home. It was well known all
over the world for spices, cashew nuts,
tea, coir products, handicrafts etc. The
prosperity that all this brought is well
attested by the Italian traveller Nicolo
Conti who described Cochin, as early as
five centuries ago, as “a place prosperous
enough to spend the money one makes
in China”. It is now the commercial capital
of the State of Kerala. With a rich cultural
heritage, be it in art forms, literature, or
music, Cochin is truly today’s symbol of
Kerala’s progress and promise of
prosperity.
10

Etymology
 11

Cochin was originally known as historians believe that Cochin is a

modified form of the word Cochazhi,
Perumpadappu Nad after a village in the
Ponnani Taluk of Malabar. The name which in Malayalam means small sea.
Cochin was given to the town that came According to some accounts, traders from
into existence after the formation of the the court of the Chinese ruler Kublai Khan
harbour in 1341. Later, the country in the gave Cochin the name of their homeland.
immediate vicinity of the town and finally, Still another theory is that Cochin is
the whole territory under the ruling family, derived from the word Kaci meaning
Perumpadappu Swaroopam, came to be harbour. According to yet another scholar,
known as Cochin. Neither in the earlier the place name Cochin is derived from
notices of Malabar nor in the accounts of the term Cocha, which is a transfiguration
Pliny (AD 23-79), Ptolemy, Periplus of the of the Biblical term Cohen.
Erythrean Sea, Marco Polo (AD
1290-93) nor Ibn Batuta do we
find any mention of a place
named Cochin. The first mention
of Cochin is made sixty years after
the formation of the harbour by
Ma Huan, a Chinese
Mohammedan, and later by the
Italian traveller Nicolo Conti (AD
1440). These writers, as well as
those of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, variously
called the town Cocym, Cochym,
Cochin, Cochi etc.

Though believed to be a
corruption of the Sanskrit ‘go sri’,
meaning prospe- rous with cows,
the word Cochin’s first portion
definitely is the Malayalam word
kochu meaning small or young.
The town is called Balapuri in the
Kerala Mahatmyam and other
Sanskrit works. Nicolo Conti (15th
century) and Fra Paoline in the
17th century say that it was called
Kochchi after the river connecting
the backwaters and the sea. Some
12

Geography

Location
The former kingdom of Cochin lay
between 9’48’ and 10’50’ Latitude and
76’5’ and 76’58’E Longitude. For
administrative purposes, it was divided
into five taluks, viz., Kanayannur-Cochin,
Mukundapuram, Trichur (Thrissur),
Talapilli, and Chittur along with the tiny
principality of Cranganore (Kodungallur).
Cochin City is in the Ernakulam District
of Kerala, the State formed by the merger
of the former kingdoms of Travancore,
Cochin and Malabar (which was a part
of the Madras Presidency under the
British). Ernakulam District is bounded on
the north by Thrissur District, on the east
by Idukki District and on the south by
Kottayam and Alappuzha (Aleppey)
13
districts. The Arabian Sea envelops the city
all along the western boundary. It lies
almost at sea level.
Geographical Features
The geographical peculiarities of Cochin
and its surrounding areas have
contributed to the uniqueness of the
culture of the city and the region. The
geography of the region mainly consists
of lowland along the seaboard and the
city lies barely 2 metres above the sea
level.
Plains
Much of the area is ‘plain’ land having
natural facilities of drainage via
backwaters, canals and rivers. Cochin
Taluk is divided into two blocks by the
14
Cochin Azhi (backwaters), viz. Vypeen
Kara on the northern and Fort Cochin to
Chellanam on the southern sides.
Sea Coast, Estuaries, Lakes, Islands etc.
The seacoast, about 30 miles in length,
falls entirely in the Cochin Taluk. The
Cochin Harbour, a major natural harbour,
is also situated in this Taluk. The
backwaters in the Cochin and Kanayannur
Taluks are dotted with small islands, the
main ones being Willingdon, Vypeen,
Ramanthuruthu, Ponjikkara (Bolghatty
Island), Vallarpadom, Kumbalam,
Cheranelloor etc. Most of these islands
are very small, varying in extent from 4
square miles to less than a square mile
and are favourably fertile for the luxuriant
growth of coconut palms.
Rivers
The main rivers in this area are the Periyar
and Muvattupuzha. The Periyar flows
through all the taluks except Cochin. In
the rainy season the water level in the
Muvattupuzha river rises 25-30 feet in
certain areas, but in the summer season
there is barely a foot of water in some
places.
Lakes
A portion of the Vembanad Lake falls
within Cochin Taluk. On the northern side
of the North Paravur Taluk lies the
Kodungallur Kayal and on the southern
side, the Varapuzha Kayal.
Geology
The geological succession is as follows:
• Recent sediments (Alluvium, Teri’s,
Brown sands etc.), Mud banks, Laterite.
• Archaean-Basic Dykes, Charnockites,
Gneisses.
• The entire western part is covered by
recent sediments.
Flora
The flora is characteristically tropical. The
heavy rainfall combined with moderate
temperature and fertile soil support
luxuriant vegetation.
The common plants found in the lowland
coastal area that forms a somewhat
narrow belt are Launaea, Ipomoea,
Portulaca, Hydrocotyle, Spinifex, Lippia,
Moniera, Cynodon, Digitari, Cyperus etc.
Coconut is extensively cultivated.
There are many tidal mangrove
formations of Rhizophora, Avicennia,
Sonneratia, Acrostichum etc.

Fauna
Though the greater part of the region is
mainland, the abundant backwater system
favours a large and varied fish population
and wading and water birds. The
monkeys, carnivores, elephants,
ungulates, bats and insectivores, and
dolphins in the backwaters represent the
mammals.
Bonnet, Lion tailed, Langur, and Loris are
the monkey species found. The leopard
cat, jungle cat, civets and toddy cats are
the cats found commonly. Mongooses are
represented by three or four species.
Jackal and wild dog represent the dog
tribe. Lutra vulgaris or the otter is the only
aquatic carnivore in this area. The deer
tribe has the Sambar, Barking Deer,
Spotted Deer and Mouse Deer. Elephants
are plentiful in the forests.
Bats are well represented. Rats and mice
15
are only too common. The dolphins in
the backwaters, especially near the
Cochin Bar, represent aquatic mammals.
The bird fauna is rich and varied and the
common birds seen around human
habitats and cultivated areas are the
Jungle crow, House crow, Drengo, Bulbul,
Magpie, Robin, Tailorbird etc.
Weaverbird, Parakeet, and Larks are also
very commonly seen. Terns, Pond Heron,
Black Bittern etc., that are noticed along
the lakes and the backwaters, represent
water birds. Ducks are represented by the
Teals (Malayalam - Eranda), which are
winter visitors and occur along the
backwaters in the season.
Several species of lizards are found in this
area but the most familiar are the Geckos
represented by the house lizard. Monitor
lizard, chameleon and garden lizard are
the other types. Common snakes are
Python, Rat Snake, Wolf Snake, and
16
freshwater snakes locally called Neerkoli
or Pulavan etc. The common poisonous
snakes found are the Naia naia, King
Cobra, Pit Viper, Indian Coral Snake etc.
Crocodiles consist of Crocodilus porosus
and Crocodilus palustris. Turtles and
tortoises of various kinds are also found.
Common fishes found are the Scoliodon
(Dog fish), Pristis, Narcine, Otolithus,
Arius, Serranus, Ambassis, Clupia,
Gobius, Diodon etc.
Sponges are abundant along the coasts.
Coelenterata are represented by species
of Anemones, Hydroids, Medusa etc.
Annelida are represented by Polychaets
or marine bristle worms, leeches, etc. The
Mollusca are well represented in this area.
The backwaters and coasts teem with
oysters and in the backwaters and
estuaries large quantities of clams are
found.
Climate
The region has a tropical humid climate
with an oppressive hot season and
plentiful seasonal rainfall. The hot season
from March to May is followed by the
South-West Monsoon season from June
to September and the North-East
Monsoon from October to November/
mid-December. The period from
December-end to February is generally
dry.
Rainfall
The average annual rainfall is 3431.8
mm. The rainfall increases from the coast
towards the interior. The South-West
Monsoon generally sets in during the last
week of May or first week of June. The
rainfall in the South-West Monsoon
months of June to September constitutes
about 68 per cent of the annual rainfall.
June and July are the rainiest months when

45 per cent of the annual rainfall is
received. The rainfall gradually decreases
after July and picks up again by the end
of September/early October, when the
North-East Monsoon sets in.
A good amount of rain, mostly as
thundershowers, occurs in April and May.
The variation in the annual rainfall from
year to year is not large.
Temperature, Relative humidity and
Cloudiness
Temperatures begin increasing after
February. March and April are generally
the hottest months. In the interiors the day
temperature may be a little higher than
the coastal region. The air is very humid
throughout the year, the relative humidity
being generally over 90 per cent.
17
Skies are heavily clouded to overcast in
the South-West Monsoon season whereas
in the North-East Monsoon months the
sky generally gets overcast by the evening
when it rains in intense bursts with thunder.
In May and the post-monsoon season of
a few days in December, skies are
generally moderately to heavily clouded.
In the other months clear or lightly clouded
skies are common.
Winds
Winds are generally light to moderate with
some increase in force in the summer and
monsoon seasons. In the South-West
Monsoon season the winds are mainly
Westerly or North-easterly. During the rest
of the year winds are North-easterly in the
morning and from between South-West
and North-West in the afternoon.
18

Vembanad Region & the Islands of Cochin
For this century Cochin has been Kerala’s
most powerful financial, commercial, and
cultural centers. The legacy of this power
and prosperity can be seen throughout
the city, its port, islands, core and
hinterlands.
Geographically Cochin forms a natural
harbour at the Arabian Sea and falls on
the favorite trade channels from west. The
city had developed with the old city, the
defense establishment and the port on
islands and it anchors on the mainland
where the newer parts of the city had
cherished and established.
Kochu a small branch of the Periyar River,
which flows in to the sea mouth of the
19
Vembanad estuary, gave this place the
name ‘Cochin’.
Cochin City lies at the sea mouth of seven
major rivers flushing out into the Arabian
Sea, which start from the Western Ghats
and travel through Kerala’s midlands,
lowlands and coastal areas. They carry
sediments right from the hills and deposit
all around the sea mouth creating the
huge estuarine system of the Vembanad
Lake. The lake stretches 70Kms south, and
35Kms north of the sea mouth and further
penetrates the land as fingers of
backwaters. Similar backwater formations
can be found all over Kerala’s coastal
zones. The unique geographic features of
20
the region, the cultural landscapes
moulded by the natural systems and oldest
trade history in the world with its
characteristic natural and built
environment thus reflecting an image, give
rise to the identity of the Vembanad
Region.
HISTORY OF THE REGION AND ITS
DEVELOPMENT
The Vembanad backwater region is one
of its kind, listed in the proposals for
World’s out-standing land-scapes, is a
major attraction for tourism also. Seafood,
agriculture, coconut cultivation and
related activities are the predominant
cultural backgrounds of this region
combined with the region’s long history
of international trade. In fact this trade
history is one of the oldest in international
trade linking east and the west. It started
with Yavanas (Greeks and Romans), and
Babylonians around 1500BC. The region
had trade links with Arabs and further with
Portuguese, Dutch and English people in
the later years.
A series of port locations were found in
the line where the lowlands meet the
coastal areas and according to the
geological history of the region, the
present coastline of Kerala was formed in
the last 1000-1200 years of its natural
processes. This had changed the locations
of the ports according to the receding sea
and formation of sandbars and islands of
the coastal zone, where finally Cochin
became a major port of the region in the
mid 20th century.
The region has a history of intensive trade
of spices brought from the hills through
the 7 rivers, which ignited a series of

cultural interactions and invasions.
Buddhist culture found here belonged to
the before Christ period. Few among the
Jews who were dislocated from the Middle
East had reached and settled here.
Christianity started here even before it
spread in Europe. Islam started here at
the time when it was born. The first
instances of colonialism that had
happened in the world were in this region
by Portuguese and further by Dutch. The
trade history also included lots of ethnic
groups from all over India coming to this
region and handling its various aspects
of trade
21
The settlement patterns thus reflect the
regions ecological history. The trade, folk,
linguistic and livelihood history, and the
historical development of its natural setting
is all reflected in the architectural
character of the region’s settlement
patterns. Vembanad region dominated by
the backwaters with its unique cultural
expressions lives in delicate ecological
balancing mechanism.
NATURAL ECOLOGICAL FEATURES
The physical spread of the Vembanad
region refers to the low lying areas
surrounding the Vembanad Lake, which
also is the delta of Pullot, Periyar,
22

comprising of about 490

km2 of paddy fields, 300
km2 of garden lands and
remaining portion, the
Vembanad Lake
consisting of lagoons,
canals, rivers, rivulets and
the like. Nearly 60% of the
area excluding the lake
lies below sea level at a
depth of 0.5m to 2m
mostly spread across
Kuttanad. The entire
region is half submerged in
water during june to
January every year which
is the monsoon season and
are protected by bunds etc.
from floods and tides.
The Vembanad ecosystem
is influenced by salt-water
incursion during high tide
in dry season and fresh
water inundation during
monsoon rains. This
condition perpetuated for
centuries. Though there
were some environmental
disturbance due to these
activities, it is believed that
the natural ecosystem was
not seriously affected.

CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE NATURAL ECO-
Muvattupuzha, Achencoil, Pamba,
LOGICAL FEATURES
Manimala and Meenachil Rivers
originating from the Western Ghats. The GEOMORPHOLOGY
region lies between 90 15’ – 90 35’ N Physiographically, this area is unique in
latitude and 76 0 23’ – 76 0 35’ E the sense that the entire region is a product
longitude. It covers an area of 870 km2 of fluvial-estuarine agencies modified by
 23

human activities in terms of reclamation. deposition. A large area, originally below

The entire region is formed of Tertiary and sea level, has also been subjected to
quaternary sediments flanked by reclamation.---
Precambrian rocks along the eastern
border. The eastern extension of the GEOLOGY
Vembanad Kayal may probably represent On land sedimentary formation,
the coastline at any one phase in the belonging essentially to the Neocene
geological past revealed by the
existence of dune chains. Literary
records also confirm this. It can
be inferred from the evidence
that the study region was under
the sea in the recent geological
time.
At present, the region appears
as a saucer shaped basin
flanked by sand dunes on the
west and low lateritic hills in the
east. The central area is a
deltaic region formed by the river
systems. These rivers were earlier
debauching directly into the sea
near the apex of the delta but
before the delta formation was
completed, the sea might have
receded. The dune chains on the
west of the Vembanad Lake,
initially as a sand bar, probably
emerged much earlier before the
completion of land by the
process of fluvial deposition.
Consequently, the water body
enclosed by the dune chain in
the west and landmass on the
east evolved as Vembanad Lake.
Predominance of silt and fine
sand within the soil composition
of the lower Kuttanad is a
convincing evidence of the
major role of estuarine
24
period and Quaternary period
unconformably overlie the Precambrian
rocks. These belong to the late Miocene
age. Sediment of the Quaternary period
consisting of sands, lagoonal clays, shell
deposits, teri sand, etc unconformably
overlie the Neocene sediments. Total
thickness of the sedimentary sequence
exceeds 600m in this region. These
evidences further reinforce the previous
arguments regarding the formation of the
region.
SOILS
The soil of the region can be divided into
four broad groups – These are Coastal
alluvium, Colluvic alluvium, Acid saline
and Hydromorphic saline. The extreme
western part of the coastline is dominated
by sandy soil & the eastern part, all along
the eastern border of the region. Fluviatile
alluvium and colluvial soil are observed
in the inter-hilly basins. Acid saline soils
mostly covers the Kuttanad & North of
Cochin. A considerable portion of the
area (8,000 hectares) has been reclaimed
from the lakebeds. These areas are
covered by Kayal soil. The Karappadam
soil has developed along rivers and
channels as a flood plain deposit. It
spreads over large part of the region
covering an area of 41,000 hectares. The
Karisoils is a peat soil developed in the
swampy areas. Isolated patches are seen
in the southwest, northeast and
northwestern part. This soil is deep black
in colour with half decomposed organic
matter, indicating the subsidence of
previously mentioned forest area under
water. The Hydromorphic saline soils has
developed in the area surrounding the
backwaters
SURFACE HYDROLOGY
The Pampa, Manimala and Achencoil
have formed one integrated drainage
system, which dominates the southern,
and south Central part of the region by
developing a beautiful delta
incomparable in the whole of Kerala.
Muvattupuzha and Minachil flushes into
the Vembanad Lake through historical
landward edges. Where as the the Periyar
and Pullot which flow from the northern
end of this region has developed more
siltation and thus the formation of many
islands in this region.
GEOMORPHOLOGIC FORMATION &
DEVELOPMENT HISTORY
The Vembanad Lake and its environs owe
its formation to a series of transgressions
and recessions of the sea as a result of
various natural forces that possibly acted
on it over a period of millions of years.
According to geologic evidences and
literary accounts including legends, the
following sequence of events may be
attributed to as the forces that shaped the
region.
PHASE I – (2.5 TO 4 MILLION YEARS
AGO)
The Kerala coast originally had three
major physiographic divisions. They are
the
· Highlands
· Midlands and
· Lowlands.

The lowlands, where the region under
consideration is situated, were supposed
to have been covered by a thick forest.
(See Fig.1
PHASE II – (2.5 MILLION YEARS AGO
TO 2ND CENT AD)
The lowlands were inundated by a
transgression of the sea caused by a
sudden natural calamity (earth quake or
forest fire) that led to the subsidence of
the forest beneath the sea. Traces of the
buried forest are found in this region such
as Kari lands, 50cm to 1m below ground
level in the form of logs of wood in the
process of being transformed into peat.
The forest mentioned as the Khandava
Vana in Mahabharat and the fire that burnt
it down is also attributed to this incident
by some authors.
From LANDSAT images of the coastal
region, a chain of inland sand dunes can
be traced and the sea is believed to have
extended to this line. This line also
coincides with the series of port towns
mentioned in the 1st century records by
Pliny and in Ptolomey’s map. Interestingly
from their accounts we also learn that
Kodungallur (MUZIRIS) used to have spice
trade with Babylonians before 1000BC.
In 1st century AD Budhism flourished, Jew
colony was formed and St. Thomas had
come to Muziris. It must be noted that the
entire Vembanad Lake region used to flush
out to the sea through its mouth at
Kodungallur. It was the Chera capital upto
12th century AD.
Parur, which is geographically close to
Kodungallur, has been found with
evidences of Greek Trade during the
25
period of 200BC to 600AD. Tripunithura,
another town south east of Kodungallur
and Parur, is said to have Greek trade
around the same time, which also found
a place in Ptolemy’s map. Vaikom is
shown as another port town in the same
accounts during 1st century AD and further
south Kottayam too had evidences of
Greek Trade.
Purakkad (Porka) was also there in
Ptolemy’s map and around that time in
1 st and 2 nd Century AD Niranam
(Nelcynda) was described as a port. St.
Thomas in his travel reached Niranam
and established a church here.
All this clearly says that the Geographical
evidences match with the Port Locations
of that time and tells us that the Arabian
Sea actually extended upto Niranam and
Vaikom in south with a projection of land
mass at the southern end from Mavlikkara
to Purakkad. Where as in North
Thripunithura, Kodungallur and Parur all
becoming part of the trade activity sort of
defines the sea extent of that time. (See
Fig 2
PHASE III – (2ND CENT TO 10TH CENT
AD)
This phase is responsible for the formation
of the linear mass of land on the west of
the Vembanad Kayal and the profile of
Vembanad Kayal itself in its present form.
The dune chains that lie in the western
side of the present Kayal today, were
initially parts of a sandbar formed by
estuarine deposition by the combined
action of the detritus carrying rivers and
the turbulent monsoon sea and a sandbar
that was inhabited in due course of time.
26
It is also possible that the Vembanad Kayal
is probably the result of an embayment
of a large graben in the offshore, as
pointed out by the configuration of the
Kayal in the northern part. It can thus be
inferred that the Vembanad Kayal is the
zone of unfinished deposition “of structural
origin and subsequently modified by
fluvio- estuarine deposition”. The marshy
land left behind by the deposition of the
river system parallel to the recession of
the sea made the estuary to confine itself
to the present Vembanad Kayal. This vast
marshy tract of land had mangrove
vegetation and fauna like crocodiles and
jackals.
These natural activities have led to the
formation of the long sandbar from
Kodungallur to Alleppey and subsequently
the formation of small islands in the entire
region. (See fig3)
PHASE IV – (10TH CENT TO 20TH CENT
AD)
This phase saw major uphill land
development and cultivation activities in
the catchment of the Seven Rivers, which
flushed through the Vembanad Region,
resulted from the major demand for
spices, which was initiated by the trade
activities. Due to disturbances in land
masses the rivers started to bring in more
sediments and siltation happened in a
greater pace
Now, looking at the historical evidences
in relation to Trade activities of the region,
in 1341 AD a great flood happened in
Periyar and the port of Kodungallur silted
up. This geographical phenomenon led
to the development of another big sea
mouth for the Lake region at Cochin. The
traders in this region slowly started to
move towards south to Cochin and
Alleppey in the hope of establishing trade
towns. Purakkad developed strong trade
links with Portuguese in 1528 AD and
Dutch in 1642 AD. It was part of the
Chempakasseri Kingdom at that time.
Subsequently, Njarakkal started to gain
attention through its geographical feature
of mud banks, which allowed it to have a
all weather port. Looking at the
geographical advantage of the region, in
18th Century AD, Raja Kesavadas built a
New Port town of Alleppey in consultation
with the Dutch. Up to 1980 Alleppey was
a major port with heavy international
activities. After this, from the geographic
evidences, we learn that the mud bank
phenomenon was slowly moving towards
north on the shore, which has taken away
Alleppey’s status of being an all weather
port. The advent of Cochin as a major
port has seen the decline of Alleppey.
During this period Cochin was slowly
developing into an international trade
region. The great flood in Periyar washed
away 600 feet of land creating the sea
mouth and natural harbour of Cochin.
In 1440 AD Cochin City grew around
Mattancherry settlement as a city of 5
miles of circumference and Chinese and
Arabs used to trade with the natives of
the town. The Cochin Rajas ruled Cochin
in the period from 12th century onwards.
(Before that it was part of Vempalinad
under the Chera rule.)
In 1500 AD Portuguese had come to
Cochin after Calicut and subsequently
Portuguese Fort (Manuel Kota) was built

in Fort Cochin. In 16th Century AD Jews
moved in from Kodungallur (Muziris) to
Sanda Cochin and many ethnic groups
from North India arrived. All this showed
that being the geographic feature of the
Sea Mouth of the Vembanad Region has
given it the locational advantage to
become a major trade zone
In 1662 AD, Dutch invaded and killed
Raja of Cochin in a battle and a Dutch
Fort was built over Portuguese Fort. Later
they built the Bolghatty Palace. 1790 AD
Sakthan Thampuran takes over as Cochin
Raja and in his time an Anchal postal
system started here.
1795 AD British took over Cochin from
the Dutch. And subsequently in 1840 AD
Cochin rulers shifted to Ernakulam.
Ernakulam Market and associated
settlements flourished during this period.
The opening of Suez Canal in 1869 AD
emphasized the importance of Cochin Port
as a coaling station. Dredging of port and
formation of Willingdon Island was
initiated under the design and direction
of Sir Robert Bristow in 1920 AD.
Ernakulam – Sharanur railway line was
27
opened and subsequently major railroad
connections were introduced connecting
Islands of Cochin to the main land. After
Independence Cochin was declared as
major port by the Govt. of India
NATURE HAS ITS FINAL HAND
Recently in 2004 AD the Islands of
Vypeen, Vallarpadam and Bolghatty were
all connected to the mainland through
Goshree Bridges Project. Cochin is
planning to elevate its global status by
another major project of the Proposed
Transshipment terminal at Vallarpadam
Island.
As one closely watches nature’s activity
in the region of Cochin sea mouth one
would be surprised to learn that nature is
still modifying the shape and volume of
land masses in the islands of cochin. In
last 10 years huge amount of land was
accreted at the west of Vypeen and the
Beach at Fort Cochin was washed away
to a great extent. The whole of Vembanad
Region today, is a major Tourist attraction
for its outstanding Cultural Landscape.
The constant interaction between man
and nature in this region has seen an
absolute symbiosis.
28

History of Cochin

Prehistory and Archaeology of Cochin
Archaeologically, although Cochin is
rich in proto-historic and historic relics,
the pre-history of Cochin has always
remained a mystery. There has been no
clear evidence of Stone Age man
inhabiting these regions. H.D. Sankalia
has remarked that this absence in
paleoliths may be because no search has
been made for it or else because of truly
geographical reasons. When the
neighbouring states of Tamilnadu,
Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka have
yielded evidence of palaeolithic sites, it
is difficult to accept that prehistoric man
did not set foot in Keralam.
Vennala is an important site where a
Neolithic axe has been found. Cochin
forms the central part of the Megalithic
29
belt of Keralam. The most important
prehistoric monuments belonging to the
Neolithic age seen in the area are
dolmens and menhirs containing relics
such as bones, stones and other
implements, pottery and beads. However,
compared to the neighbouring districts of
Trichur and Kottayam they are not
extensively found here. One of the sites
where dolmens are found is Vadattupara
in Malayattur Reserve. Compared to the
other commonly found dolmens in the
neighbouring regions, the dolmens found
here are much smaller and cruder in
shape. A menhir has also been found in
Tripunithura in Kanayannur Taluk.
Kodanad in Kunnathunad Taluk is another
important site where, during the Periyar
30

Canal excavation in 1963, relics of Village till the end of the 13th century.
Monolithic culture dating from 200 BC In the 13th and 14th centuries the Zamorins
to 1st century AD were found. Terracotta who had become the masters of a vast
male figurines with beard and female dominion in northern and central
forms in worshipping posture along with Keralam, posed a serious threat to the
elephant tusks, potsherds with engravings Perumpadappu Swaroopam. Due to this
etc. were found at this site. the headquarters was shifted to Cochin
Very little is known about the history of around 1405 AD. Accounts of Ma Huan,
Cochin prior to the arrival of the a Chinese Muslim attached to the suite of
Portuguese as neither inscriptions nor Cheng Ho the envoy of Emperor Yong Lo,
literary works throw much light. Cochin is who visited Cochin in 1409 AD, mentions
not even mentioned in any of the earlier that the king or the ruler is of solar race
foreign notices of Malabar. Neither in the and a sincere believer in Buddhism. His
accounts of Pliny, Ptolemy, Marco Polo or account gives details about the types of
Ibn Batuta do we find any mention,
though they give detailed accounts
of places situated to the north and
south of Cochin. Though it is
generally believed that Cochin port
was formed only as late as 1341 there
is also the possibility of its existence
as a small harbour even earlier. In
1341 the heavy floods that took place
in the Periyar River silted up
Cranganore Harbour (Kodungallur).
Useless for purposes of trade, this
decline in the importance of
Cranganore led to Cochin’s rise into
prominence and commercial
supremacy. The Cochin royal family
is much more ancient. The ruler of
Cochin State following the break-up
of Kulasekhara (1102 AD) was a king
whose authority was confined to
Cochin and adjoining areas. The
Cochin ruler from the Perumpadappu
family was the descendant of the
Kulasekharas of Mahodayapuram in
the maternal line. They were based
at Chitrakudam in Perumpadappu

clothes, houses, classes of men, trade etc.
Another account of this time is that of
Nicolo Conti, an Italian traveller who
visited Cochin in 1440 AD.
Conflict between Cochin and Calicut
By the beginning of the 15th century the
Zamorin had grown in power and prestige
and acquired suzerainty over the ruler of
Cochin. The Zamorin’s possession of
Cranganore, steadfast ally in the ruler of
Edappally, and internal strife among the
members of the Perumpadappu
Swaroopam were the factors that provided
him with a decisive advantage over the
Cochin ruler.
Towards the close of the 15th century the
internal dissensions in the Perumpadappu
Swaroopam gave an opportunity to the
Zamorin to interfere in its affairs and effect
further territorial conquests. On the eve
of the arrival of the Portuguese in Keralam,
Cochin was a small principality dependent
on Calicut. It’s ruler was Zamorin’s
partisan, a member of the Mootha
Thavazhi. The Anchikaimals or the five
nobles who held sway over Ernakulam
and neighbouring territories on the coast
also proclaimed their allegiance to the
Zamorin and repudiated the authority of
the Cochin Raja.
The Portuguese Period
It was during this time that the Portuguese
Admiral, Pedro Alveraz Cabral, landed at
Cochin on 24 December 1500. The
Cochin Raja, Unni Godavarma, received
his emissaries with great warmth and
friendliness. A treaty of friendship was
signed. The Portuguese were allowed to
31
build a factory at Cochin and the
Portuguese promised to add Calicut to the
Cochin Raja’s dominions. At Cabral’s
suggestion, a few leading Nairs were
taken as hostages in the ships but to the
Raja’s displeasure Cabral left in panic at
the sight of the Calicut fleet. Anxious to
get Portuguese assistance he took no
reprisals against the Portuguese left on
shore. Joao Da Nova, the next Portuguese
captain who was received with warmth,
had to face the hostility of the Zamorin.
The indignant Portuguese King sent Vasco
Da Gama next and after bombarding
Calicut and annihilating the Arab
merchants, he arrived at Cochin on 7
November 1502. Alarmed at the
Portuguese commercial triumphs at
Cochin, the Zamorin in anger at the
Cochin Raja’s refusal to heed his
ultimatum, marched into the heart of the
Cochin Kingdom at the head of a large
army. The war between Calicut and
Cochin began on 1 March 1503. Cochin
Raja was soon forced to take refuge in a
temple at Vypeen. The Zamorin ordered
the town of Cochin to be burnt and went
to blockade the island of Vypeen.
However, on account of the monsoon
setting in, he raised the blockade and after
fortifying Cochin with a ditch and rampart
and leaving a strong force there, departed
for Calicut. He intended to renew the
blockade after the Onam festival in
August. The arrival of a small Portuguese
fleet under Francisco De Albuquerque
alarmed the Calicut army at Cochin and
they soon left the city in panic. The ruler
of Cochin was then conducted
triumphantly to Cochin and re-established
32

in the possession of his kingdom.

After this the Portuguese extracted
concessions from the Raja who entered
into a treaty with the Anchikaimals, who
repudiated their allegiance to Zamorin.
The Portuguese also obtained permission
from the Raja to erect a fort at Cochin for
the protection of the Portuguese factory.
A convenient spot close to the edge of
the river was chosen and the foundation
stone laid on 27 September 1503. The
Raja supplied all the materials and
workers for the work. The fort was a square
structure of 183 yards surrounded by a
deep moat. The fort, when completed,
was christened Manuel Kotta or Fort
Manuel after the reigning king of Portugal.
The two Albuquerques sailed from India
in 1504, leaving Duarte Pacheco with
about 150 Portuguese and 300 native
soldiers and some vessels to defend
Cochin. The Zamorin once again tried to
regain Cochin but his attempts were
thwarted by the Portuguese when, after 5
months of war, the Zamorin was forced
to return. The Raja, Unni Rama Koil II,
continued to rule with Portuguese help.
From now onwards a convention was in the Raja to Christianity. His immediate
force for about a century and a half that successors were incompetent. The only
the succession to the throne of Cochin important development of the period was
should be confined to the Elaya Thavazhi an unsuccessful attempt on the part of the
branch. Cochin Raja to attack Calicut (1521). On
Albuquerque (1509-1515) reversed his visit to India in 1524, Vasco Da Gama,
several policies of his predecessors. He who was appointed as Viceroy, visited
also entered into a treaty with the Zamorin Cochin. During the Portuguese period,
of Calicut. During this time the notable events were the war with
headquarters of the Portuguese Vadakkumkoor, the building of
Government of India was transferred from Mattancherry Palace during Veera Kerala
Cochin to Goa in 1510. Before he left, Varma’s reign (1537-65) the building of
he made an abortive attempt to convert the Jew Town and the convention of the

Synod of Diamper during Kesava Rama
Varma’s reign (1565-1601). In the latter
half of the 16 th century, two foreign
travellers, Caesar Frederick and Ralph
Fitch, visited Cochin. Another
Englishman, Sir Thomas Herbert,
described Cochin on the eve of Dutch
capture as the chief place the Portuguese
have in the Indies where they carried on
trade in spices, drugs and all other
merchandise.
The causes for the decline of Portuguese
in Kerala, which began soon after the time
of Albuquerque, were both internal and
external like the intermarriages, forcible
conversions, religious persecution etc.
Dutch conquest of Cochin on 7
January 1663
The Dutch East India Company began to
despatch ships to India from 1595
onwards and after many encounters with
the Portuguese and their allies they
succeeded in establishing their power in
several places in India. Under Admiral
Van Goens, Quilon was captured in
December 1658. Veera Kerala Varma,
the senior member of the Mootha
Thavazhi branch of the Cochin royal
family appealed to the Dutch for help
against the ruling family of Cochin. While
he had the Zamorin and the chiefs of
Vadakkumkoor, Thekkumkoor and
Edappally as his allies, the ruling Raja had
the support of the princes of
Chempakasseri, Parur and Valluvanad as
well as that of the Portuguese. The Dutch
decided to interfere and Van Der Meyden
landed at Njarakkal with a Dutch fleet
and after taking over the fortress of
Pallippuram handed it over to the
33
Zamorin. On their way back to Colombo,
Paliath Achan, the leading nobleman of
Cochin and the minister of the Vettat
princes boarded Van Goen’s ship and
sought Dutch protection. Accordingly a
treaty was concluded on March 12,1661
by which Achan placed himself under
Dutch protection and undertook to serve
them faithfully.
According to the Batavia Council’s
decision to renew the campaign on the
Malabar Coast in 1661, a Dutch fleet was
despatched to Cochin under the
command of Admiral Van Goens. It
captured Quilon on 7th December and
laid siege to the Cranganore fort on 3
January 1662. Finally they landed troops
at Vypeen. They built a fort called New
Orange and bombarded Cochin from
there. A battle was fought in front of the
Mattancherry Palace and Cochin forces
were forced to withdraw with heavy loss
in men and material. Van Goens
compelled Rani Gangadhara Lakshmi to
recognise her deposed nephew as the
King of Cochin. In the meantime, the
Dutch converged on Portuguese Cochin
from three directions. The siege of Cochin
lasted for nearly two months. Though the
prospects of Dutch success seemed bleak
initially, in the end, with the help of the
Anchikaimals, the Dutch occupied
Ernakulam. Though the Portuguese still
held out in Cochin, soon they fell short of
provisions with the result that the Dutch
General stormed the Cochin Fort assisted
by the troops of Veera Kerala Varma and
the Paliath Achan. The attack that lasted
for 8 days and nights resulted in the victory
of the Dutch. Having established
themselves as the masters of Cochin, the
34
Dutch made it their headquarters in
Keralam.
During this period, Cochin Fort was
reduced to about one-third of its original
size. A small Pentagon Fort was built. After
the conquest of Cochin the Dutch installed
Veera Kerala Varma, Chazhur adoptee
into the Mootha Thavazhi, as the ruler of
Cochin. The first formal treaty between
the Raja of Cochin and the Dutch East
India Company was concluded on 20
March 1663. Dutch possession of all the
territories previously held by the
Portuguese, protection of Cochin State
from foreign aggression, erection of
fortresses, Dutch monopoly of the
import trade in opium etc. were some
of it’s terms.
Treaties with local Rajas
Even before the conquest of Cochin, the
Raja of Edappally had given an
undertaking to the Dutch that he would
be on friendly terms with them.
According to a treaty concluded
between the Dutch Company, the King
of Cochin and the Raja of Purakkad on
14 March 1663, Purakkad proclaimed
their allegiance to the ruler of Cochin.
The King of Vadakkumkoor and the Raja
of Parur were other Rajas who accepted
Dutch protection. Alangad also offered
it’s allegiance to the Dutch Company
though there was no formal written
agreement to this effect.
Dutch Treaties with Cochin
The Dutch policy towards the local Rajas
took definite shape only with the arrival
of Henrick Van Rheede as Commander
of Cochin in 1673. A formal treaty was
entered into on February 23, 1674
between the Dutch Company and Erorma
(Iravi Varma) the second prince of Cochin,
Goda Varma the fourth prince of Cochin
and Paliath Achan, according to which
no one thereafter could be permitted to
be adopted as heir to the Cochin Kingdom
except from the five lawful Thavazhis.
Promising to remain faithful allies forever,
it was stipulated that the fanams and other
coins made by the Raja’s mint should be
made under the supervision of the Dutch
Company. Another treaty concluded on

the 2nd of September 1674 brought the
Cochin Kingdom still further under the
control of the Dutch Company and soon
resulted in a revolt by the princes. The
result was another treaty with the Raja on
21 May 1678 under which the Prime
Ministership of the State was virtually
handed over to the nominee of the Dutch
Company. Another agreement was also
signed by the Dutch Commander, Martin
Huysman, with the Raja on 3 May 1681.
According to an agreement dated 21 May
1678, the Chief of Paliyam was given the
power to rule Cochin State in
communication with the Raja.
The traditional rivalry between Cochin and
Calicut continued to complicate the
politics of Keralam during the Dutch
period also. During this period, which saw
many internal troubles, an important event
was the dismissal of the Paliath Achan
from the Prime Ministership of the State.
Another notable political development
was the rise of Travancore to prominence
under Marthanda Varma (1729-1758).
In view of her treaty obligations, Cochin
was also dragged into the war between
Travancore and the Dutch in which
Marthanda Varma was victorious.
Internal dissensions in the royal family
gave an opportunity to Marthanda Varma
to interfere in the politics of the Cochin
Kingdom. The title of Perumpadappu
Mooppu was revived during this time. The
Battle of Ambalapuzha (1754) was the last
great fight undertaken by Cochin with
Vadakkumkoor and Purakkad against the
Travancore yoke in which the Cochin army
lost.
During this time the Zamorin captured the
35
strategic town of Trichur. Now, Cochin
State was limited to portions of Cochin
and Kanayannur Taluks and a part of
Trichur Taluk. The chief of Paliyam and
the Anchikaimals were the only notable
chiefs who continued to be faithful to the
Raja. The Dutch, who were till then co-
operating with the Raja, now withdrew
from the scene. At this juncture, Raja Rama
Varma of Cochin died at Mattancherry in
1760. The following ruler Kerala Varma
(1760-1775) entered into an alliance with
Travancore in December 1761. Raja
Kerala Varma visited Trivandrum in August
1762 and solemnly ratified the treaty
before the altar of Lord Sthanumurthi of
Suchindram.
With this, the era of Nair predominance
came to an end and the era of the modern
centralised State began. Cochin was
reorganised into a centralised
bureaucratic State. Another notable event
was the deterioration of relations between
Cochin and Dutch Company during the
term of office of C.L. Sneff. An appeal
was sent for a responsible person and
soon Adrain Van Moens relieved Sneff
early in 1771.
Mysorean Invasion
Though Haider had invaded Malabar in
1766 it had not affected Cochin. But when
Haider’s army descended again on
Malabar in 1773, Cochin wasn’t spared.
The Cochin Raja had to pay a lakh of
Ikkeri Pagodas (4 lakh rupees) as subsidy
to Mysore. In September 1776 the Mysore
forces under Sirdar Khan marched into
Cochin and occupied Trichur. The Raja
was forced to become a tributary of
36
Mysore and to pay a nuzzar of 1 lakh of
Pagodas and 4 elephants and annual
tribute of 30,000 Pagodas. Haider
accorded to Cochin a special position in
his empire. Meanwhile Rama Varma
(1775-1790) had succeeded Raja Kerala
Varma (1760-1775) and Sakthan
Thampuran had become the virtual ruler
of the State in 1769. The hereditary Prime
Ministership of Cochin also came to an
end during this period.
Cochin was left unmolested in the early
years of the reign of Tippu Sultan, who
succeeded Haider Ali. The alliance with
the Cochin Raja was seen as an important
factor in achieving his ambition of
conquering Travancore. Though the Raja
offered to act as a mediator, he refused
to meet Tippu Sultan when he was
summoned in 1789 and this turned Tippu
Sultan into a determined enemy of
Cochin. Tippu made a proposal to
purchase Cochin, Cranganore and
Azhikotta from the Dutch but the Dutch
and Travancore had entered into
negotiations and the sale of these forts to
Travancore was effected with great speed.
Tippu who took strong objection to this
drew the attention of British Madras
Government to it but his demands weren’t
met. He soon sent his army and
demolished the Travancore lines and
Travancore and Cochin lay at the invaders
mercy. The British Governor-General,
Lord Cornwallis, sent a British contingent
under Colonel Hartley to help the
Travancore army. He also started
negotiations with the Nizam of Hyderabad
 37

and the Mahrattas for a joint attack on quite unfavourable for the Dutch. Major
Seringapatam. Alarmed at these Petrie laid siege to Cochin Fort, which was
developments Tippu withdrew from the finally captured on 19 October 1795. All
scene. With this the drama of the the Dutch living in Cochin were taken
Mysorean invasion came to an end. prisoners by the English and thus the
historic connection of the Dutch with
Treaty between Cochin and the Cochin ended.
English (1791)
Immediately after this, the Cochin Raja Modern Period
threw off his allegiance to Mysore and The Modern Period in the history of Cochin
became a tributary to the English East begins with the accession to the throne in
India Company. The formal 1790 of Rama Varma, the Sakthan
treaty between Company and
Cochin was signed on 6 January
1791 but it was to have effect
from 25 September. Cochin,
placed under the commissioners
appointed jointly by the Bengal,
Bombay and Madras
Governments, was first under the
control of the Madras
Government and later under
Government of Bombay before
being transferred back to
Madras Government in 1800.

Rise of the English Power

The English, at the time of the
Portuguese, had set up factories
at Calicut and Cranganore in
1616 with the help of the
Zamorin of Calicut. They
entered into a treaty with the
Portuguese, whose sway was
collapsing, by which they got free
access to all Portuguese ports.
After this, they settled at Cochin
till the Dutch capture forced
them to quit the place. Before
the turn of the century the
international situation became
38
Thampuran, and the treaty concluded by
him with the English East India Company
the following year. Though the treaty
provided the basis for friendly relations,
the negative decision of the company in
respect of the various territorial claims put
forward by Cochin was a sore
disappointment to Sakthan Thampuran.
The Raja’s relations with the English
continued to be strained till his death in
September 1805.
The period following the death of Sakthan
Thampuran was an epoch of religious
ferment and political unrest when the
Rajas of Cochin adhered to militant
Vaishnavism. On the death of Ravi Varma
in 1864 the Cochin Royal Family returned
to it’s ancient Smarta fold.
Revolt of Paliath Achan
The most important event of the period
following the death of Sakthan
Thampuran was the revolt organised by
the Paliath Achan against the English.
Though the Paliath Achan had ceased to
be the hereditary Chief Minister of Cochin
in 1779, during the reign of Rama Varma
(1805-1809) he was reinstated in the
office of Chief Minister with the help of
Velu Thampi, the Dalava of Travancore.
Soon the Paliath Achan became the de
facto ruler of the state. The period of
friendship between Macaulay, the
Resident, on the one side and Velu Thampi
and Paliath Achan on the other was not
destined to last long and soon resulted in
a revolt against the English. The combined
forces of Paliath Achan and Velu Thampi
attacked Cochin. Soon the English
Company issued a proclamation offering
friendship or war. Paliath Achan took
advantage of the offer and agreed to
surrender. It was made clear that Paliath
Achan wouldn’t be allowed to reside in
Cochin thereafter. On 6 May 1809 a new
treaty was signed with the English by
Kerala Varma (1809-1828) who
succeeded Raja Rama Varma, the
provisions of which remained in force till
the withdrawal of British power form India.
The period immediately following the
suppression of the rebellion of Paliath
Achan was one of gross anarchy and
misrule. Kunjukrishna Menon of
Nadavaramba who had helped the
English in the fateful days of 1808-09 was
appointed Valia Sarvadhikaryakar but he
was unequal to the new tasks that faced
the State. Cochin was soon on the verge
of financial bankruptcy. After Macaulay
was recalled, the new Resident took
prompt steps to curb Menon’s power for
mischief and in June 1812 obtained the
permission of the Madras Government to
retire him on pension.
Genealogy of the Royal Family
Details about the Cochin royal families
before the advent of the Portuguese are
not very clear, though there are references
to some of their names in some books. It
is said that one Veera Kerala Varma, the
son of Cheraman Perumal’s sister was the
first ruler.
Details of the rulers are given
below in chrono- logical order.
Unni Raman Koyil I (? - 1503)
He was the ruler when the Portuguese
Naval Commander, Cabral, reached
Cochin on December 24 1500 and was
received with all honours when the latter
 39

passed away in 1510.

Diogo de Couto has
recorded his name as
Unni Godavarma
Koyil.

Unni Raman Koyil II

(1503-1537)
During his time the
Portuguese laid the
foundations of their fort
in Cochin. In 1505,
India’s first Portuguese
Viceroy, Francisco De
Almaida, reached
Cochin and presented
a golden crown from
the King of Portugal to
him. After Unni Raman
Koyil I passed away in
1510, instead of
resigning and
b e c o m i n g
Perumpadappu
Mooppil according to
the tradition, he, with
the help of the
Portuguese continued
as the Maharaja.
During his time it was
established that only
the younger Thavazhi
could be crowned. He
passed away in 1537.

Veera Kerala Varma (1537-65)

called on the Maharaja at the Calvathy
Also known as Gangadhara Veera
Palace. The Zamorin of Calicut attacked
Keralan, during his time, St. Xavier came
Cochin and in the fierce fighting the
to Cochin (1542). The Portuguese
nephew and two other Princes died. He
Governor looted Palluruthy Temple in
abdicated the throne in 1503 in favour
1549. In 1555 the Portuguese built the
of the fourth in the line of succession. He
Mattancherry Palace and presented it to
40

the ruler (however, as the Dutch rebuilt

the palace later, it got the name Dutch
Palace). Moorish assassins in the employ
of the Vadakkumkoor Raja assassinated
him on the 10th of February 1565.

Kesava Rama Varma (1565-1601)

He is the most famous ruler during of the
Portuguese era. It was during his time
(1567) that Jews settled in Cochin and
built the Jew Town near the Palace. He
gave land to the Konkinis in Mattancherry
for establishing Thirumala Devaswom.
Don Alexis de Meneses, who was the
Archbishop of Goa in 1599, came to
Cochin and convened the Synod of
Diamper during his rule.
Mazhamangalam Narayanan
Namboodiri and Balakavi were poets at
his court. Ulloor opines that the Maharaja
was the author of the beautiful poem
Rasakreeda.
Keralamprasasthi were written by
He was deeply interested in pilgrimages Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri, who was
and on the 27th of Kanni in the Malayalam a member of the royal.
year 776 he performed the
On 22nd Kanni in the Malayalam year 790
Thulapurushadanam. He passed away on
he killed Ittikkumara Menon and captured
3rd May 1601 at Kasi, where he had gone
the Mathilakam. On 15th April 1615 he
on pilgrimage.
passed away.
Veera Kerala Varma (1601-15)
Ravi Varma (1615-24)
It was during his time that the first British
His reign was unremarkable. On the 30th
ship reached India (1609). During his
of September 1624 he passed away.
reign Muringoor Thavazhi ran out of
successors and permission was given to Veera Kerala Varma (1624-37)
the eldest member to adopt the second
Mathilakam Angadi was captured during
eldest member (Goda Varman) from Elaya
his reign. On the 11th of July 1937 he
Thavazhi. Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri
passed away at Cochin.
was a member of his court.
It was during this time that Goda Varma (1637-45)
Gosrinagaravarnam and Veera During his reign Muringoor Thavazhi was
 41

merged with Elaya Thavazhi. Adoption Prince from Chazhiyur.

was made to Elaya Thavazhi from the
Rama Varma (1650-56)
Mootha Thavazhi and the Palluruthy
Thavazhi. Ulloor has recorded that the He was adopted from Chazhiyur. He
Maharaja was the younger brother of the passed away in 1656.
earlier ruler, Veera Kerala Varma.
Rani Gangadhara Lakshmi (1656-58)
Veera Rayira Varma (1645-46) When Rama Varma passed away,
Ulloor has recorded that he was the Valiyamma Thampuran took over as
brother of Veera Kerala Varma and Goda Regent. Actually, the Portuguese crowned
Varma who ruled before 1645. He passed her the Queen to keep the members of
away in the Malayalam year 821 on the the Mootha Thavazhi at bay. Rani
2nd of Karkkidakom. After his death the Gangadhara Lakshmi is the only female
Elaya Thavazhi ceased to have any male who ruled Cochin. The Rani’s real name
members. is not known, Gangadhara Lakshmi being
a title.
Veera Kerala Varma (1645-50) At the instance of the Portuguese, the Rani
He was adopted from the Palluruthy adopted five male children from Vettath
Thavazhi. As mentioned earlier, during the and Ayiroor. It is mentioned in Padappattu
reign of Goda Varma (1637-1645) when that the eldest Prince’s name was Unni
there were no male members in the Elaya
Thavazhi, male members were adopted
from the Mootha Thavazhi and the
Palluruthy Thavazhi. When there were
internal conflicts between the adoptees
from the two Thavazhis, the Portuguese
helped the Palluruthy Thavazhi and Veera
Kerala Varma, who was adopted from
there, was crowned the Maharaja
superceding Rama Varma from the
Mootha Thavazhi. The members of the
Mootha Thavazhi were then exiled. With
the help of the Zamorin, Rama Varma and
his brother tried to capture the throne, but
did not succeed.
Veera Kerala Varma granted Thirumala
Devaswom Sanketam to the Konkini’s of
Mattancherry and gave civil and criminal
rights inside the Sanketam to them. He
passed away in 1650. He adopted a
42
Rama Varma. He was crowned as the
Maharaja in 1658 when the Rani gave
up the throne.
Rama Varma (1658-62)
He was the eldest among those adopted
from Vettath. Veera Kerala Varma, who
belonged to the Mootha Thavazhi, had
left the country after they were denied the
right to rule the country. He joined with
the Chazhiyur Thavazhi and tried to
recapture the country but
failed. From Chazhiyur the
Mootha Thavazhi adopted a
prince with the name of Veera
Kerala Varma. Veera Kerala
Varma of the deposed Mootha
Thavazhi and Veera Kerala
Varma who was adopted form
Chazhiyur went to Colombo
seeking Dutch help and under
the leadership of Dutch
Commander van Goens
reached Quilon on 7 t h
December 1661 and
captured the Portuguese Fort.
In January 1662 they captured
Cranganore Fort. Following
this van Goens entered
Mattancherry. The Maharaja,
Rama Varma, and Veera
Kerala Varma (adopted from
Chazhiyur) were killed in a
battle in front of the
Mattancherry Palace. Henrick
van Rheede captured
Gangadhara Lakshmi as a
prisoner. However, Goda
Varma who was next in the line
of succession was at
Ernakulam and escaped harm.
Goda Varma (1662-63)
Goda Varma became the Maharaja when
Rama Varma was killed. On 7th January
1663 the Dutch captured Cochin Fort.
The next day Goda Varma surrendered
to the Dutch. With the end of his rule, the
Portuguese era in Cochin’s history came
to an end.
Veera Kerala Varma (1663-87)

The Dutch era in the history of Cochin
began with his reign. Veera Kerala Varma
of the Mootha Thavazhi passed away on
the ship he was coming back from
Colombo. The Dutch crowned the prince
who was with him as the Maharaja
(adopted into the Mootha Thavazhi from
Chazhiyur). A gold crown with the insignia
of the Dutch East India Company
engraved on one side was made Veera
Kerala Varma was crowned with it by the
Dutch Commander van Goens with great
fanfare. An agreement made in 1679
banned princes from interfering in the
affairs of the Government. Van Rheede
presented the third volume of Hortus
Malabaricus to the Maharaja.
Rani Gangadhara Lakshmi became
seriously ill in 1664 and passed away in
43
1665. She was 100 years old at that time.
The Dutch and Veera Kerala Varma signed
four agreements in 1663, 1665, 1681
and 1684.
The Maharaja passed away at Trichur on
the 11th of the month Kumbham in the
Malayalam year 862, (February 1687).
Rama Varma (1687-93)
He was the last Maharaja of the Mootha
Thavazhi. In 1689 six princes and four
princesses were adopted from Chazhiyur.
He passed away on the 19th August 1693.
Ravi Varma (1693-97)
He was the eldest of the princes adopted
from Chazhiyur in 1689. He had
suzerainty over the temples of Tiruvalla,
Haripad and Kuttamperur to the south of
Cochin. He passed away in November
1697 while at Tiruvalla to sort out disputes
regarding conduct of poojas at the
Tiruvalla Temple.
Rama Varma (1697-1701)
He was the second eldest among the
princes adopted from Chazhiyur in 1689.
He signed the fifth agreement with the
Dutch in 1698. According to it, he was
given the right to have a share from the
sea taxes. He passed away in 1701 at
Irinjalakuda.
Rama Varma (1701-21)
He was the third in line among the princes
adopted from Chazhiyur. He was the most
famous Maharaja of the Dutch era.
Though the Dutch did not trust him, they
had high regard for his political and
administrative skills
In 1715 two princes and a princess were
44
adopted from Chazhiyur. It is said that they
were the Maharaja’s own nephews and
niece.
Originally, the Perumpadappu Maharajas
ascended the throne and were crowned
at Chitrakudam at Vanneri in
Perumpadappu. But after it was captured
by the Zamorin this was not possible. At
the beginning of his rule, this Maharaja
had taken an oath that his crowning
ceremony will be held only at
Chitrakudam. However, he could not do
it. In honour of their predecessor’s oath
that could not be achieved, subsequent
Maharajas of Cochin did not wear a
crown.
With the help of the Dutch, Rama Varma
recaptured many places from the
Zamorin. It is said that he was very
cunning and fond of wars. At the ripe old
age of seventy he passed away at Trichur
in 1721.
Ravi Varma (1721-31)
Vischer Padre has written that Rama Varma
hated Ravi Varma. From this it can be
assumed that Ravi Varma was not one of
the princes adopted in 1715, as those
adopted then were reportedly Rama
Varma’s own nephews and niece of whom
he was very fond.
He had some misunderstandings with
Paliath Achan and Achan was dismissed.
However, later, the younger generation of
Paliyam reconciled the differences. He
passed away in 1731 at Irinjalakuda.
Rama Varma (1731-46)
He was the last prince adopted from
Chazhiyur in 1689. According to the
agreement with the Dutch he was forced
to wage war against Travancore. But
because of the intolerable misdeeds of
the Dutch he withdrew from the war. He
passed away at Kareekkatt in January
1746.
Veera Kerala Varma (1746-49)
He was one of the two princes adopted
from Chazhiyur in 1715. It was during
his reign that the Dutch were defeated in
the war against Travancore at Kulacchil.
He passed away at Tripunithura in January
1749.
Rama Varma (1749-60)
He was the eldest son of Ikkavu
Thampuran who was the daughter of one
of the princesses adopted from Chazhiyur
in 1689.
During his reign Travancore attacked

Cochin State from the south and Zamorin
from the north. The 1753 agreement
between the Dutch and Travancore
adversely affected Cochin. Help from the
Dutch also stopped. He passed away in
August 1760 at Cochin and was cremated
at Tripunithura.
Veera Kerala Varma (1760-75)
He was the second son of Ikkavu
Thampuran and the younger brother of
Rama Varma. This Maharaja was the
direct uncle of Sakthan Thampuran
according to Puthezath Raman Menon.
45
But this is most likely not correct. The
Dutch Commander of Cochin wrote a
letter to Batavia (in Indonesia – the then
headquarters of the Dutch East India
Company) in 1761, in which he has
written that the Maharaja of Cochin had
passed away and that his brother, Veera
Keralam, had succeeded him.
He was a mild mannered and not very
efficient person. The prince next in line of
succession was also not possessed of
administrative acumen. So, the Dutch
Governor in consultation with the
Travancore Maharaja unofficially
entrusted the administration to the
efficient, brave and spirited Sakthan
Thampuran in 1769.
In 1766 Cochin became a Samantha
Kingdom of Hyder Ali of Mysore.
Rama Varma (1775-90)
According to legend he was the uncle of
Sakthan Thampuran. During this time
Sardar Khan captured Cochin and began
his stay at Trichur. He passed away
following an attack of smallpox at
Tripunithura on 16th August 1790.
Rama Varma (1790-1805)
This Maharaja became famous as the
Sakthan Thampuran (Powerful Maharaja).
He started ruling the State from 1769
onwards itself and after his uncle’s death
in 1790 formally became the Maharaja.
As soon as he started his reign (1790
August) he reached an understanding with
Mr. Pouni about the English supremacy
over Cochin State. On January 1791 it
was officially accepted. With this the
English era in the history of Cochin began.
46
He was the most brave, strong and
diplomatic Maharaja in the history of
Cochin. He passed away in September
1805 at Trichur.
Rama Varma (1805-09)
He was the eldest son of Sakthan
Thampuran’s aunty (mother’s younger
sister). Though he was a great Sanskrit
scholar, mild mannered and generous he
was not very capable. During his time the
actual rule was in the hands of Paliath
Achan.
He and his brother converted to Madhava
Matham and also popularised it. He is
the author of Sundarakanda Pana. He
passed away in January 1809 at
Vellarapilly.
Veera Kerala Varma (1809-28)
He was the younger brother of Rama
Varma who preceded him. Both he and
his brother were opposed to any attack
against the British. In the History of Cochin
by Padmanabha Menon it is said that it
was even doubted that Rama Varma had
been killed because he refused to take
part in the attempt to kill the Resident,
Macaulay.
Paliath Achan and Velu Thampi Dalava
had tried to kill the Resident, Macaulay,
by attacking Ponjikkara Bungalow. The
British became very angry at this. But as
Paliath Achan accepted the entire
responsibility for the attack the British did
not exile the royal family and take over
direct rule. According to the treaty signed
on 6th May 1809, the Perumpadappu
Maharaja became a vassal of the British.
In 1812, Colonel Munroe became the first
Divan of Cochin. In 1818 Nanchappan
became the Divan. Following his death
in 1825, Seshagirirayar became the
Divan.
Veera Kerala Varma was deeply interested
in literature. He has written more than 50
Attakathakal. He was a great sponsor of
Kathakali. He passed away at Tripunithura
in August 1928.
Rama Varma (1828-37)
He was the nephew of the previous
Maharaja. In 1830, Seshagirirayar
resigned as the Divan because of the
accusations of Valiya Thampuran and
Edamana Sankara Menon became the
Divan. He was dismissed because of
accusations of bribery and sentenced to
jail and in October 1824
Venkitasubbayyar became the Divan.
In November 1837 Valiya Thampuran
passed away while at Tripunithura. Ikkavu
Thampuran was the sister of Valiya
Thampuran. The present Cochin Royal
Family are the descendants of Ikkavu
Thampuran.
Rama Varma (1837-44)
He was the son of the eldest aunty of his
predecessor. He passed away in June
1844 at Irinjalakuda.
Rama Varma (1844-51)
He was the eldest son of Ikkavu
Thampuran. He passed away while at
Trichur in July 1851.
Veera Kerala Varma (1851-53)
He had a great desire to improve his mind
and to acquire knowledge before he took

over the rule. So before he started his rule
he, with a very small retinue, travelled to
Bangalore, Coimbatore, Indore, Pune,
Bhopal etc. and in 1853 February
reached Kasi. He planned to travel back
through Calcutta, Puri, Madras and reach
Rameswaram and after Sethusnanam,
return to Cochin. However, he could not
fulfil his wish and in February suffered an
attack of small pox and passed away while
at Kasi. He was a great scholar and had
deep knowledge of the English language.
He was also very handsome. His death
was a great tragedy because people
believed that the country would prosper
during his rule.
Ravi Varma (1853-64)
He was not efficient or capable like his
brother, who preceded him. In 1856
Divan Sankara Varier passed away and
Venkittarayar became the Divan. After his
dismissal, Thottekatt Sankunni Menon
became the Divan. The Maharaja passed
away while at Tripunithura in February
1864.
Rama Varma (1864-1888)
He was not in good health and easy going
by nature. It was Divan Sankunni Menon
who looked after the affairs of the State.
In 1879 Sankunni Menon resigned
because of poor health. After that his
brother Govinda Menon became the
Divan. After a long time the Kings of
Cochin and Travancore visited each other
at Trivandrum and Tripunithura. In 1876
he went to Madras and visited the Prince
of Wales, the eldest son of Queen Victoria.
The British Government bestowed on him
the order of K.C.S.I. (Knight Commander
47
of the Most Exalted Order of the Star of
India). He built the Puthen Bungalow and
Mani Malika of Tripunithura. He passed
away while at Tripunithura in August
1888.
Kerala Varma (1888-95)
He was the brother of Rama Varma. He
was good in English and was a mild
mannered Maharaja. The British
Government honoured him with the order
of K.C.I.E. when he was the Ilaya
Thampuran itself.
In 1890 Govinda Menon resigned from
the post of Divan. Following this C.
Tiruvenkatacharya became the Divan.
Following his death
V. Subrahmanya Pillai became the Divan.
In 1893 Valiya Thampuran visited Kasi,
Gaya and Calcutta. He passed away in
September 1895 at Tripunithura.
Rama Varma (1895-1914)
He was a very efficient ruler. In 1897
Divan Subrahmanya Pillai retired. After
that P. Rajagopalacharya (1897-1901), L.
Locke (1901-02), N. Pattabhirama Rao
(1902-07), A.R. Banerjee (1907-14) etc.
became Divans. British Government
honoured the Maharaja with the orders
of K.C.S.I, G.C.S.I., and G.C.I.E. It was
during his time that the railway line from
Shornur to Cochin was built. Because of
a difference of opinion with the British
Government he gave up the throne. He
passed away in 1932 January at Trichur.
Rama Varma (1914-32)
J.W. Bhor (1914-19), T. Vijayaraghav-
achari (1919-22), P. Narayana Menon
(1922-25), T.S. Narayana Iyer (1925-30)
48
and C.G. Herbert (1930-35) became
Divans during his period. He passed away
at Madras in March 1932.
Rama Varma (1932-41)
In 1935 R.K. Shanmugham Shetty
became the Divan. Though the Maharaja
was an inefficient ruler, because of the
efficiency of Shanmugham Shetty his rule
became progressive. The expansion of
Cochin harbour was completed and the
Ernakulam High Court was opened at this
time.
This Maharaja was very much interested
in the affairs of the temples and cultural
matters. He passed away while at
Chowwara in April 1941.
Kerala Varma (1941-43)
He was the brother of Valiya Thampuran
who passed away while at Madras in
March 1932. He was known as
‘Midukkan’ Thampuran. After
Shanmugham Shetty’s retirement in 1941,
A.F.W. Dixon became the Divan. The
Maharaja passed away while at
Tripunithura in October 1943.
Ravi Varma (1943-46)
He was the brother of Kerala Varma.
George Boug (1943-44) and C.P.
Karunakara Menon (1944-47) were the
Divans of Cochin during his time. He
passed away while at Tripunithura in
February 1946.
Kerala Varma (1946-48)
Because of his idea of creating ‘Aikya
Keralam’ by merging British Malabar,
Cochin and Travancore into one state, he
was known as the ‘Aikya Keralam
Thampuran’. He passed away while at
Ernakulam in 1948.
Rama Varma (1948-64)
He was the last Maharaja of Cochin
State. He became famous as Parikshit
Thampuran. On 1st July 1949, Cochin
and Travancore merged to form Tiru-
Cochi State. The Maharaja’s rule came
to an end with that. He ruled as a
Maharaja only for one year. After that
he continued as Cochin Valiya
Thampuran. He passed away while at
Tripunithura in 1964.
The Divans of Cochin
In June 1812, Col. Munro, the British
Resident took the administration of
Cochin into his own hands in order to
restore order in the State. He was, in fact,
the first Divan of Cochin State. In 1818
he was succeeded by Nanjappayya who
was succeeded by Seshagiri Rao (1825-
1830). Edamana Sankara Menon
(1830-35) the next Divan was an
unscrupulous administrator. His
misappropriation over a lakh of rupees
led to criminal proceedings against him
and when found guilty, he was sentenced
to 5 years rigorous imprisonment.
Venkatasubbayya succeeded Sankara
Menon in 1835. The administration of
Sankara Warier who was the next Divan
from 1840 to 1856 marked a new epoch
in the history of Cochin. He served four
successive Rajas and laid the foundation
of a modern administration. Vanuatu Rao
(1856-60) was the next Divan but for a
short period. Thettikol Sankunni Menon,

the son of Sankara Warier, was the Divan
of Cochin from 1860 to 1879 under
whom public works of all kinds received
great fillip. Sankunni Menon was
succeeded by his brother Govina Menon
(1879-89). The next Divans, C.
Tiruvenkatacharya (1889-92) and V.
Subramonia Pillai (1892-96), continued
the policies of Sankunni Menon.
Subrahmanya Pillai retired from
Divanship in 1896 and the office was
then held successively by P.
Rajagopalachari (December 1896 –
August 1901), S. Locke (August 1901 -
September 1902), N. Pattabhirama Rao
(September 1902 - March 1907), A.R.
Banerjee (1907-14), J.W. Bhore (1914-
19), T. Vijayaraghavachari (1919-22), P.
Narayana Menon (1922-25), T.S.
Narayana Iyer (1925-30), C.G. Herbert
(1930-35), Shanmugham Shetty (March
1935 - June 1941), Komattil Achyutha
Menon (June-October 1941), A.F.W.
Dixon (October 1941 - November 1943)
and then Sir George Boag (November
1943 – August 1944). He was succeeded
by C.P. Karunakara Menon whose period
of Divanship saw far-reaching
constitutional changes that culminated in
the abolition of the age-old Divanship
and the establishment of responsible
government in Cochin.
In July 1949, during the reign of Rama
Varma Parikshit Thampuran, Travancore
49
and Cochin were integrated with the
consent of the popular cabinets then
functioning in the two States and the State
of Travancore and Cochin came into
existence.
Events leading to the integration of
Cochin and Travancore
The anti-British movements all over India
under the leadership of Indian National
Congress had its echoes in Cochin also.
In the late 1930s the District Congress
Committee made itself active in the public
life of Cochin. In 1938, a scheme of
Diarchy was introduced in Cochin. The
experiment in Diarchy did not satisfy the
progressive sections of the population of
Cochin. Hence, in 1941 a new political
organisation, the Praja Mandalam, was
formed.
In September 1948, Praja Mandalam got
a clear majority in the first elected
legislature. This was the first election held
in India on the basis of universal adult
franchise to a legislature. By this time
Praja Mandalam had merged with the
Indian National Congress and the first
Congress ministry assumed office in
Cochin with E. Ikkanda Warier as Chief
Minister on 20th September 1948. During
the tenure of this ministry, the State of
Cochin was merged with Travancore on
1st July 1949 to form the new state
‘Travancore- Cochin’.
50

Architecture

Architecture
The architecture of Cochin ranges from
temples, mosques, churches to theatres,
houses, palaces and public buildings. Like
elsewhere, climatic considerations have
played an important role in the
architecture of this region.
The building materials used are timber,
clay, palm leaves, granite, laterite slabs
etc. The use of granite was restricted to
the plinth even in important buildings such
as temples. For the walls laterite was used
and for the roof structure, timber.
Traditional Domestic Architecture
The traditional domestic architecture
51
follows the style of detached buildings and
the typical upper caste Malayalee house
is a courtyard type nalukettu, a quadran-
gular building consisting of four blocks
with a square or oblong courtyard in the
centre, known as nadumittam. The four
halls enclosing the courtyard, identical to
the nalambalam of the temple, maybe
divided into several rooms for different
activities such as cooking, dining,
sleeping, studying, storage of grains etc.
Ekasala the common type of hall located
on the western and southern sides of the
nadumittam are referred to as the western
hall (padinjattini) and the southern hall
(thekkini). Padinjattini is divided into three
52

rooms the middle one of which is the into number of grids (padam) occupied
store-room, where the valuables and the by different deities (devatha). Depending
household deities are kept and other two on the size and importance of the
are bed-rooms. The northern block, or household the building may have one or
vadakkini, is divided into two rooms, the two upper storeys (malika) or further
kitchen and the dining room. The whole enclosed courtyard by repetition of the
or the middle portions of the eastern and nalukettu to form ettukettu (eight-halled
southern blocks kizhakkini and thekkini are building) or a cluster of such courtyards.
open halls, where visitors and guests are One of the best-preserved examples of a
received and entertained. With verandas nalukettu is the Mattancherry Palace at
all round the building and also round the Cochin and that of the ettukettu, the
inner courtyard we also find an open
portico or poomukham attached to it
often leading to the kizhakkini. Male
visitors are received here. By the side
of the kitchen is the well, water drawn
to it through a window. A courtyard
surrounds the building and in the
centre of the eastern yard we find the
thulasithara, a kind of altar or platform
in which the sacred basil is grown.
Surrounding the yard is the compound
in which fruit trees like jack and
mango, and plantains and other
vegetables are grown and which is
bounded by masonry walls, or by mud
walls with fencing. This garden
compound may also contain cattle
sheds, bathing tanks, wells, farm
buildings, grain stores etc, as ancillary
structures. An entrance structure or a
gate-house (padippura), often
constructed like the gopuram of a
temple, may contain one or more
rooms for guests or occasional visitors
who are not entertained in the main
house. The position and sizes of
various building were decided by the
analyses of the site involving the
concept of vastupurusha mandala
wherein the site (vastu) was divided

Paduthol Mana at Pazhoor. Padamugal
Illam is another example of traditional
domestic architecture.
The poorer houses were built of mud,
whitewashed or coloured red and the roof
thatched with plaited coconut fronds or
straw. The better classes of houses were
built of laterite plastered with lime and
the roofs tiled or thatched with plaited
coconut or palmyra fronds. Recent years
have shown great improvement in the
design of houses with airier and better
ventilated rooms with higher ceilings and
larger doors and windows but less massive
in structure.
Temple Architecture
Temple architecture can be divided into
three phases in it’s stylistic development:
rock cut temples, structural temples and
unitary temples.
Rock cut temples comprise of a shrine
room and a spacious ardhamandapa
arranged axially facing the west. The
earliest structural temples (8 – 10 th
centuries) had a unitary shrine or a srikovil.
53
In rare cases a porch or ardhamandapa
is seen attached to the shrine. A detached
namaskara mandapam is generally built
in front of the srikovil enclosed by
nalambalam, a quadrangular building.
The altar stone or balikkal is often located
at the entrance to the nalambalam. Of
the different plan, shapes, square,
rectangular, circular or apsidal, the square
plan of the srikovil is more commonly
seen. While this is categorised as the
nagara style, the circular temples belong
to the vasara category. In the unitary
temples, the alpa vimanas, has the
basement, the pillar or the wall (stambham
or bhithi) and the entablature (prasthara)
in the lower half. Similarly the upper half
is divided into the neck (griva), the roof
tower (shikhara) and the fenial (stupi) in
the same ratio. Granite adisthana and
laterite superstructure with it’s sloping roof
and the copper fenial are other notable
features.
The middle phase of the evolution of the
temples is characterised by the emergence
of the sandhara shrine in which the cell
54
has twin wells leaving a passage between
them. Four functional doors on all four
cardinal directions and pierced windows
to provide subdued light in the passage
are it’s characteristics. Sometimes the
functional door is replaced by pseudo
doors (ganadwaras). The concept of the
storied temple is also seen in this phase.
A greater complexity in the temple layout
as well as elaboration of detail can be
seen in the last phase (1300-1800 AD).
The vilakkumadam, the palisade structure
fixed with rows of oil lamps added beyond
the nalambalam, balikkal mandapam
(altar stone) deepasthambham and
dwajasthambham (the lamp post and flag
mast) added in front of the balikkal
mandapam, prakara, the massive wall
enclosing the temple, gopuras or
gatehouses with the ground floor open
space used for temple dances and upper
floor kottupura (a hall for drum beating)
are it’s characteristic features. The
secondary shrines of parivara devathas
found within the prakara were unitary cells.
The prakara may also contain temple
tanks, vedapadhasalas and dining halls.
A unique edifice of the native temple
architecture is the presence of a large,
pillared theatre hall (koothambalam)
meant for dance, musical performances
and religious recitals. Technically the most
important feature of the temple
architecture is the construction technique
using a dimensional standardisation. The
decorative elements are of three types:

mouldings, sculptures and paintings.
Mouldings are seen in the plinth and in
the mandala and sculptural work in the
relief sculpture done on the outer walls of
the shrine and in timber elements (the
rafter ends, the brackets, the timber
columns and their capitals, door frames,
wall plates and beams) and metal craft
used in sculpturing idols, motifs, claddings
and fenials. Paintings were murals and
had mythological and epic stories as their
themes.
Islamic Architecture
Built under the instructions of the Muslim
religious heads and by the local artisans,
the models being the temples or theatre
halls (koothambalam), the early mosques
resembled the traditional buildings of the
region. The mosque comprised of a large
55
prayer hall with a mihrab on the western
wall and covered verandah all around, a
tall basement, walls being made of laterite
blocks with a wooden superstructure. The
roof is covered with copper sheets
incorporating fenials in the ridge. A new
trend has been to replace the architectural
features of the old mosques with the use
of arcuated forms, domes and minar-
minarets of the imperial school of Indo-
Islamic architecture. In the secular
architecture of Muslims we find houses
with upper floor living rooms with windows
to the streets and wooden screens used
to provide privacy and shade in the
verandahs, features superimposed on the
traditional construction patterns. Though
the pattern shows affinity with that of Arab
countries, traditional Hindu styles of
ekasalas and nalukettus are also adopted.
56
Christian Architecture
There are two sources for the evolution of
the church architecture: work of Apostle
St. Thomas and the Syrian Christians and
European missionary work.
Tradition has it that St. Thomas had seven
churches built at Kodungallur, Chayil,
Palur, Paravur, Kollam, Niranom and
Kothamangalam but none of these
churches are now extant. With the arrival
of the Syrian Christians we find the
introduction of West Asian conventions in
church architecture, which finds it’s
influence in the ornamental gable, façade
at the nave end, surmounted by a cross
and an entry porch (shale), and small
chambered baptistry with belfries built on
one side of the nave. The bell was hung
in an opening in the nave gable in smaller
churches. The church had a gable roof
extending to the chancel and the sacristy
by it’s side. Reminding us of a Hindu
temple, the tower over the chancel soared
higher than the roof of the nave. The
residence of the priest and the parish hall
were located on either side of the church.
The remnants of the indigenous Hindu
style could be seen in the massive laterite
wall that enclosed the church and the
ancillary buildings, the open cross in front
of the main entrance on a granite
basement, the flag mast, a gateway and
with a kottupura or a music room on the
upper storey etc.

The Portuguese were the first to introduce
European styles in church architecture
followed by the Dutch and the British. Their
innovations included the use of images
of saints made of wood, erection of
pulpits, ornamental altar pieces, painted
ceilings and walls, pointed and rounded
arches and installation of stained glass
windows. The British period saw the use
of cross shaped plan, central Roman
dome, towers serving as belfries on either
side of the main entrance in the front, and
the typical features of European church
architecture. These were the Gothic
arches, the pilasters and buttresses, the
rounded openings, the classic mouldings
and stained-glass windows. Churches with
57
later trends in the plan shapes and
structural forms are also there. For
example the Cathedral of Archbishop of
Varapuzha is a soaring hyperbolic
paraboloid in reinforced concrete with
bold expression in sharp contrast with all
traditional forms.
Jewish Monuments
Though the most important Jewish
settlement seen at Cochin near the
Mattancherry palace resembles traditional
architecture it is of a different plan
concept. The difference lies in the fact that
the ground floor rooms are used as shops
or warehouses and the living rooms are
on the first floor. The frontage of the
58

building on the street side is continuous modernistic style which uses concrete as
with adjoining buildings in the pattern of the medium of construction and linear ,
row houses. The Synagogue, an important cubical or curvilinear shapes for
historic monument, stands in contrast to expressing forms. The other trend is to
the temples of the Hindus. adopt the traditional techniques with the
use of indigenous material propagated
Indo-European Style in Secular
by Lawrie Baker.
Architecture
During 16th to 19th century, architectural Monuments
development was clearly influenced by the Synagogues
European style, first by the Portuguese and
The famous White Jew’s Synagogue or
later by the Dutch. It saw features like the
Paradesi Synagogue is situated opposite
projecting balconies, Gothic arches and
the Dutch Palace at Mattancherry.
cast iron window grill work. The later
Architecturally it is only an undistinguished
British influence saw a compromise of
tall building with sloping tiled roofs. Built
antique craft and neo-classical
in 1567, the original synagogue was
construction needs. The Greek and
destroyed in 1664 in shelling during a
Roman antiquity was emphasised in the
Portuguese raid. Later it was rebuilt after
classic orders of pillars with triangular
the Dutch returned to Cochin. The clock
pediments, arches and domes for public
tower was built in 1767. The famous
buildings, town halls, hospitals, railway
Copper Plate Grants of Bhaskara Ravi
stations, colleges etc. Laterite and lime
Varman (1000 AD), a golden crown
plastering remained as the media of Indo-
presented by the Maharaja of Travancore
European work. Bungalow architecture is
in 1805, silver lamps presented by Col.
one of the best examples of the
Macaulay, the first Resident of Cochin, are
adaptations of European style to the
some of the interesting exhibits at the
climatic needs and the synthesis with
synagogue. The synagogue has a hand
traditional style. Bungalows were buildings
painted blue and white willow pattern
with large rooms with high ceilings with a
mosaic floor of approximately 256 tiles..
veranda all around and there were upper
These were brought all the way from
floor rooms, balconies, portico, Venetian
Canton, China in 1763 and presented
blades, glazed panels, brick arches,
by Ezekiel Rabi, a rich merchant. The
terracotta pieces and exposed brick work
scene depicted on each tile is slightly
in various bonding patterns. Cast iron
different from the other. The cemetery
fences, stair balustrades and iron grills,
attached to the synagogue contains many
made in England, were used to complete
tomb stones with inscriptions in Hebrew
the bungalow architecture.
script. This synagogue has the unique
The Present Trend distinction of being the oldest synagogue
Post-independence architecture presents in the Commonwealth.
two diverse trends: one being the One of the two Black Jew’s synagogues

in Cochin is in Mattancherry, to the south
of the Paradesi Synagogue. There are two
granite slabs with Hebrew inscriptions on
its walls. Tomb stones with Hebrew
inscriptions are found in the cemetery
attached to it.
The other Black Jew’s Synagogue, very
close to the Vaipicotta Seminary, has an
important Hebrew record written on a
granite slab in the year 1269 AD.
The Parur Synagogue, probably
constructed in AD 1615, also preserves a
Hebrew record.
Mosques
Cheraman Juma Masjid, resembling a
Hindu temple, was built in 629 AD. This
is the first mosque in India and the second
in the world where Juma prayers were
started.
59
Fort Kochi Juma Masjid (Calvathy
Mosque) is the contribution of Arabs who
came to Cochin for trading—the name
Calvathy coming from the Arabic word
‘Halwath’ meaning open space. The open
space here was originally used by the
Arabs for their prayers. Claimed to be built
in 1384, it was reconstructed about 130
years ago. It is indicated in the mosque
that the construction, which was started
in the Hijara year 1291, was completed
within one year.
The Chembittapally Mosque site was
allotted by the Maharaja of Cochin. The
mosque got it’s name from the roof of
the main hall which is sheathed with
copper. It is said that the Jews of Cochin
donated the wood for it’s construction.
The mosque was reconstructed by Said
Maulana Bukhari Thangal who came from
60
Karvathy in the Hijara year 926.
A notable specimen of the old Muslim
style, the beautiful Kanjiramittam Mosque
is said to have been erected over the
mortal remains of Shaikh Parid who spent
his last days here. The great Muslim saint,
Baver is supposed to have prayed and
attained eternal bliss here.
The Karikode Mosque near Thodupuzha
conforms to the typical Islamic architecture
and is one of the oldest mosques in this
area.
Churches
Some of the earliest centres of Christian
activity in Kerala were in Cochin and
therefore, it has several old native and
European churches.
The churches of Parur and Malayattur are
believed to be among the oldest Catholic
churches. Njarakkal church, whose origins
can be traced to the pre-Portuguese
period is an old Romo-Syrian church. The
Roman Catholic churches at
Chennamangalam, Kanjur and
Udayamperoor, St. Theresa’s Convent at
Ernakulam, the church at Vallarpadom,
Orthodox Syrian churches at
Kothamangalam and Kolenchery are all
examples of the early Christian institutions.
The Mulanthuruthy Church built around
1225 and repaired in 1575 AD is one of
the oldest Orthodox Syrian churches.
After the acts of vandalism against the
Portuguese by the Dutch, the Catholics
were persuaded to establish their
headquarters in the town of Vypeen.
Vypeen Church was built and dedicated
to ‘Our Lady Of Hope’. The altar and the
old screen of the church are said to have
once belonged to the Church of St.
Francis. The father memorial slab in the
church at the foot of the main altar where
only Bishops are buried, indicates: ‘Poney
Guezlar the master ship builder of Cochin
for 12 years died in 1852’.
The Portuguese who were given
permission by the Raja of Cochin to
construct a fort built the old St. Cruz
Church in 1503 at the harbour mouth.
The historic church Santa Cruz Basilica
built by the Portuguese, was elevated to a
Cathedral by Pope Paul the Fourth in
1558. It was demolished in 1795 when it
fell into the hands of the British. About a
100 years later, Bishop Dom Gomez
Ferreira commissioned a new building at
the same site in 1887. Pope John Paul
Second proclaimed the church a Basilica
in 1984.
Santo Antonio Church, now St. Francis
Church, is India’s oldest European built
church. A landmark of history and church
architecture of India, its date of
construction is not known. Probably it was
constructed in 1503. It owes its origin to
the Franciscan Friars who accompanied

the Portuguese expedition under Pedro
Alvarez Gabral. Built of wood in the
beginning it was later rebuilt in stone,
perhaps within the first few years of the
sixteenth century. It is a lofty edifice with a
gabled timber framed roof covered with
tiles. Facing the west, it has a semicircular
arched entrance and windows above. The
impressive façade is flanked on either side
by a stepped pinnacle. On the summit of
the gable-front there is a bell-turret divided
into three compartments. Inside, the
chancel is divided from the nave by a plain
arched opening and two stepped
pinnacles crown the top of the chancel
roof. Vasco Da Gama was buried here in
1524 though later his body was removed
to Portugal. In 1663, the church passed
to the hands of the Protestant Dutch who
restored it in 1779. After the British
occupation of Cochin in 1795 it gradually
became an Anglican church. At present
the Church of South India manages it.
Temples
The main characteristics of the temples in
Cochin are the predominance of wood
architecture decorated with ornamental
figures in wood, terracotta and carved
stone.
The Siva Temple at Ernakulam is 385 years
old. The presiding deity of the temple is
Lord Siva and according to a legend, sage
Nagarishi installed the idol. It is one of
the largest temples of the State.
The Santhanagopalakrishnaswami or
Sree Poornathrayeesa Temple,
Tripunithura and the Vishnu Temple at
Thrikkakara are noted for their historical
importance, the latter containing the
61
largest number of lithic records of
historical importance. The deity of the
latter is invoked during the national festival
Onam.
The Chottanikkara Bhagavathy Temple
contains paintings in oil colours on the
walls of its vimana.
Temples of archaeological importance
also include Kunnathali Temple, Siva
Temple at Uliyannur with its inscriptions,
Pazhoor noted for it’s mural paintings and
woodcarvings, Thirumaradi and Durga
Temples.
Gosripuram Cochin Thirumala
Devaswom Temple is the premier
institution of the Gowda Saraswath
Brahmins of Goan origin (locally called
Konkinis or Chetties). Dedicated to Sri
Venkateswara or Venkatachalapathy of
Thirumala Hills and more than 4 centuries
old, it was established in the later half of
the 16th century. The site is said to be
allotted by the Raja of Cochin. Situated
in a vast square area of about five and a
half acres, the temple is noted for it’s
unique architecture. The pagoda type two
storied northern gopurams, the ceilings
of which are adorned with paintings of
Puranic scenes and epics and the seventy
feet high three-storied vimana shaped
eastern gopuram testify to this. The
prathista is on a five-layer throne with
Venkateswara and consorts Sreedevi and
Bhoodevi on top while the Utsava Moorthy
is in the middle and the Utsava Lakshmi is
at the lower layer. Salagramams are on
the lowest layer. There are 4 sub-temples
or shrines inside the main temple
premises, dedicated to Hanuman,
Garuda, Mahalakshmi and Vigneswara.
62
The six feet height idols of Hanuman and
Garuda, a gigantic lingam dedicated to
Siva, Papanasam temple tank on the
northeast corner, paintings, woodcarvings,
pagoda type gopuram, copper roofed
Mani Mantapam, etc are the notable
features. This temple contains one of the
biggest bronze bells in India.
Devaresa Prabhu established Shri
Venkatachalapathy Thirumala Temple in
1727 AD. The main deity is Shri
Venkatachalapathy. The deity was
originally the kuladevatha of Sri
Damodara Achari who migrated from
Goa. The other deities are Mahalakshmi,
Hanuman, Mahaganapathy, Garuda and
Yakshi.
Palaces
Bolghatty Palace was built in 1744 by the
Dutch and was later taken over by the
British. Today it is a hotel run by the Kerala
Tourism Development Corporation.
Hill Palace—the official residence of the
erstwhile Cochin royal family—was built
in 1865. Known as ‘Kunnummel Kottaram’
in Malayalam, the palace is situated on a
panoramic hill top. The complex consists
of 49 buildings in the traditional
architectural style of Kerala and is
surrounded by a wide and expansive area
of nearly 52 acres of beautiful green
landscape. The northern block of the main
palace complex called the Hill Bungalow
was designed by European architects and
was put up to perfection in 1898. The
central block which houses the Cabinet
Hall and the adjacent block were
completed by the Rama Varma Raja
(1895-1914). During his regime a unique
lift imported from England was installed.
The Hill Palace main building is a majestic
mansion with lofty columns and arches

showing the European influence. Though
in the earlier phase the inner ceiling was
spanned with huge wooden beams, we
find imported iron beams from Britain in
the later phase. Rare varieties of imported
tiles were used for flooring in this complex
with wooden ceilings and staircases.
Recently developed into one of the most
relevant Archaeological Museums of
Kerala, the palace complex contains an
Archaeological Museum, a Heritage
Museum, a Deer Park, a Pre-historic Park
and a Children’s Park. The Archaeological
Museum has a rich variety of antique
exhibits. There are seventeen major
categories. The Heritage Museum is
actually an ettukettu, a traditional
residential mansion of the upper strata of
early Kerala society. The palace grounds
are a rare conservatory of indigenous and
exotic trees.
Mattancherry Palace, known also as the
Dutch Palace, is one of the oldest buildings
built by Europeans in India in a
predominantly oriental style. It was built
by the Portuguese in AD 1557 and
presented to the then ruler of Cochin,
Veera Kerala Varma. It was the seat of
the royal house of Cochin for about two
centuries. More than a hundred years
later, in 1663 AD, the Dutch undertook
repair and renovation of the palace.
It is a double storied quadrangular
building divided into long and spacious
halls. It follows the plan of nalukettus (an
open courtyard surrounded by the
building proper). In the centre is enshrined
the titulary deity of the royal family—
Pazhayannur Bhagavathy. To the south of
63
the palace we find another temple
complex dedicated to Vishnu and Siva.
On the western side of the palace there is
a large masonry tank for bathing. The
entire structural complex is enclosed by a
high wall with entrances on the eastern
and western sides. The upper storey of
the palace, with it’s covered porch
contains the spacious Coronation Hall,
and is noted for it’s carved ceiling. It has,
however, no wall paintings. Dresses,
turbans and three palanquins belonging
to the Cochin royal family are now
exhibited here. There are three large bed
chambers apart from other rooms. To the
west of the Coronation Hall is a bed
chamber (palliyara) with low wooden
ceiling covered with murals executed in
traditional style. There are forty to forty-
five scenes from the Ramayana. To the
south of the Coronation Hall we find the
staircase room (govinithalam) leading to
the bedchamber, meant for ladies, on the
lower floor. The lower floor is divided into
several small chambers with a spacious
dining hall and a kitchen on one side.
Attached to the eastern wing of the palace
at the southern end, is a long portico with
a secret opening to the courtyard outside
and with painted walls. To the north of
the govinithalam is another room with only
one painting representing Vishnu as
Vaikuntanatha of the Tripunithura temple.
A spacious hall further north exhibits at
present some of the paraphernalia of the
royal house of Cochin, while the hall to
the east contains some of their weapons,
a swing and some furniture. The Dutch
Palace represents a peculiar blending of
the European and indigenous ideas of
64
architecture and remains one of the main
attractions in Cochin.
Forts
Remains of forts built by the Portuguese
and the Dutch can be seen at Pallippuram
and Cochin. The former, a hexagonal
building known by the name of Ayakotta
or Azhikotta, is perhaps one of the oldest
European structures extant in India. Made
of laterite blocks with a gateway built of
dressed granite, the main purpose of this
fort was to guard the entry into the
backwaters from the north.
The remains of forts built by Cochin rulers
can be seen at Chowwara and
Tripunithura. The ruins of a cavalry outpost
have been come across at Thrikkakunnu
(near Irimpanam). In Muvattupuzha and
Ramamangalam are the ruins of a fortress
of the Vadakkumkoor Rajas. Ruins of an
old fort can be seen at Karikode.
Fort Manuel, the bastion of the Portuguese
in Cochin, was a symbol of the strategic
alliance between the Maharaja of Cochin
and the Monarch of Portugal, after whom
it was named. The foundation stone was
laid on 27 September 1503. The fort was
a square structure of 183 yards
surrounded by a deep moat. Christened
as Manuel Kotta or Fort Manuel, it was
destroyed by the Dutch by 1806 and more
completely by the British later though
some of it’s remains can be seen today
along the Fort Cochin Beach.
Bungalows and Houses
Pierce Leslie Bungalow, an office of M/s
Pierce Leslie and Co., coffee merchants
founded in 1862 , is a representative of
the archetype Fort Cochin colonial
bungalow with it’s Portuguese, Dutch and
local influences. Characteristic features
are the wood panelled roof, arched
doorways, carved doors and sprawling
rooms. Waterfront verandahs are an
added attraction.
Bastion Bungalow, built in the Indo-
European style in 1667, got it’s name
from it’s location on the site of Stromberg
Bastion of the old Dutch fort. The building
blends beautifully into the circular structure
of the bastion as a tiled roof and a typical
first floor verandah in wood along it’s front
portion. Though it has been said that a
network of secret tunnels runs beneath the
bungalow, none have been found. Today,
the bungalow is the official residence of
the Revenue Divisional Officer.
Delta Study, once a warehouse, this
heritage building built in 1808, houses a
high school today.
The Old Harbour House, built in 1808,
is in the possession of Carrit Moran and
Co., renowned tea brokers. It was once a
boat club. Now it is used as a residence.
Koder House, constructed by Samuel S.
Koder of the Cochin Electric Company in
1808, is a supreme example of Indo-
European architecture. Features like
verandah seats at the entrance, floor tiles
in a chessboard pattern, carved wooden
furniture, red coloured brick-like façade,
wooden bridge connecting separate
structures across the street are all unique
to this bungalow.
Vasco House is one of the oldest
Portuguese residences in Fort Cochin. It
is believed to have been the residence of
Vasco Da Gama. Built in the early
 65

India Company. After

sixteenth century it is now in private
ownership as a residence. The chara
cteristic features are European glass-
paned windows and balcony-cum-
verandah.
The Bishop’s House, built in 1506 as the
residence of the Portuguese Governor,
stands on a little hillock near the Parade
Ground. The facade of the house is
characterised by large Gothic arches. The
building was acquired by Don Jos Gomes
Ferreira, the 27th Bishop of the Diocese
of Cochin whose jurisdiction extended
over Burma , Malaya and Ceylon in
addition to India.
The graceful Thakur House holds within
itself a reflection of the colonial era. The
bungalow was built in the late 1700’s on
the site of the Gelderland Bastion, one of
the seven bastions of the old Dutch Fort.
Earlier known as Kunal or Hill Bungalow,
it was built by the Dutch mainly as a club
and a community centre for the Dutch East
they left India, it
passed to the hands of
a prominent spice
trading family from
Mattancherry. In the
1900’s it became the
home to the
managers of the
National Bank of
India. In 1977 it was
acquired for
residential purposes
by the Ram Bahadur
Thakur Company, the
renowned tea trading firm. An intriguing
aspect of the structure is that it is perfectly
symmetrical on both floors. Thakur
House sports several trademarks of Dutch
architecture, with it’s wooden floors,
spacious rooms and large bay windows
that served significant strategic
requirements at the time of it ’s
construction. The secret tunnels beneath
the house are supposed to lead to the
St. Francis Church as well as to Bishop’s
House.
The tombstones in the Dutch Cemetery
are the most authentic record of the
hundreds of Europeans who came here.
The cemetery was consecrated in 1724
and is today managed by the Church of
South India.
VOC Gate is a large wooden gate facing
the Parade Ground, with the monogram
(VOC) of the once mighty Dutch East
India Company carved on it. It was built
in 1740.
66

Folk Arts
 67

Folk Arts
padayani and kalikettu in Kali temples.
Cochin does not have a folk culture of its
The powder for all the 5 colours–black,
own that could be separated from the folk
white, yellow, red and green– are taken
culture of Kerala. Folk arts of Kerala can
from natural substances like burnt chaff
be broadly classified as ritualistic and non-
(for black), rice (for white), brick (for red),
ritualistic and the former again into
leaves of kumkumam or vaka (for green)
devotional and magical. Devotional folk
and turmeric (for yellow). The practice of
arts like Theyyam, Kanyarkali, Kummatti
decorating the walls of temples, churches
etc. are performed to propitiate a
and palaces with beautiful paintings as a
particular God or Goddess and magical
tradition goes a long way back. In
folk arts like Pambinthullal,
mukhamezhuthu colours are applied on
Pooppadathullal, Kolamthullal etc. to win
the face in different ways for mudiyattom,
prosperity for a community or exorcise evil
theyyam, kalikettu etc. In meyyezhuthu the
spirits or to beget children. Non-ritualistic
chest and stomach of a performer are
folk arts can be divided into theatre arts,
painted in art forms like theyyam etc. Art
painting, architecture, sculpture etc. Folk
forms that employ mukhavarnam (mask)
drama, a part of theatre, is closely bound
are padayani, theyyam, thira etc.
to religious rituals. Folk dances are
performed by both men and women to Handicrafts
the accompaniment of songs, which are
The practice of decorating articles of daily
sung by the dancers themselves or
use and mouldings of pottery and metallic
occasionally by a group of musicians.
vessels have always been a passion for
Painting Malayalees. Traditional bronze lamps and
large bronze vessels called vattalam are
Intimately linked to religious rituals, folk
good examples of this tradition of folk
paintings are of 5 types: Kolamezhuthu,
handicraft.
Kalamezhuthu, Chumarchithramezhuthu
(murals), Mukha-mezhuthu, Dances
Mukhavarnangal (masks) and Kireedom
(headgear). Onam is celebrated in all Kanyarkali
homes by laying flower designs on the Kanyarkali (also known as Desathukali)
floor (pookkalam). Kolamezhuthu tradition is a fast moving, militant dance attuned
finds it’s vestiges in the kolams that are
drawn by Tamil Brahmins. They are
usually done using powder of a single
colour. Kalamezhuthu includes forms
like Kalamvaraykal, Aniyal etc. and uses
powders of 5 different hues. They are
relatively larger and it is a means of
propitiating Gods. Multicolour powder
designs of Goddess Kali are made in
68
to rhythmic devotional folk songs and
asuravadyas. It is said to be a ritual
offering in honour of Bhagavathy. The
dances last for four days and are preceded
by three days of Karivela and Vattakali.
The programme for each day is known
by a different name; the first day ’s
Kanyarkali being called Erawakkali and
the next three day’s items being known
as Aandikootu, Vallon and Malama
respectively. There are more than forty
‘steps’ or puratts for the four-day
programme. Though performed by Nairs,
Kanyarkali depicts the life of the Malayans,
one-time slaves and dependents of the
feudal chieftains and jenmies of the
Malabar area in Kerala. The
accompanying folk songs also throw some
light on the ancient feudal relationships.
Musical instruments like chenda,
maddalam, elathalam and chengala are
used. The costumes are very colourful.
Aivarkali
Literally meaning the play of the five sets,
this was a ritualistic art form performed in
the temples. Also known as Pandavarkali
or the play of the Pandavas, this is
performed by Ezhava, Asari, Moosari,
Karuvan, Thattan and Kallasari
communities. The performers numbering
5 or more with their leader called
Kaliachan, after a ritualistic bath apply
sandal paste over their foreheads and
perform beneath a decorated pandal with
a nilavilakku at the centre. Besides ponthi,
only elathalam is used for musical
accompaniment.
Pakkanaraattom
This art form is performed to drive out
evil spirits from homes. It is believed that
Pakkanar and his wife visit the houses.
They dance in tune with the beat of
different drums. Usually this art form is
performed during Onam festival.
Oppana
Performed traditionally among the Muslim
community in Kerala, this song and dance
programme is performed by females to
entertain the bride and by males to
entertain the bridegroom. Harmonium,
tabla and ganjra are the musical
instruments used. The songs are based
on Mappilappattu.
Kurathiyattom
Historically, Kurathis are Kerala’s gypsies
who go about from place to place telling
fortunes. In this dance called
Kurathiyattom, two Kurathis in the guise
of characters representing the wives of
Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva stage an
argument through songs about the
exploits of their respective husbands. The
favourable point in one’s favour becomes
the butt of ridicule at the other’s hands
and while one praises profusely, the other
condemns sarcastically. This is interpreted
with fluent mime. The gestures, body
swerves and footwork, show perfect co-
ordination and rhythmic grace. After this
the Kuravan (male) enters and enact a
mock quarrel with the Kurathi. Maddalam,
kaimani etc. are the instruments used.
Thumpithullal
Usually performed by women in
connection with the Onam festival, all the
girls dressed in Onakkodi (new clothes
received as a present for Onam) sit round

in a circle. At the centre of the circle sits
the performer. The girls sing in chorus to
the rhythmic clapping of hands and
occasional vociferations known as Kurava.
The rhythm and the pitch of the clapping
and the songs rise to a feverish level when
the girl in the centre enters into a trance
and begins to dance.
Kummi
Performed by women, the dancers move
in a circle with hand gestures signifying
reaping and harvesting. One of the
women leads the singing while the rest
take up the refrain. Each performer
renders a new line in turn and the dancing
stops when all get tired. In variations of
the Kummi, in some areas men also
participate. Here, the men with small sticks
in their hands form a circle, inside which
the women stand in a smaller ring. The
69
beating of the sticks by men and the
clapping of the hands by women are
perfectly synchronised with the steps that
they make and also with the rhythm of
the songs.
Thiyyattu
Thiyyattu is a devotional offering
performed in Bhadrakali temples.
Thiyyattunnis alone are entitled to perform
it. The theme is usually the killing of Darika
by Bhadrakali. First the picture of
Bhadrakali (called Kalam) is drawn on the
floor, with five different coloured powders.
A peedhom (seat) is placed in front, facing
a traditional oil-lit lamp. Then, the dancer
in the costume and make-up of
Bhagavathy wearing a special headgear,
pleated skirt and painted face dances
before the Kalam, to the accompaniment
of devotional songs. A small sized chenda,
70
thimila and kaimani are the instruments
used. Sometimes Thiyyattu is performed
before the deity Ayyappan by a set of
people known as Thiyyadi Nambiars. In
the Ayyappan Thiyyattu the make-up and
costume of the dancer is that of
Nandikeswaran.
Bhootham Thullal
This is ritual performed in connection with
Vela, Pooram, Thalappoli etc., which are
festivals in Keralam temples. Mannanmars
and, very rarely, Panars and Pulayas are
usually allowed to perform this dance. The
concept is that the devil-aides
(Bhoothams) of Lord Shiva are coming to
see and enjoy the temple festival. Large
headgear, protruding, unnaturally
rounded eyeballs, high ridged noses,
protruding tongue, flowing back hair,
pleated skirts and overcoats all conspire
to make the dancers appear completely
supernatural. Each dancer has a girdle
of bells. Anklets are also attached to the
legs and each dancer holds a shield and
club in his hands.
Kolam Thullal
This is a ritual offering usually performed
to get rid of the troubles caused by evil-
spirits. Here, a number of characters, with
hideous make-up and flat big head-gear
dance to the accompaniment of primitive
percussion instruments. The costumes of
the dancers are highly decorative and rich
in colour and brilliance. This dance is not
accompanied by songs.
Kampadavukali
This war dance is performed in circles and
the dancers utter wild war cries as it
gathers momentum. The group formations
are many and varied. Every movement
keeps perfect time with the strokes of the
sticks that the dancers hold in their hands.
Unique for its footwork and the striking of
sticks that very closely resemble the
movements of the sword and the shield in
ancient duels in Kerala, this dance is also
known as Kampadikali and Koladikali or
Kolkali.
Ammanattom
Ammanam is a hollow metallic ball that
contains numerous metal pieces inside.
Women perform the Ammanattom dance,
using four to twenty-four Ammanams that
are juggled. The jingling of the metal
pieces in the Ammanams keeps time
perfectly with the rhythm of the Brahmani
songs sung by the performer.
Sarpam Thullal
Sarpam Thullal is usually performed in the
courtyard of houses having snake shrines.
It is a votive offering for family wealth and
happiness. Members of a community
called Pulluvar perform the dance. In the
first stage, the Pulluvan draws a Kolam
(picture) of two or more entwined snakes
in the courtyard. An oil-lit traditional lamp
and one full measure (Nirapara) each of
paddy and rice are then placed in front
of the Kolam. In the second stage, the
idol of the snake is brought out from the
Kavu in a procession called Thalappoli. A
number of girls with their hair dressed up
like the hoods of snakes and reminiscent
of the legend of the Naga kanyakas are
part of this procession. The idol is placed
in the Kolam and the Poojari performs

ritual offerings while the girls sit in two
rows on the side of the Kolam. The Poojari
then dances to the rhythmic beating of
para and elathalam. All the while a
Pulluvan and Pulluvathi will be singing
special devotional songs set to tune and
rhythm by nanduni (a primitive type of
veena) and kudam respectively. As the
song gathers momentum the girls go into
a trance and begin to dance, swaying their
bodies slowly at first and steadily
ascending in tempo. The dance finally
erupts in a violent frenzy of rhythmic
fervour.
Velichappadu Thullal
This is a ritual dance common with
Bhadrakalippattu, Ayyappanppattu and
Vettaykorumakanppattu. Usually the
members of the Kallathu kuruppanmar
perform it. In the first stage of the dance
71
there is kalamezhuthu, in which the form
of the deity is drawn on the floor with the
aid of five different coloured powders.
Then, devotional songs are sung to the
accompaniment of nanduni, a musical
instrument. After this the dancer known
as Velichappadu enters, wearing a red
mundu, red scarf and a girdle of bells at
the waist, and a sword in hand. Slowly he
gets into a trance and executes vigorous
movements that are called idumkoorum
chavittal.
Kavadiyattam
Kavadiyattam is mainly performed as a
votive offering in temples where the
presiding deity is Lord Subrahmanya. Here
a number of dancers dressed in yellow or
pink clothes and with ashes smeared all
over the body carry ornate Kavadis on their
shoulders and dance in a row to the
72
rhythmic music of instruments like udukku,
chenda etc. Sometimes nadaswaram is
also used
Kolkali
This art form is prevalent among Hindu
farmers. Both men and women
participate. The performers numbering 12
to 24 move in a circle, striking small sticks
and keeping rhythm with special steps. The
circle expands and contracts as the dance
progresses. The dance phases are
Irunnukali, Thaduthukali, Thadakali,
Thaduthu thettikol, Orumanimuttu,
Chavittichuttal, Churanjuchuttal, Chind
etc. The accompanying music gradually
rises in pitch and the dance reaches its
climax. Sometimes it is performed on a
specially constructed wooden stage giving
it the name Thattinmelkali. It is also called
Kolukali, Koladi, Vettumthada etc.
Poykkalukali
Also known as Marakkalattom, this is a
stilt-dance performed in connection with
temple festivals. Theme songs are sung
in which the fight of the goddess Durga
on stilts against the Asuras who attacked
her in the guise of snakes, scorpions etc.,
are portrayed. The rhythm is kept by
percussion instruments.
Thekkathiyum
Popular in Palakkad and Malappuram
Districts this is a dance performed by the
Panars whose profession is the making of
palm leaf umbrellas. Two dancers (one
male and one female) and two percussion
instrumentalists form a troupe. The
characters sing, exchange dialogues and
perform stylised movements, through well-
defined steps. The instrumentalists repeat
the songs and put questions to the
characters. Some portions from the
Ramayana form the theme of the play.
Sometimes, portions from the
Mahabharatha are also used. When
needed by the actors the accompanists
keep time with tiny cymbals (Kuzhithalam).
Pallukali
In vogue in Palakkad District, the Pariah
community performs this ritualistic art. An
artiste in the costume of Ganapathy is
followed by such characters as
panakkaran (a rich man), his servant, his
two wives, and a kolkaran (he is also the
comedian). The leader sings a song in
Kavu style. According to the meaning of
the song, those on the stage start acting
and singing the dialogues. Of the two
wives of the rich man, one turns informer
against him. This and the misfortunes that
follow upon this, form the core of the
theme. On account of the prayers of the
other wife it all ends happily. The male
characters have costumes similar to those
of Kathakali. The female characters don
mundu and randammundu.
Paana
This is a ritual dance propitiating the
goddess Kali. Small temporary shrines are
constructed and variously decorated. A
branch of the Pala tree is taken around
the temple by about 10 to 12 persons
who dance all the way to the rhythm set
by percussion instruments and it is called
Pala Piditham. The branch is then installed
in the centre of the shrine as the deity and
the village leader performs pooja. Ten to

twelve persons dancing round the deity
with burning torches follow this. After this,
songs are sung glorifying the victory of
Kali over Darika. The last part of the dance
is Velichappadu thullal.
Ayyappan Vilakku
A miniature temple is constructed with
tender coconut fronds and banana plant
stem. Then songs are sung on the
legendary fight between Ayyappan and
Vavar. In tune with the various rhymes and
rhythms of this devotional song, two
dancers in the costume and make up of
Ayyappan and Vavar perform with swords
and coconut fronds. The dancers execute
vigorous foot-movements. In the last
stage, a huge fire called aazhi is lit and
the dancers jump into the burning embers
still dancing.
Thookkam
This is a votive offering performed in
Bhagavathy temples. The costume of the
dancer is as in Velichappadu Thullal - a
73
red scarf on the head and a red cloth at
the waist. Anklets are tied to the legs. The
performer goes around the deity, dancing
to the rhymes set by chenda, maddalam,
thimila and elathalam. Then he gets onto
a one-wheeled platform over which is the
pillar like Utholakam. There is a hook at
one end of the Utholakam that is hooked
into the back of the dancer. This end is
then raised up. Hooked to the Utholakam,
the dancer is thus suspended in the air in
which posture he executes certain physical
feats and dance movements and the
whole platform is taken around the temple
deity thrice. Sometimes the make-up of
the dancer will be in the shape of Garuda,
the mythological bird, hence the dance is
also called Garudan Thookkam.
Poothanum Tharayum
Vannanmar perform this in the northern
region. When performed by the Parayas
elsewhere it is known also as Parayan
Thira. It is usually presented during the
festivals in Bhagavathy temples. The
characters are the divine Bhoothams who
accompanied
Kali during her
mission to slay the
demon Darika.
Symbolic of the
merrymaking of
the spirits after the
slaying of the
demon, this
dance is noted for
it’s colourful and
distinct costumes.
Thiruvathirakali
Performed by
74
women on the Thiruvathira day in the
Malayalam month of Dhanu, during
Onam and other festive seasons, this
dance is believed to be the
commemoration of Parvathi’s dance on
Siva’s birthday. Performed continuously for
seven days prior to Thiruvathira, it is a
symmetric group dance around a
Nilavilakku. The dance has the lasya
element predominating except in parts of
North Kerala where men also participate
and the thandava element is also brought
into play. The songs are in the Sopana
style.
Mudiyettu
It is a ritualistic dance presented in
Bhadrakali temples. A Kolam of the
Goddess in her most destructive moods
is created followed by rituals of drawing
a Kalam, then prathistapooja,
thiriyuzhichil, thalappoli and kalam
maykal. The Kolam is then taken around
the temple to the accompaniment of
percussion instruments and finally installed
in a suitable place. After a ritual called
aranguvazhthal the dance is enacted
before the Kolam. There are at least
sixteen performers in this dance, the theme
of which is the legendary victory of
Bhadrakali over Darika. Two types of
chenda and cymbals are the percussion
instruments used. It is usually presented
after dusk.
Parichamuttukali
A martial art performed by Christians,
Thiyyas and some other communities, this
art can be traced to the ancient days of
Kerala when Kalaripayattu was in vogue.
This is a group dance in which 6 to 16
performers fake a sword battle while the
leader, called Asan, sings songs. The
musical accompaniment is restricted to
elathalam.
Mariamma Pooja
It is mainly performed by Kumbharanmar
(potters) in temples. There are 22
performers who take out an effigy of
Mariamma (clan deity) along with a large
pot to the river. After taking a dip in the
river and dancing back to the pandal put
up in front of the temple, the kumbham
carrier will flagellate himself with a whip.
After this, the invocation of the deity,
subsequent possession and oracular
utterances take place. Chenda, udukku
and elathalam are used in this
performance that starts in the evening and
lasts till daybreak.
Darikavadham
It is the dance enactment of the slaying of
Darika by Bhadrakali, performed by
Parayas. There are at least 14 persons
involved. Two Kalams are drawn inside the
precincts of the temple, one each for
Darika and Kali. After a pooja, two
persons dressed as Kali and Darika act
out the battle scene on the Kalam. Lord
Siva also appears, trying to save Darika
but fails. Thappu, chenda and elathalam
are used. The costumes are terrifying in
effect with Kali’s red lips, red tongue and
Darika’s Kavacha and Kundala.
Tholpavakoothu
Also known as Pavakoothu (puppet play)
and Nizhalattam (shadow play), this
ritualistic art form is prevalent in Palakkad.
At least 4 persons are involved, usually

Pulayanmar. Deer skin made puppets are
arranged behind a white screen
representing four characters from the
Ramayana. Behind these are placed bright
wick lamps that cause their shadows to
fall on the screen. The puppets are made
to dance along with songs sung from
Kamba Ramayanam. After each song, an
entertaining description of the characters
is made.
Kummatti
Performed in certain parts of Palakkad,
this art form is performed by Hindu
children of all castes who go around
different houses dressed as Kummatti in
garb made of grass, dry banana leaves
or paper. The leading character,
Thallakummatti, with the mask of a very
old woman is accompanied by other
children dressed as Gods and Goddesses
of the Hindu pantheon. They sing and
dance to the music of a small drum and
villu.
75
Pulikali
Also known as Kaduvakali, in this art form,
the dancers made up as tigers, enact
being hunted by a game-hunter and
preying on a goat etc. They present
vigorous dances to the loud beating of
percussion instruments like udukku, thakil
etc.
Parayanthira
This is a ritual dance performed before
Bhagavathy temple in connection with
festivals. The concept is that the devil-
aides of goddess Bhadrakali perform this
dance after the death of Darika. The
costumes of the Thira are colourful and
captivating. The large headgears,
protruding eyes, high-ridged noses,
protruding tongues, flowing black hair
and the voluminous pleated skirts and
overcoats all make the dancers completely
supernatural. The dance is usually
performed by Parayas.
76

Music
the raga swaras.
Music plays an important role in the lives
of Malayalees, be it folk, sacred Uniquely, in Sopana Sangeetham, the
(vaideeka), secular (laukeeka), or drama alapana treats every note of a raga as its
(natya) music. base (nila or padi), proceeds to its
immediate succeeding note and then
Sopana music, the traditional and most
descends to its nila. Also, unlike that of
typical music style of Kerala, literally
art music, the alapana is slow and tala
means music that is performed from the
bound. The usage of straight and sharp
sopana or the granite steps leading to the
notes of a raga and holding them for long
sanctum sanctorum of temples. And like
creates a feeling that there are more than
steps, it is a music that proceeds slowly in
the usual varieties of nishadas, gandharas,
an ascending and descending order of
etc. in Sopana Sangeetham. The choice

of gamakas and their application are also
different.
Sopana Sangeetham is also marked by a
certain tremor that is heard with most of
the swaras of a raga. A sudden break into
various sancharas and phrases, emphasis
on jeevasthayam, limited range of ragas,
musical forms and talas and restriction in
their renderings are also traits of this
system. Starting from panchama, most of
the songs go down to adhara shadja or
up to tara shadja. Margi talas said to be
prevalent before the advent of the 35 desi
talas is followed in Sopana Sangeetham.
The typical orchestra instruments used
include chenda, edakka, chengala,
elathalam, maddalam, kuzhithalam,
thimila, nanduni, maram, kombu, kuzhal,
villu, shangu etc.
Classical Carnatic Music
Classical Carnatic music in its present
form made it’s appearance in Kerala just
before the time of Swati Tirunal. It reached
its peak in productivity during his time,
when innumerable compositions were
composed, practised and popularised. But
it declined after his death. A brief revival
in the second quarter of the last century
was short-lived.
Sangeetha Natakam
Music of the dramatic arts can be traced
in the music of koothu, koodiyattom,
ashtapadiattom, krishnanattam, kathakali
etc. However, the music of sangeetha
natakams, as seen today, started with the
introduction of Tamil sangeetha natakams
and Malayalam sangeetha natakams
inspired by them like Sadarama,
77
Dhruvacharitam, Harischandracharitam,
Sangeetha naishadham, Nallathankai,
etc.
Chavittu natakam and other dramas, that
had a different musical set-up, lead to the
growth of light music.
Harikatha Kalakshepam
The strictly traditional, classical and
religious music of Harikatha Kalakshepam
can be traced to the narrations of soothas,
chakiars etc. who presented the story of
Gods and kings through acting, music
and dance. With this exquisite form of the
tauratrikam (denoting the harmonious
blending of the three forms of art, viz.,
geetam (vocal music), vadyam
(instrumental music) and nrityam
(dramatic dance) many aakhyanas,
harikathas, tarangams, etc. were specially
composed for it. Its modified modern
forms are kathakalakshepam and
kathaprasangam.
Folk Music
In addition to the classical tradition, there
is a very rich folk song tradition. Songs
accompanied all the phases of agriculture
like sowing, weeding and harvest,
irrigating the fields, etc. Composers of
classical music were so attracted to such
songs that they also used them. For
example, Iraymman Thampi and
Cherrusseri used the melodies of
traditional lullabies to write lyrics and the
boat song melody was used by
Ramapurath Warier in the 18th century.
Music also played a significant role in most
festivals of Onam, Thiruvathira, Pooram,
etc. and special songs sung on occasions
78
of a girl’s attaining puberty, marriage,
pregnancy and even after death. Songs
to ward off the evil eye and to help beget
children were also popular.
Musical Instruments
There are three classes of musical
instruments. They are classical, traditional
(theatrical and ritualistic) and folk. Used
solo or as accompanying instruments to
Carnatic music and classical dances, the
classical instruments include veena,
tampuru, gottuvadyam, flute,
nagaswaram, mridangam, ganjira,
ghatam, tavil etc.
The folk instruments are the pulluvan
veena, pulluvan kudom, udukku,
tampattam, sooryappira, ampilivalayam
etc. that are used in non-Aryan temple
rituals, religious songs and dances, and
social ceremonies.
The traditional theatrical and ritualistic
musical instruments include chenda,
chengala, maddalam, thimila, edakka,
maram etc. The traditional and folk
instruments, exceeding fifty in number,
have a number of sub-varieties according
to their size, shape and prominence in
temple rituals, melams and theatrical
presentations. Representing a direct and
unbroken tradition form the music in
Chilappathikaram epic, the instruments
have been classified on the basis of their
structure and scope in early Tamil and
Malayalam literature. In view of their utility
they are also classified as veera vadyam
(por-murasam or instruments of war),
nalikappara vadyam (kanaparai or time
announcing drums), preta vadyam
(instruments of funeral rites), kshetra
vadyam (temple instruments), neeti
vadyam (instruments of justice), thullal
vadyam (instruments of Thullal dance),
kathakali vadyam etc. Grouped also as
chetty vadyam etc. from their point of their
association with certain communities,
another classification treats them as
akamuzha, puramuzha. etc according to
their prominence in religious and social
ceremonies.
Instruments are of different tol-varieties or
avanadha (membrophonic), tula or
sushira (aerophonic), tata or tantri
(chrodophonic) and talam or ghanam
(idiophonic). There are also instruments
made of wooden blocks (castanets) like
chapplam-katta, vadi, tadi, marakkayil,
ponti, netumkol, kurumkol, panamkol,
mulakkol.
Avanadha (membrophonic) instruments
include bheri, patahom, edakka,
maddalam, thimila, karatika, kudomuzha,
mizhani, takka, para, damarukam,
murasu, anakam, dundubhi, udukku,
chenda, nakra (nagara) kudukotti,
kathirikka, itumudi maram, pani, kidikitli,
pambai saundi, kanappara, stani,
pankitam, takunicham, kanvidu tumpoo,
ghanam, tanka, rasadhvani, murasam,
tattalam, tumpupaangi, chatakam,
tattanicham, ekaksham, murajam,
naleekam, antari, mulaveedu, jharjhara,
kotti, tudi, katum-tudi, tavil, challari, tappu
tumittam, dindimam, dhakka, perumpara,
tampuru, mridangam, ganjira tampattam,
panchamukha vadyam, edora, viranam,
dholak, antari, tadari, nichaalam ,
tudumai, adakkam, bhagam, viraleru,
uppangi and chandravalayam.
Ghanam (idiophonic) includes kaimani,

kalmani, aramani, kudamani, kinnam,
kaalchilampu, kaichilambu, ilattalam,
kuzhithalam, talam, chengala, inverted
chempu, kancham, bheri-mani, kamysam
and ghanta.
Sushiram (aerophonic) includes
odakkuzhal, kurumkuzhal, pullamkuzhal,
kombu, magudi, kahalam, sringam, titti,
veena, murali, sanghu, nagaswaram,
mukha-veena, vangiyam, yekkalam, tuttiri,
sahanai, bhoori, tutti, tandu, sri-chihnam,
yezhil, nauri, karna, cinam,
bhullamukhom, sarppanadam,
sarppamukham, nalikom. Tatam include
kinnaram, vilvadyam, pulluvan-veena,
pulluvan-kudam, nantuni, ravananki,
sarangi, veena, yel, pinaki, tanti, tantri,
svarabat, tata, ghottu-vadyam, chala-
veena, rudra-veena, tampuru, kinnari,
sarod, rava, ravana-hastha, svaramandali,
tumpu-vadyam etc.
These instruments, with a number of sub-
varieties and combining with others to
function as misra vadyas, are frequently
referred to in ancient classics like
Chilappathikaram, Unnuneeli Sandesam,
Chandrotsavam and in the works of
Cherrusseri, Ezhuthachan, Nambiar and
Karthika Tirunal.
Drums, with the maximum number of
varieties, stands foremost of these five
types of instruments followed by ghana
or metals and then sushira or wind. Of
very little significance and representation
are the stringed instruments.
Miscellaneous instruments include kudom,
kalasam, niramelum-tunni, maddu,
kantha, jalam, musical pillars, mukha-
veena, musical bronzes, stone
nagaswaram etc. Common and popular
79
with both Aryan and non-Aryan
worshipping centres, many of the
instruments are connected either with
temple rituals and festivals or with temple
theatres.
Edakka, kurumkuzhal, itumudi, veeranam,
maram, elathalam, chenda, maddalam,
shuddha maddalam, toppi maddalam,
sanghu, thimila, kombu etc. are used in
rituals like edakka pradakshinam,
vilakkacharam, sribhoota bali, kalasam,
sandhya-keli, poojakkottu etc. Instruments
like nantuni, pulluvan veena, pulluvan
kudom, udukku, tudi, tappu, viranam,
pambai, ampill valayam, soorya valayam,
kuzhal, ponti etc. are used in gandharvan
pattu, sarpam pattu, kalam pattu,
theyyam, mudiyattom, sanghakkali,
velakali etc. While instruments like
chenda, thimila, maddalam, kombu,
kuzhal, vil, edakka and others are used
for performances of panchavadyam,
tayambaka, and chenda melam, koothu
and patahom, mizhaavu, edakka, sanghu,
kuzhal etc. are used for koothu and
koodiyattom. Mridangam, talam,
harmonium and maddalam are used for
Thullal while chenda, chengala,
elathalam, maddalam, edakka, sanghu
etc. are used for Krishnanattam, Kathakali
and Arjunanrittam.
Some of the leading ensembles include
ritualistic ones like edakka pradakshinam
and vilakkacharam, and festive ones like
kuzhal pattu and chenda melam.
Panchavadyam has thimila, maddalam,
kombu, elathalam, edakka and sanghu,
all the four varieties of musical
instruments. While the minor group has
eleven thimilas, five maddalams, eleven
80
elathalams, eleven kombus, two edakkas
and one sanghu, the major set has fifteen
thimilas, eight maddalams, fifteen
elathalams, fifteen kombus, two or more
edakkas and one or more sanghus.
Regarded as devavadyam, pancha
vadyam starts with omkara, sounded
through the sanghu. Panchavadyam is
presented in temple rituals. While
sandhya-keli is a part of the temple ritual
vilakkacharam, kathakali keli is performed
before a Kathakali performance begins.
While the former ensemble consists of
elathalam, chengala and maddalam,
kooru vayikkal is the typicality of the
latter’s ensemble.
Performing Arts
Chavittu natakam
A theatrical art, which developed under
the auspices of the Church in Kerala, the
Chavittu natakam, evolved as a Christian
alternative to the Hindu Kathakali. The
name originates from the rhythmic
stamping (chavittu) on the wood stage
floor by the performers to the tune of
songs and beating of drums. This is an
adaptation of Koodiyattom based on
Christian themes, with some ingredients
of Western opera.
It originated around the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, when foreign
Christian missionaries tried to adapt
Christian religious themes to the local
conditions and develop a presentable
theatrical form, which could be
understood by the Malayalee audience.
It had its debut at Mattancherry where two
Tamil Christian scholars, Vedanayakam
Pillai and Chinnathampi Pillai, contributed
much to it’s development in the formative
stage.
While Kathakali is dependent on miming
and physical expressions, Chavittu
natakam depends on verbal acting with
more importance to the element of
drama. The dressing, which includes
western forms including helmet,
breastplate, gloves etc., is simpler and
only characters like Satan, dragons etc.
have elaborate forms of dressing similar
to Kari in Kathakali.
 81

This musical drama, with songs in Tamil an unusually loud noise, not very pleasant
meter, is sung by the actors themselves. to the ears. In some churches there were
Music, vocal and instrumental has an Natakasalas or drama halls intended for
important place in this theatrical art. the staging of Chavittu natakam. With the
Chenda, maddalam, mridangam, development of modern drama forms this
nagaswaram, violin, harmonium and art form is losing its attraction to younger
band instruments were the musical generations.
instruments used for the orchestra. Flute
and fiddle are also used. There are sixteen Visual Arts
types of basic chuvadus (steps) with a Cochin Murals
number of variations like irattippu,
The Cochin Murals bear ‘traces of the
kalasam, idakkalasam and kavittam.
influence of Buddhist painting that links
Chavittu natakam has also a martial
the art of Keralam with that of Ajanta and
aspect as war scenes are an essential
Bagh.’ The palliyara or bedchamber in the
ingredient of the performance. Among the
Mattancherry Palace contains most of
stories presented by the Chavittu natakam
these murals. Painted above the wooden
troupes were those of Charlemagne,
mouldings on the walls, these scenes cover
Napoleon, the lives of Christian saints and
an area of more than 300 square feet.
the history of Christianity. Resembling the
The upper half of the walls was covered
miracle plays of the West, the costumes,
with puranic themes while the lower half
make-up, and stage settings show
had simple textile designs.
unmistakable traces of Western influence.
The great moments of Ramayana are
The stage in Chavittu natakam is an
depicted through more than 60 wall
unusually large one, 30 metres in length
paintings, from Dasaratha’s Putrakamesh-
and 9 metres in width, made by arranging
tiyagam till the re-entry of Seetha and Ram
a series of wooden planks. It is about 2.70
to Ayodhya. Dasaratha instructing
metres high from the floor and very often
Sumandra about the preparations for the
the Elizabethan type of double-storied
Putrakameshtiyagam forms the first picture
stage is put up. Sometimes, as many as
on the northern end of the eastern wall.
fifty actors appear in an action scene and
Fire God Agni with payasam in his hands
all of them have to be accommodated
appearing from the fire with Lord Maha
along with the members of the orchestra
Vishnu, and the wives of Dasaratha
on the stage. Therefore, the stage is not
receiving it are the other pictures. Among
provided with a curtain that covers the
Kausalya, Kaikeyi, Sumitra, the wives of
whole frontage. The specially improvised
Dasaratha, only Kaikeyi has been
wooden platform on which the play is
coloured with golden paint.
staged gives Chavittu natakam the
nickname Tattupolippan because the Child-birth scenes have been shown
actors used to stamp continuously with openly which makes us wonder whether it
their feet on the stage floor and produce is the influence of folk art. Several scenes
82
from the Ayodhya episodes is followed
by scenes from Aranya, Sundara and
Yudha episodes. Contrary to tradition, Sri
Rama Patabhishekam is not portrayed.
The wall painters stylised not only the
ornaments and figures but even the
flowing blood as can be seen from the
picture depicting Lakshmana cutting
Surpanaka’s nose and breasts. These
paintings have been attributed to about
1600 AD.
Four other chambers in the upper and
lower storeys of the palace are also
decorated with mural paintings. Among
them the depiction of Vishnu as
Vaikuntanatha and the story of Uma and
Siva as described in the Kumarasambhava
of Kalidasa deserve special mention.
There are also paintings representing
Mahalakshmi and Bhutanata,
Kiratamurti, Coronation of Sri Rama, Siva
and Parvati, Ardhanareeswara and other
Goddesses, Vishnu as Anantha-
sayanamurti, Guruvayurappan, Krishna
lifting the Govardhan, Siva and Parvati
in Kailasa and Vishnu as Mohini playing
ball when Siva comes on the bull. These
are said to be painted around 1700 AD.
There are some unfinished pictures too.
According to tradition, the mural paintings
were executed by one Govindan
Embranthiri of Narayana- mangalam.
83
84

Religions

Religions
Religious toleration being the hallmark of
Keralam’s culture, we find all Indian
religions like Hinduism, Jainism and
Buddhism and western religions like
Christianity, Judaism and Islam co-existing
in Cochin. In spite of the relatively low
proportion of Buddhists, Janis, Sikhs and
Jews to the total population of Cochin,
their presence has lent colour and variety.
Dravidian Religion
The ancient Malayalees followed a
Dravidian way of life. Their religion was a
strong mixture of animism, totemism and
spiritual worship where totem Gods, spirits
inhabiting rivers, trees, and hills, many
local deities, demons, ancestors etc. were
worshipped. For example, Kottavai was a
Dravidian Goddess worshipped with
offerings of meat and toddy (fermented
coconut tree sap) and the banyan tree was
considered the abode of God.
Hinduism
Hinduism, a compromise between the
pantheon of the Aryans and the
demonolatry of the Dravidians, forms the
religion of the largest majority of the
population in Cochin at present. It is
believed that the advent of the Jains and
Buddhists was followed by the Aryan
immigrants in the 3rd century BC. In the
8 th century, Aryanisation reached it’s
climax with the arrival of a large batch of
Brahmins. In the early years of the Kollam
era, they poured into Keralam from
Tulunad and exerted their influence in
different spheres of life. Saivite and
Vaishnavite sects gathered strength and
the religion and culture of the Aryans
85
spread rapidly. During this period a new
culture evolved based on the synthesis of
Aryan and Dravidian cultures. This culture
was inextricably bound up with the
matrilineal system, the rise of the Nairs
and the feudal system. It is believed that
the majority of the Brahmins here are
those who migrated from south of
Karnataka while the Namboodiris, who
are at the apex of the Hindu system, came
from the Krishna and Godavari river
regions. According to Elamkulam P.N.
Kunjan Pillai, the Namboodiris were the
real rulers of Keralam from the 11 th
century to the 16th century.
The triumph of Aryanisation was marked
by their superior intellectual skill.
Prabhakara, the great Mimamsaka,
became the head of the school they
founded for the propagation of Vedantic
studies. Venerated as a guru, his
philosophy was known as Gurumata
philosophy. Hinduism further progressed
under Sankaracharya, the Advaita
philosopher and Hindu religious reformer.
His system had it’s roots deep in
Upanishadic teachings and advocated the
oneness of the individual soul with
Brahman, the all pervading cosmic force.
It permitted the worship of God in different
forms. The Bhakti movement in the 8th and
9th centuries led to spectacular progress
of Hinduism. From the 11th century to the
18th century, dominance was established
by Brahminical Hinduism with it’s
ceremonies, beliefs, witchcraft practices,
traditions, superstitions, mythology etc.
Their heroes became popular with the
masses and their idols were installed in
temples. Villages and cities grew up
around the temples as economic, social,
86
political and cultural aspects of life were
intimately connected with the temples.
Slowly non-Aryan deities were
accommodated within the Hindu fold and
non-Aryan religious practises were also
absorbed. Aryan and Dravidian aspects
of this syncretised Hinduism is typified by
the two classes of temples: the ambalams
or Aryan institutions dedicated to the
worship of Vishnu and Siva and their
consorts and incarnations, and the
Dravidian kavus in which Kali, Ayyappan
and other Gods and Goddesses are
worshipped. Serpent worship, ancestor
worship and worship of animals and trees
are some of the features of Hinduism
prevalent in Cochin.
Islam
Islam was introduced to Keralam by Arab
merchants, the pioneers of the spice trade,
who settled down in Cranganore
(Kodungallur), probably around the 7th
century AD. According to tradition, Mali
Ibn Dinar the pioneer of Islam in Kerala,
established mosque at Cranganore and
later on in different parts of Kerala. It is
believed that a group of Muslim
merchants who were followers of Prophet
Mohammed on their way to Adam Mala
in Ceylon visited Cranganore, which was
an important centre of trade. It is also
believed that Cheraman Perumal, the ruler
of Cranganore, accepted Islam and went
to Mecca and met Prophet Mohammed
in the 57th year of his age. There were
many marital alliances between these
Arabs and the natives as well as
conversions to Islam. The Muslims in
Cochin are mainly the descendants or the
offspring of such inter-marriages or
conversions from the lower classes among
 87

Hindus and are locally called

Jonaka Mappilas. There are
also a few immigrant Muslims
from north-west India. The
Gujarati and Kutchi Memons
and the Boras are two
important immigrant sects who
live mainly in Mattancherry.
The Ravuttans or Labbais
belonging to Tamilnadu,
Mohammedan immigrants
from the north including
Shaiks, Pathans, Sayyids,
Mughals and Hussains are the
other Muslims found in Cochin.
Almost all the Muslims are
Sunnis. They are engaged in
trade, cultivation, casual
labour, government services
and in the learned professions.
As among the Christians of
Cochin, there are survivals of
Hindu beliefs and customs
among Muslims also, such as
the worship of saints and belief
in magic and local
superstitions.

Christianity
Christianity in Kerala is attributed to the
visit of St. Thomas, one of the twelve
Apostles of Jesus Christ, who landed at
Maliankara near Kodungallur in 52 AD.
He preached the Gospel of his master,
first to the Jewish settlers in and around
Cochin and then to the natives, some of
whom converted to Christianity. He
established seven churches along the
Malabar coast. There are several
references to the early Christians here like
the Jewish traditional accounts dating to
around 68 AD, the accounts of Pantaenus,
the head of the Alexandrian school, who
visited Kerala in 189 AD, the account of
Cosmos Indicopleustes, a Byzantine monk
who visited Malabar in the 6th century AD,
Marco Polo who visited Kerala towards
the close of the 13th century etc. Prior to
the arrival of Portuguese Christians who
were Catholics, the St. Thomas Christians
were known as Syrian Christians (because
they followed the Syriac (a dialect of
Aramaic) liturgy. The work of St. Francis
88
Xavier and the Synod of Diamper (1599)
played an important part in the
subsequent Latinisation of the Church.
The Anglican Church came into existence
in Kerala when the British missionaries
broke their connection with Syrian
Christian Bishops and Church. Syrian
Christian Church priests advocating
reforms like the replacement of Syriac by
Malayalam, under the influence of the
missionaries, formed a new church known
as Marthoma Syrian Church.
Cochin, which has the largest Christian
population in Kerala, has the following
offshoots of Christianity. The Nestorian
Church, the Roman Catholic Church, the
Jacobite Syrian or the Orthodox Syrian
Church, the Anglican Church, Church of
South India and Marthoma Syrian Church.
Jainism
Jainism entered the land of the Malayalees
sometime around 3rd century BC. In the
early centuries of the Christian era, there
was not much opposition and the Jains
got royal patronage. The revival of
Hinduism in the beginning of the 9 th
century AD led to the decline of Jainism.
The Saivites and the Vaishnavites headed
the struggle against Jainism. The history
of many Hindu shrines that were
transformed from Jain shrines is positive
evidence of the influence and spread of
Jainism in the state, e.g. the Jain shrine
at Kallil near Perumbavur that is now a
Hindu temple. Jain monasteries gave
education to the poor and the homeless
and they practised medicine out of charity.
There are quite a few Jain families in
Cochin.
Other religious communities
Buddhists are a recent addition to the
population of Cochin due to the neo-
Buddhist movement of 1951-61. The
Sikhs, also a new addition, is another
religious community represented in
Cochin. They have a Gurudwara here and
an active community life.
Various Immigrant Communities In
Cochin
Gujarathis
Though the exact date of their migration
to Keralam is not known, the Gujarathis
celebrated their 100th year in Cochin in
1985. Presently, there are around 12,000
Gujarathis in this city. It is believed that
the Gujarathi migration started when
Mohammed Ghazni attacked Gujarat
and took over Somnath Temple. Some
people left the Kutch region, where rainfall
was scanty.
Basically traders, they first migrated to
Bombay, then to Madras and finally settled
in Keralam. They first reached Alleppey,
which was the best known port in those
times. Afterwards, they spread themselves
to Kozhikode (Calicut) and Cochin.
Finally, Mattancherry in Cochin became
their main centre and today it has the
largest Gujarathi population in Kerala.
Initially they conducted business in spices,
and later started diversifying their trade
into other commodities also.
Around 13 sections of Gujarathis like
Lohana, Vaisya, Brahman, Jain, and Kutch
reside in Cochin. They have different
temples like Kuladevathakshethram for the
Lohanas, Samoodirimatha for the Vaisyas,
and Deravasa for the Jains.

It is said that sweets, celebration, bhakti
and trade give an entirety of a Gujarathi.
He cannot avoid these symbols, which
forms an important part of his life.
There are businessmen, peons, clerks and
officers among Gujarathis in Cochin.
There are so many shops and factories of
Gujarathis’ in Mattancherry Bazaar and
Jew Town. Pepper, chukku, turmeric, betel
nut, copra, coconut oil, tea, rubber, coir,
89
cardamom etc. are some of the
products they deal with. Press,
mills, oil mills, tyre and soap
factories all complete their
business picture. Today they
have also started working in
banks and other companies.
Gujarathis have got an
important place in the art and
culture of Cochin. There are
two schools and one private
coaching college. There is no
better proof that they have
become a part of Cochin than
the fact that they learn
Malayalam as a second
language in their schools.
Festivals
They are very fond of
celebrating festivals. Durgapuja
and Deepavali are their main
festivals. Garbha, their
traditional dance is an
important item during these
festivals. Dandiya-ras Dance,
which continues throughout the
night during Navrathri, is also
important. Marriage is another
occasion for celebration. After-
death ceremonies are also
important for a Gujarathi.
Journalistic ventures
Though the Gujarathis are known for their
trading skills, the community excelled in
publishing many magazines. The paper
Keralapatrika published in Malayalam
from Cochin in 1865 was the contribution
of Devji Bhimji. For a proper
understanding between the native
90
communities and the Gujarathis, Kamal
Jeshapara translated various Gujarathi
literature to Malayalam. He also
translated Malayalam to Gujarathi. It was
he who published the weekly Deepthi.
Nouka, Cochin Patrika, Dakshin Bharath
etc. were other publications of the
Gujarathis. The Mattancherry Municipal
Chairman, Poppetlal Govardhan Lalen,
was another prominent Gujarathi.
Anglo Indians
The history of Anglo-Indians is centred on
Cochin. The Anglo-Indian nominees for
Cochin and later the Travancore-Cochin
Legislative Assemblies were all from
Cochin. At a time when women were
confined to the kitchen, Anglo-Indian
women became role models in society by
their social work. Anglo-Indian women
were the first white and blue collar-
working women in India. They worked
mainly in the fields of nursing, teaching,
military services, clerical and social
services.
Among the Portuguese, Dutch, German,
Swiss, Italian and English ancestries, the
majority has Portuguese ancestry. Their
main centres were Fort Kochi, Kollam,
Kannur, Cranganore etc.
How they came into existence?
It was common at that time to bring
Portuguese women by sea to India for
Portuguese men to marry. As this wasn’t
practical as many passed away enroute,
Albuquerque, a prominent Portuguese
ruler, asked the Portuguese men to marry
Indian women with the promise of many
favours like houses, land and trade

facilities. They started marrying people
from different castes.
According to the treaty signed at the time
of Portuguese surrender to the Dutch, they
were allowed to continue living in their
colonies. But the Protestant Dutch couldn’t
tolerate the Catholic Portuguese and after
suffering a lot at their hands, the Anglo-
Indians left for other places like Kudukotti,
Manjanakadu, Vypeenkara, Mulavukadu
etc. The Anglo-Indians of Cochin, Kollam,
Aleppey and Kannur are their successors.
Post-Independence era
The post-independence period saw their
conditions deteriorating. Educational
backwardness and extravagance,
especially among the men, were its
causes. Their patriotism was questioned
even though they fought for the country.
Many of them migrated to Canada,
Australia and Britain. Generally, while the
women were highly educated, the men
turned to blue jobs after basic education.
Scarcity of educated men forced the
women to marry from other communities.
Contributions
Immanuel Carniro translated the famous
Hortus Malabaricus into Portuguese. John
Gonsalves, the Anglo-Indian priest, was
the first to carve out Malayalam letters for
printing. Pothigazler and his son
Cornialius belonging to Vypeen were
famous ship builders.
Brahmin Communities
Tamil Brahmins are one of the most
influential of the non-indigenous
communities that migrated to Cochin.
Holding a dominant position in public life,
91
Tamil Brahmins engaged themselves in
trade, money lending and agricultural
pursuits. The poorer sections among them
have engaged themselves in domestic
service.
Locally called Konkinis, Gowda
Saraswaths are immigrants from Goa, the
southernmost part of Konkan. They are
also known as ‘Sasastikars’ as it is believed
that they belonged to Sasasti (modern
Salsete) in Goa. A branch of the
Saraswath subdivision of Pancha Gowdas,
they took refuge in Cochin in the 16th
century to escape religious persecution at
the hands of the Portuguese in Goa.
During the time of the Dutch they were
under the protection of their East India
Company and later, after the overthrow
of their power, were subject to the laws of
Cochin. They are subdivided into four
grades, the Thattans or goldsmiths, the
Wannears or oil merchants, the Chetties,
who are shroffs and general merchants
and the Cudumis who pound rice and
perform inferior offices.
Speaking the Konkani dialect of Marathi,
they are found in Mattancherry, Palluruthy,
Ernakulam, Tripunithura, North Parur,
Vypeen Island, Chennamangalam etc.
They are Vaishnavites, being followers of
Madhavacharya, and have rich and well-
endowed temples, the Thirumala
Devaswom temples in Mattancherry and
Ernakulam being the most important.
Observing the shodasakarma or the
sixteen rituals of a Brahmin’s life laid down
by Manu they strictly follow the customs
and manners prescribed in the Vedas, the
Brahmanas and the Upanishads. The
Namboodiris and Tamil Brahmins did not
92
treat them as their equals and hence did
not inter-dine or inter-marry with them.
By occupation they are mostly
businessmen, traders and shopkeepers
and have several religious shrines, cultural
and educational institutions. Having taken
to the learned professions and callings in
recent times, they form a prosperous
community.
Other Brahmin immigrants include the
Embrans from South Canara. Speaking
Tulu they are employed mainly as priests
in temples. There are also a few Telugu
and Marathi Brahmins in Cochin.
Non-Brahmin Communities
Among the non-Brahmin Paradesi
communities, the Vaniyas deserve special
mention. They are Konkani Vaisyas who
wear the sacred thread and resemble the
Gowda Saraswath Brahmins. An
important community in Mattancherry,
they have a temple of their own, the
Janardha Devaswom. They are petty
traders and gold and silver workers.
Kudumi Chetties are Konkani Sudras
noted for their capacity for hard and
sustained manual work.
Chetans or Divanga Chetties and
Kaikolans are weaving castes, the former,
immigrants from Mysore and speaking
Canarese and the latter from Coimbatore
with Tamil as their mother tongue. The
former, a more thriving community, has
some landholders and cultivators.
Jews
It is still not certain when exactly the Jews
arrived here. It is believed that they came
to Kerala during the time of King Solomon
in the 10 th century BC while another
tradition holds that they came here in the
6 th century BC to escape from the
Babylonian captivity of Nebuchednezzar.
According to the tradition prevalent
among the Cochin Jews, they made their
way to the Kerala coast soon after the
destruction of the Second Temple of
Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 AD. They
settled at Muziris (modern Kodungallur).
Well received by the enlightened rulers of
Keralam, they built synagogues and laid
the foundations of a strong community
life. Under the Kulasekharas, they enjoyed
several rights and privileges and the
famous Jewish Copper Plate Grant of
1000 AD by the Chera emperor, Bhaskara
Ravi Varman, to the Jewish chieftain
Joseph Rabban, is a standing monument
of the religious toleration and goodwill
extended to them.

Till the 15th century the Jews enjoyed a
high status in society and established a
trading monopoly. In the 15th century they
had to flee Kodungallur to Cochin when
the Moors attacked their settlements. The
Cochin Raja welcomed them and gave
them land and permitted them to build a
town near his palace. This led to the rise
of the Jew Town in Cochin in the beginning
of the 16th century. Paradesi Synagogue
was built as their place of worship.
The Jews led a relatively peaceful and
prosperous life till the arrival of the
Portuguese who persecuted them. The
Jews got solace only with the advent of
the Dutch who followed a policy of
religious toleration. Under the British also,
they enjoyed freedom. Many of them
93
returned to Israel in 1948 with the birth
of independent Israel. At present there
are less than members of the
community in Cochin.
The Cochin Jews were historically divided
into two major communities: the Black
Jews, or Malabaris, who regard
themselves as the descendants of the
original settlers, and the White Jews, or
Paradesis, descendants of immigrants
from various Middle East and European
countries. There are also a few Brown
Jews, or Meshuhurarum, who are
descended from emancipated slaves.
They became spice merchants, business
owners and professionals and spoke
Malayalam as well as English.
94

THE PORT,
AND A
LITTLE ON
COMMERCE

The Cochin Saga
The industrialisation in Kerala has taken
place mainly around Cochin. The
presence of a major port providing
effective port service is the dominant factor
that drives the economy of the region. The
port’s linkages to different industries like
Oil Refinery, Cashew, marine, Tourism and
shipbuilding are extending from their
genesis to progress.
There is always a close relationship
between existence of a port and prospect
of regional economic development. The
responsible role of a Port as the
determinant of economic development is
justified only if it transforms at pace with
the changing demands of the trade it
supports.
The old Port of Cochin operated with ships
95
berthed in the outer seas and cargo
supplied by large barges. The critical
turning point was its transformation in to
a modern Port with safe inner harbour.
This development was conceptualised and
implemented by one committed
individual. A British Harbour Engineer,
Sir Robert Bristow who braved many
hassles, made sacrifices and single-
handedly spearheaded the execution of
the decade long ambitious project.
As the hinterland of Cochin port rich
with spices attracted more and more trade
from across the seas, the need to expand
the port was increasingly felt in the early
twentieth century. In response to the
repeated collective appeals of the trading
fraternity, it was Lord Willingdon, then
96
Governor of Madras who arranged to
bring a highly qualified Harbour Engineer
to develop the Port. Mr. Robert Bristow
who was chosen for the assignment was
posted at Malta and engaged in the
maintenance of Souz Canal till then.
Sir Bristow came to Cochin on 13
April 1920. At that time Cochin was a
port where the ships were berthed
offshore with cargo loading and
unloading being done using lighters. The
ships were exposed to all the violent forces
of the open sea. Bristow foresaw that ports
which would take ships alongside the
berths only would have future. When he
left in 1941 he had transformed Cochin
as the safest harbour in the peninsula,
where ships berthed alongside the newly
reclaimed inner harbour equipped with
a long array of steam cranes.
The challenge before the Engineers who
had studied the Port was a formidable
bar of heavy and densely packed sand
across the harbour mouth that prevented
the entry of ships requiring more than
eight or nine feet of water. It was thought
that the removal of sand bar was a
technical impossibility. Even if it is done,
the nature and the extent of the potential
harm on the environment was
beyond estimation. It could be
anything like the destruction
of Vypeen foreshore or the
destruction of the Vembanad
lake.
Sir Robert Bristow upon arrival
in Cochin collected all the data
on the experimental schemes
and plans drawn prior to his
arrival. He addressed the
immediate problem of erosion of the
Vypeen foreshore by building of rubble
granite groynes nearly parallel with the
shores and overlapping each other. The
groynes first produced an automatic
reclamation which naturally protected the
shore from the monsoon seas. Confident
at initial success Bristow planned out a
detailed proposal of reclaiming a large
island and building a complete harbour
with jetties, bridges and railway lines at a
cost of 2.5 Crores. The plans included
creation of a channel inside the harbour
6000ft long and another channel of
3000ft long cutting through the sand bar.
The channels would be 150 feet wide.
The plans included the purchase of a
cutter suction dredger with 39’ pipe line
designed adequately to be a craft capable
of dredging through the bar. An ad-hoc
committee appointed by the Madras
government examined and approved the
plans submitted by Robert Bristow.
The construction of a special dredger
for Cochin ‘Lord Willington’ was
completed in England in 1925. It arrived
here in May 1926. The dredger was
put to use for at least 20 hours a day for
the next two years. The great work

demanded endless patience and
perseverance. As the dredger began the
ultimate challenge of encountering the
bar, each item of the machinery was
tested. Hair breadth escapes for men and
plant were regular. Bristow, relying largely
on his judgement made immediate
technical solutions. He paid close
attention both to the designs and to the
execution of works
Bristow had always cared for the
local sentiments and beliefs. He had now
cut open a channel and created a
reclamation that brought down the area
of the lake. While the sand bar was cut
he knew that the existing equilibrium of
the local environment was being
disturbed. He anticipated reactionary
developments. He knew it would effect
the Vypeen shore. He had been putting
reinforcements on the Vypeen sea-walls
so that the Vypeen foreshore is not taken
over by the sea. On the noon of 30th
March 1928, he came to the sand bar or
the last remains of it, that was to be
removed by the dredger to make the sand
bar a part of history. Robert Bristow, his
engineers and staff gathered on the
97
bridge of the dredger ‘Lord Willingdon’
half an hour before noon on 30-March
1928, to be in at the death – the cutting
through of the last ridge of the bar. At
noon the cut was finished. To celebrate
the success, all the ships, tugs and barges
assembled there ran up their flags and
blew their hooters in ecstasy. An excited
Bristow, in his book ‘Cochin Saga’ fondly
recalls the unexplainable magic of the
moment
“at this precise moment the sun,
which had been obscured by cloud all the
morning suddenly shone through and
then close around it there appeared a
firmly knit hallow of seven rainbow
colours, vivid and brilliant. Dramatic,
symbolic, unique, prophetic? It was all
of these to me, for I had never seen or
heard of such occurrence, and its
appearance at this moment, of all others
reminded me of some old testament
stories”
On 26 May 1928, even before the
inner channel was declared ready for
navigation, Steamer S.S ‘Padma’ coming
down from Bombay sailed calmly into the
harbour against explicit signals from the
Port officer. She was
rewarded with the
amount of cargo
which could be
crammed into the
vessel without sinking
it. The modern Port
of Cochin was
opened to the world.
Bristow encountered
innumerable
impediments on his
98
way to achievement of the mission.
Nobody considered that he would stay
on for 20 years. He was expected to
return once he comes to face the initial
hassles. Bristow had anticipated the
challenges from the natural forces only.
He had to resist the malicious opposition
from the lobby of the lighter owners. He
met with the opposition from the influential
owners of waterfront, whose assets lost
value when the berthing was shifted to the
new reclamation at Willingdon Island.
He received offers for employment from
the authorities of other South Indian ports.
His affinity for Cochin made him spurn
more lucrative offers. While
recommending capital intensive plans he
was taking a huge risk upon himself
exposing himself to a high degree of
accountability. Yet through a long saga
of ambition skill determination and
perseverance, he had created the
modern port of Cochin. When he was
invited to speak on the BBC on 11-8-
1935 in recognition of his successful
endeavour that changed the course of
the old port, his pride was reflected in his
words
“I live on a large Island made from the
bottom of the sea. It is called Willingdon
Island, after the present Viceroy of India.
From the upper floor of my house, I look
down on the finest harbour in the East”.
THE PORT TODAY
The Port of Cochin has since made
commendable strides of progress keeping
pace with the modernization trends . The
Port handles around 13.5 Million Tonnes
of cargo, with over 1100 vessels calling
annually. The Port is venturing into
transhipment business with the setting up
of the International Container Terminal

at the Vallarpadam Island. It will the
India’s first transhipment terminal. This
terminal itself should provide direct and
indirect employment of over 20000
accompanied with predictable economic
development to the region.
Taking advantage of its strategic
position, the Port is also setting up India’s
first Bunkering Terminal to provide fuel
for the large number of vessels passing
through the busy Maritime Highway in
close proximity to the Port. A Cruise
Terminal is coming up in Cochin to
provide dedicated facilities for the
increasing number cruise vessel that are
tempted to touch the highly promoted
tourism friendly Kerala. The Special
Economic Zone that is being set up at
the Puthuvypeen and Vallarpadam Island
99
should generate a large number of export
oriented units. The Petronet LNG
Consortium is in the process of setting
up and LNG Regasification plant at
Puthuvypeen . An International Golf
Course is also coming up in the
Vallarpadam Island. The Central
Government is supporting the projects by
assisting in achieving Railway and
Highway connectivity. The entire projects
would comprehensively bring in at least
over 60000 employment in Cochin and
Suburbs among other direct and spill over
positive economic impacts.
The timely completion of these projects
and realization of the consequential social
and economic benefits would be the ideal
memorial for Sir Robert Bristow.
100
The Economy
Kochi is better known as the commercial
capital of Kerala. The State’s commercial
activities are centered in and around this
city. Needless to say, Kochi gained
significance largely due to its
geographical positioning in the middle of
the narrow state.
Kochi is essentially a commercial city.
Although Kerala’s economy is
predominantly an agricultural one,
Kochi’s economy is centered on the
commercial activities. The agricultural
land is disappearing in an alarming rate
from the city. Instead huge concrete
structures and sky scrappers are emerging
on an every day basis in all parts. Kochi
now bears the face of a modern
metropolis.
Travellers from across the seas reached
here in search of spices and timber. The
enlightened erstwhile rulers of Cochin
were cosmopolitan in their outlook and
always cordial with the visitors. Their
hospitality opened the city doors to various
cultures. Thus the modern Kochi is a
magnificent blend of various sub-cultures.
Temple, church, mosque and synagogue
coexist closely here and so also people
belonging to various religion, caste and
creed.
The city’s economic life is on a fast gear
since the commissioning of the Cochin
Port. The flood of 1341AD washed out
the erstwhile seaport of
Muziris(Craganore). But it became a
blessing for Kochi as this paved the way
for an ideal harbour, which later came to
known as the “Queen of Arabian Sea”.
Thanks to the efforts of Sir Robert Bristow,
who almost single-handedly managed the
setting up of a port and the artificial island
in the process.
COCHIN PORT TRUST
The well designed port built in between
the twin towns of Kochi and Ernakulam,
the main land, is situated in a very strategic
point facing the Arabian Sea. There are
two wharfs named Ernakulam and
Mattancherry on the two sides of the
Willingdon Island, the land created by
filling the mud from the dredging process.
Plenty of vessels visit berth at Cochin Port
round the year, majority of which are
cargo vessels. More than ten thousand
cargo containers are handled here every
year, which is increasing in a tremendous
pace. All the modern facilities of any
efficient port are available here also.
The setting up of the Port has opened the
new avenues for export which generated
lot of employment and foreign money.
Another huge container terminal is
coming up in the opposite island of
Vallarpadam. The administration of the
Port is carried out by a Trust consisting of
17 Trustees.
Wellingdon Island is connected to the
main land with bridges. The Island is
connected to the mainland by road and
rail. There are plenty of offices in the island
and few residential quarters for the port
trust staff.
The Headquarters of the Southern Naval
Command is also situated in the
Wellingdon Island. A huge portion of the
land is occupied by the Naval Base. The
Southern Naval Command, a major unit

of Indian Navy has been here since the
1930s. Most of the Indian Navy’s training
porgrammes are carried out in Kochi. The
Navy which employs lot of personnel has
made significant contribution to the
cosmopolitan life of modern Kochi.
TRADE & INDUSTRY
The progress of industry and
industrialization of Kerala is relatively slow
when compared to other states in the
country. Most of the major industries of
the state are located in the border
townships of Kochi. Among them the trio,
the FACT, Cochin Refineries and Cochin
Shipyard stands out because of their giant
size in terms of investment, turnover and
employment generation.
FERTILISERS AND CHEMICALS
TRAVANCORE LIMITED
FACT is India’s first large scale fertilizer
plant. Set up in 1943 as a private
enterprise, it started production of
Ammonium Sulphate in 1947. It became
a Kerala State Public Sector Enterprise
since August 1960 and Government of
India became the major shareholder since
November 1962. FACT set up a
consultancy organisation FACT
Engineering and Design Organisation
(FEDO) in July 1965. FACT Engineering
Works (FEW)another Engineering unit was
set up in April 1966 to fabricate and install
fertilizer plants and cross country piping
and fabrication.
Cochin Division of FACT, another
production unit was set up at
Ambalamedu which was commissioned
in 1973.
101
Caprolactum, a petro-chemical
substance used for the manufacture of
nylon is another important product of the
FACT.
COCHIN REFINERIES LIMITED
Fuel represents the lifeline of any
economy. Cochin Refineries Limited
entered in the Industrial scene of Kochi
since 1963, injecting new enthusiasm for
growth in petroleum and other related
products. Incorporated by Government of
India, in collaboration with the Philips
Petroleum Co. of USA, the CRL ranks
among the best refineries of the country.
Apart from producing petrol and diesel
for automobiles, it produces Liquefied
Petroleum Gas and kerosene for
households and industrial units, naphtha,
a major raw material for petrochemical
and fertiliser industries, benzene, phenol
etc. With hundred per cent utilization of
its capacity, CRL’s annual turnover exceeds
Rs.3000 Crores, the highest in the State.
It contributes more than Rs.1000 Crores
to national exchequer by way of taxes and
dividend. CRL provides direct
employment to more than 1600 people.
COCHIN SHIPYARD LIMITED
COCHIN SHIPYARD LIMITED is
considered one among the ten public
sector-undertakings in India by
continuously excelling in its activities of
ship building and repairing. Launched in
1976, the COCHIN SHIPYARD was a
longtime aspiration of the citizens of
Cochin. The first vessel, a giant oil tanker
of 75000 tons “Rani Padmini” rolled out
of the dock on 28 th January, 1980.
Located in the heart of the city, Cochin
102
Shipyard has become a landmark of
Kochi. The credit of building the largest
ships in India goes to Cochin shipyard.
CSL has so far built a wide variety of
vessels including tankers, bulk-carriers,
heavy engineering structures, tugs for
various ports of India, patrol vessels,
passenger-vessels and docking pontoons.
Nearly three thousand people are in direct
employment of the Shipyard.
The other major industries in Kochi are
Travancore Cochin Chemicals, Indian
Aluminium Co., Hindustan Organics Ltd.,
Appollo Tyres, Binani Zinc Limited,
Hindustan Machine Tools and Indian Rare
Earths. There are many other medium and
small scale industries in and around Kochi,
inside and outside the industrial areas.
Perhaps the first trading community of
Kerala emerged in Kochi. As mentioned
elsewhere, the Portuguese, the Dutch, the
Chinese and the British came here in
search of spices and timber etc. The
merchandise were traded at the harbour
in Fort Cochin and were taken in smaller
country crafts to the ships anchored away
from the shore. Hence the market
developed around Fort Cochin. Even now,
the biggest spices market is in the Jew
town of Kochi. But it is the seafood
products that now attract more overseas
traders to Kochi than anything else.
Plenty of firms are now engaged in the
processing and exporting of seafood
products. The headquarters of the Marine
Development Authority is also situated
here.
There is an exclusive export processing
zone for the promotion of export
production, namely SEPZ, comprising of
more than fifty production units. They
produce goods ranging from garments to
software.
The following export promotion councils
and commodity boards are also stationed
in Kochi:-
Cochin Export promotion Council, Marine
Products Export Development Authority,
Coir Board, Coconut Development
Board, Rubber Board, Spice Board, Tea
Board.
There are three major trade associations
1. Cochin Chamber of Commerce &
Industry: The pioneer association of
traders and industrialists of Kochi is nearly
150 years old. It was established in 1857
by a group of European merchants. It is
a state level organization, locally
controlled.
2. Indian chamber of Commerce &
Industry: Started in 1912, this traders’
organisation caters to more than 400
industrial and trading houses of Kochi.
Having its headquarters in Mattancherry
and a branch in Willingdon Island, the
chamber plays a key role in the
development of trade in Kochi.
3. Ernakulam Chamber of Commerce:
This Association is an important traders
association of Ernakulam since 1951,
making significant contribution for the
development of commercial activities of
the city.
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

Kerala has its own place in the realm of
learning and Kochi is one of the most
literate regions in Kerala. There are many
educational institutions of repute in the
city.
The first English school was established
in Kochi in 1918 by Rev. Sawson in
Mattancherry. The Christian missionaries
had a prominent role in furthering the
cause of education in Cochin.
The erstwhile rulers of Kochi were very
keen in imparting education to its subjects.
They took an active role in establishing
103
educational institutions like the SRV High
School and the Maharaja’s College .
The Cochin University of Science and
Technology is one among the major
universities of India,with many
professional courses in a variety of
disciplines such as Management,
Language, Law, Fisheries and Technology.
There are many Libraries in all parts of
the city and the most prominent among
them is the Ernakulam Public Library,
which is one of the oldest in the state.
104

Culture

Kochi Legislative Assembly was constituted
for the first time in 1925 in response to
persistent demands from the public over
a decade. There were 45 members of
whom 10 were officially nominated.
Thottakkattu Madhaviamma became the
first woman to be a member of any
legislature in India.
Kochi was the first princely state to
voluntarily join the Indian union. Post
independence, Ikkanda Warrier became
the first Prime Minister of Kochi in 1948.
K.P. Madhavan Nair, P.T Jacob, C.Achutha
Menon, Panampilly Govinda Menon were
few of the other stalwarts who were in the
forefront of the democratic movements.
Thiru-Kochi state came into being in 1949
and Paravur T.K Narayana Pillai was the
first chief minister. The ultimate merger of
Travancore, Cochin and Malabar took
place on 1 st November 1956 and a
unified Kerala became a reality.
Personalities
Sahodaran Ayyappan:
Even a brief note on
Cochin will be incomplete
without a mention of the
social reformer and leader
Sahodaran Ayyappan. He
was one of the first to
dream of a bridge to
connect the Ernakulam-
Vypin-Mulavukadu bridge
and even managed to get
the proposal approved by
the Kochi assembly when
he was the revenue
minister.
105
Pandit Karuppan: The great social
reformer and member of the legislative
council left his mark in the social life of
the state.
Changampuzha Krishnapilla: The
evergreen romantic poet of Malayalam
literature lived and penned his melodies
in Kochi. The Changampuzha Park at
Edappally is a green and live monument
dedicated to the memory of the poet.
Kesary Balakrishna Pilla: The doyen of
Malayalam literary criticism and the one
person who introduced many new ideas
to the realm of thought of Malayalees was
born in 1889 and died in 1960.
G. Sankarakurup: Winner of the first
Jnana Peetha award, the great poet of
Malayalam was a native of Kochi. A
memorial for him is coming up in the city
centre.
Ponjikara Raphi: The short story writer and
novelist had Cochin as the milieu of his
literary works.
Vyloppilly Sreedhara
Menon: He was yet
another son of Kochi
whose contribution to
Malayalam literature will
be everlasting.
Justice V.R. KrishnaIyer:
Retired Supreme Court
Judge, Humanist and
Human Rights activist.
K.J Yesudas: The “Gana
Gandharva” of Kerala
was born, brought up
and flew on the wings of
melody in Kochi.
106

The Cultural Background

It is not yet known when exactly man
started inhabiting this beautiful piece of
land now known as Cochin. However,
the material evidences, though sporadic
in nature, do suggest that this place
witnessed human inhabitation at least
from the Neolithic period. The
megalithic-Iron Age, a period
subsequent to the Neolithic in Kerala,
also witnessed intense human
occupational activities in this area as
the evidences envisage. Further
research has to be carried out in this
regard to ascertain the exact nature of
the man-environment interaction of
those distant past.
However, a well-documented history of
last two millenniums will tell us tales
about life on this beautiful landscape.
We do have literature from the West and
also from the East, mainly classical, to
authenticate this history. Material
evidences in the forms of Monuments,
Ceramics, Coins, Inscriptions, Icon and
Architecture do substantiate what is in
written form. In the context of history tales of eventful history to be told and the
and culture, the geographic extent of same is reflected in its rich cultural
Cochin covers besides the city of Cochin, heritage and traditions.
adjoining areas like Kodungallur, Paravur,
Records and monuments speak in
Chendamangalam, Tripunithura etc.
volumes about people who came to this
Time has brought in many changes to this land from various parts of the world and
land. Its natural landscape has been had trading and cultural relationship with
changed quite a bit over the years owing the people of this land. People from
to many natural and human factors. Its Greco-Roman world, Arabs, Jews,
cultural landscape has also been Chinese and other East Asians,
subjected to ‘changes’ and in the process Portuguese, Dutch, French and English,
has become a living repository of to name the most important among the
divergent culture and traditions. Every lot; and almost all of them had left their
nook and corner of this great land has mark on this land, irrespective of the
 107

duration of their stay here. They are in and cultural groups co-exist even today,
the forms of structural monuments, coins, is marked by its rich customs, traditions
inscriptions, icons, texts, language and art and art forms. Cochin can be considered
forms. as a classical example of creating an
It is believed that the Greco-Romans came urban environment in which diversity
as early as in the first centuries of the becomes a source of strength rather than
Christian era and had very close of conflict.
relationship with this land for almost four Cochin has been the Chief Port of
to five centuries. It is believed that the Malabar for over centuries and it can
Arabs and Jews also had close tie-up with certainly attribute some links with Muziris,
the land during these periods. The one of the oldest and biggest port towns
Chinese and others from East Asia had of western coast of India. Centuries have
also started their interaction with the land rolled by since the arrival of ships laden
sooner or later. From the Medieval period with gold, glided slowly into the inner
onwards a strong presence of Chinese harbour, steering safely through the deep
was also visible. channel of the Vypeen River and anchored
Then the visible presence was that of the quietly in one of the finest natural harbours
Portuguese, starting from the 15th century. their wandering eyes had ever beheld, the
They built an ‘empire’ here and in the explorers who came in search of the exotic
process built buildings, forts, churches, Malabar spices.
houses etc. with an element of Portuguese Ernakulam was once the capital of the
in all of them. After some time the Dutch Kingdom of Cochin. The word ‘Cochin’
wrested the ‘empire’ from the Portuguese
and improved it considerably by giving a
touch of them to all those structures and
also by laying out streets and gardens.
The English in turn took it out of the hands
of the Dutch, but pulled down everything
their predecessors had taken so much
labour and expense to rear up, and all
but succeeded in putting back somewhat
to it’s old position of comparative
obscurity. Then there were people from
other parts of the subcontinent, who came
here at intervals and made Cochin their
permanent home. Gujaratis, Jains,
Konkanis, Punjabis, Tamils, Marathis,
Bengalis, Pathans, Kutchi Saits, to name
a few. This vibrant cultural landscape,
wherein almost sixteen different linguistic
108
derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Balapuri’.
It is stated in the ‘Kerala Mahalmyam’.
‘Bala’ (small) ‘puri’ (town) thus became
Cochin in course of time. The other
version in this behalf according to Shri
Achyutha Menon is that the word Cochin
is derived from the Chinese word ‘Conchi’
which means the seat of the King. But
according to the architect of Cochin Port,
R.D. Bristow, the Chinese traders gave the
name to the place as Cochin;
remembering the name ‘Cochin’ China
of the present South Vietnam.
The very name Cochin rightfully known
as the ‘Queen of Arabian Sea’, is redolent
in history. It is associated with a very old
dynasty of kings known no less for the
simplicity of their lives and the ancientness
of their culture than for their boldness as
warriors and their efficiency as
administrators. It is a tribute to the justice
and cosmopolitanism of these rulers that
people of widely different castes and
creeds have lived for centuries in happy
amity. Fort Cochin, Mattancherry and
Ernakulam were the three Municipalities
which were in existence then in Cochin
area.
 109

Malayalam Language and Literature

with particular refe-rence to Cochin
The youngest of the Dravidian languages,
Malayalam was known as Malabar Tamil
in the 16th and 17th centuries. It was only
in the 18th century that the language of
the people of Kerala came to be called
Malayalam. A mixed language of
Malayalam and Sanskrit known as
Manipravalam was the language in vogue
in earlier times. We see a pronounced
development towards an independent
language only after the 9th-10th centuries.
Malayalam developed a literary idiom of
its own only by the 16th century, though
its roots can be traced to the Sangam Age.
The magnificent literary tradition flowed
in two distinct streams, one popular and
the other elitist. Apart from this trend the
lively interactions with subcontinental and
with transnational trends and movements
has given it magnitude, variety, originality
and depth. The history of Malayalam
literature can be divided into 3 periods.
First a period of receding Tamil
Neelakanta, the author of the Malayalam
dominance and advancing Sanskrit
Champu, Thenkailanadhodayam.
influence, the next with Bhakti influence,
Balakavi, who wrote Ramavarmavilasam
the third with development of prose,
and Ratnakedudayam, and Narayana, the
spread of journalism and English
author of Rajaratnavaleeyam Champu
education that led to the birth of new forms
and Naishada Champu enjoyed the
such as fiction, drama, lyrics and literary
patronage of Kesava Rama Varma (1565-
criticism.
1601). Melpathoor Narayana Bhattathiri
One of the earliest literary compositions who wrote Gosrinagaravarnana and
from Cochin is the Sukasandesa of Veera Keralaprasasthi, and
Lakshmidasa. It was only with the rise of Vedantacharya, the commentator of
Cochin to political prominence in the Kavyaprakasa were prominent scholars of
Portuguese period that literature and Cochin. Other works of this period
learning made progress. Cochin includes Pathapattu, which describes the
Maharaja’s of this period were liberal political developments in the
patrons of men of letters. Veera Kerala Perumpadappu Swarupam between
Varma (1537-65) was the patron of 1646-1670 and the Hortus Malabaricus
110
compiled under the Dutch Governor
Henrick van Rheede. In the 19th century,
considerable literary activity took place
under the patronage of the Kings of
Cochin. Rama Varma (1805-1809) wrote
a stotra in Sanskrit called Purnatrayisastuti
about the deity of the temple at
Tripunithara. His brother Kerala Varma
(1809-28) wrote Purnatrayisasataka and
Dasavataraslokamala. Scholars like Arur
Madhava Atitiri (1765-1836) the author
of the Uttaranaishada, Krishnan Kartha
of Cheranellur (1765-1845), the author
of Chitpuresastuti, Narayan Nambudiri of
Ilayedam (1770-1840) the author of the
Ushaparinaya Champu and Bhaskara of
Mutukkurissi, the author of
Sringaraleelatilaka were all given
encouragement in the Cochin Court.
Other members of the Cochin Royal
Family who contributed to Malayalam
literature include Subhadra (1844-1921),
with works like Saubhadrastavam,
Bhagavatyastakam Yudhakandam Pana,
Rama Varma Appan Thampuran (1875-
1941) the editor of Rasika Ranjini, a
Malayalam magazine, and Rama Varma
with commentaries like Subhodini and
Bhavarthadipika and Sanskrit works like
Prahladacharita, Sukanyacharita,
Radhamadhava and stotras like
Gangastava and Purnanilayadurgastava.
Recent Works
K.P. Padmanabha Menon’s Kochi Rajya
Charitram and the History of Kerala are
monumental works. Known to the world
of letters as ‘Kesari’, A. Balakrishna Pillai’s
contributions to the literary world with his
short stories and translations are
remarkable. P. Kesavadev’s works like
Nati, Odayil Ninnu, Bhranthalayam, Oru
rathri, Olakka and Ayalkkar depicts grim
realities of social life. G. Sankara Kurup’s
name is associated with symbolism and
mysticism in Malayalam poetry. Among
his important works are Vilasalahari,
Sahityakauthukam, Chengathirukal,
Nimisham, Odakuzhal etc. and translation
of Gitanjali and Viswadarsanam. A
notable poet of this region was K.P.
Karuppan (1885-1938), whose poems
had social justice as their theme. Paliath
Cheriya Kunjunni Achan (1881-1942) of
Chennamangalam was also a vigorous
prose writer and poet. Edappally has given

birth to two of the most popular poets of
modern Malayalam Edappally Raghavan
Pillai (1909-35) with Thushaharam,
Navasaurabham and Maninadam and
Changampuzha Krishna Pillai (1913-
1948) with poems like Ramanan,
Bhashpanjali, and Swararagasudha.
Vailopilli Sreedhara Menon is a poet of
considerable distinction. Vallathol
Narayana Menon (1878-1958), often
described as the poet of Indian
nationalism and freedom, wrote
outstanding works like Badhiravilapam,
Oru Katha, Kochu Sita, Magdalana
Mariyum, Sahitya Manjari etc. Apart from
his original works, Vallathol also enriched
Malayalam literature with translations of
the Valmiki Ramayana and the Rig Veda.
Nalappat Narayana Menon has
immortalised himself in Malayalam poetry
by his beautiful elegy, Kannunirthulli. The
poems of Kuttipurath Kesavan Nair
contain beautiful descriptions of the rural
life of Kerala. Malayalam literature has
produced a number of other illustrious
poets who have won general acclaim, for
example K.K. Raja, Balamani Amma,
Edasseri Govindan Nair, and P.
Kunhiraman Nair etc. Dramas written by
111
Thottekat Ikkavu Amma like Subhadrar-
junam and T.C. Achyutha Menon’s
Naishdham have added to the already
rich literature. Such dramas as V.T.
Bhattatiripad’s Adukkalayilninnu
Arangathekku, M.P. Bhattatiripad’s
Ritumathi and K. Damodaran’s Pattabakki
heralded a new era itself in Malayalam
drama. The first two mentioned brought
to the stage the woes of the cloistered life
led by Nambudiri women. The most
outstanding of the celebrities in the field
of literary criticism in Malayalam are
Joseph Mundasseri and Kuttikrishna
Marar.
Modern Period
Some of the important literary
personalities of the modern period from
this area are M. Leelavathy, Thomas
Mathew, M.K. Sanu (all of them critics),
Victor Leenus, Rajalakshmi, George
Joseph K., N.S. Madhavan, Sethu, T.R.
Ramachandran, M.P. Narayana Pillai,
Radhakrishnan, Thomas Joseph etc. in the
field of story writing, and Balachandran
Chullikad, V.M.Girija, Vijayalaksmi etc. in
the field of poetry.
112

Islands in Cochin
Mulavukad, Kadamakudi, Cheranellur, Bolgatty Island is opposite the boat jetty
Kumbalangi, Edakochi, Vallarpadam etc. at Ernakulam where the Bolgatty Palace,
are some of the islands that dot the built by the Dutch in 1744, and presently
backwaters in the Kanayannur-Cochin a Heritage Hotel stands.
Taluk. These islands, formed by the deposit
Gundu Island, barely 5 acres, is the
of alluvium brought down by the rivers
smallest island around Cochin. It was
during the monsoons, being low and
once used for the training of soldiers and
swampy favour the growth of coconut
manufacture of doormats from coir.
palms. Islands of Willingdon, Bolgatty and
Vypeen Island, lying north of Fort Cochin,
Gundu lie in the Cochin harbour.
has an old lighthouse and a 16th century
Willingdon Island, named after Lord Fort.
Willingdon, British Viceroy in India, is an
All these islands in Cochin, well connected
artificial Island of over 1000 acres. It
by ferry and some now by the new Gosri
forms the hub of all shipping, import and
bridges, are now major tourist attractions.
export activities and houses important
buildings like the Naval Airport, Customs
House, Government of India Tourist Office
etc.

Occupation
Agriculture forms the predominant
occupation of the people. Natural
advantages of numerous canals, large
extent of backwaters and long forest tracts
provide occupation to fishermen, fish
curers and dealers, boat- and barge-men,
wood cutters, sawyers, carpenters and
collectors of forest produce. Industries of
toddy tapping, oil pressing, coir making
etc. give means of livelihood to a large
number of people. Many work as priests,
temple servants etc. Cotton weaving is the
only textile industry pursued in Cochin
which sometimes is combined with other
occupations like vending groceries,
husking paddy etc. The manufacture of
yarns, ropes, rugs and mattings of coconut
fibre and grass, and baskets, oil pressing,
toddy tapping, arecanut processing,
timber trade, manufacture of bricks and
tiles, rubber plantations etc. are the
various occupational activities of the
113
people of Cochin. There are also a good
number of artisans, including bell metal
workers.
Most of these industries are pursued by
hereditary workers belonging to particular
castes. For example, weaving is mostly
done by Chaliyans, Kaikolans and
Chetans while it is the Parayans and
Vettuvans in the mat making industry. The
artisan caste consists of Marasaris
(carpenters), Kallasaris (masons),
Kuruvans (blacksmiths), Tattans (gold- and
silver-smiths), Musaris (braziers) and
Tolkollans (leather workers).
Trade is another activity of the people of
Cochin, both seaborne and inland.
Cochin today is a busy place teeming with
professionals in various fields like
medicine, law, engineering etc. and
enterprising businessmen whose
combined efforts give Cochin a prominent
place on the world map.
114

Corporation
of
Cochin

The very name Cochin rightfully known
as the "Queen of Arabian Sea", is redolent
in history. It is associated with a very old
dynasty of kings known no less for the
simplicity of- their lives and the ancientry
of their culture than for their boldness as
warriors and their efficiency as
administrators. It is a tribute to the justice
and cosmopolitanism of these rulers that
people of widely different castes and
creeds have lived for centuries in happy
amity. Fort Cochin, Mattancherry and
Ernakulam were the three Municipalities
which were in existence then in Cochin
area.
Fort Cochin became a Municipality on
the 1st of November 1866.
The first election to the Fort Cochin
Municipal Council was conducted on the
6th December 1883. The strength of the
Council was 16.
In 1896 sanitary boards were formed
separately for Mattancherry and
Ernakulam by the Maharajah of Cochin
and thus local administration came into
existence in these places for the first time.
Funds for the functioning of the Boards
were given by the Govt. The town councils
at Mattancherry and Ernakulam were
formed as per the above regulation. In
1956 the erstwhile Elamkulam Panchayat
and a portion of Cheranallur Panchayat
(Pachalam - Vaduthala) were
amalgamated tip the Ernakulam
Municipality.
In 1962 a portion of Palluruthy Panchayat
(Mundamveli area) was amalgamated to
the then Mattancherry Municipality.
Edappally Panchayat was formed in 1946
115
and Palluruthy and Vyttila in 1953. In
1952 the then Edappally Panchayat was
bifurcated and thus formed a new
Panchayat - It was Vennala. Gundu Island
and 'Ramanthuruth" were the parts of the
Elamkunnapuzha Panchayat and the
"Thanthonni thuruth" was the part of
Mulavukad Panchayat.
The idea behind the formation of Cochin
Corporation was first shaped in the
Mattancherry Municipal Council. The
Council passed a resolution requesting
Government to form Cochin Corporation
amalgamating the Municipalities of
Ernakulam, Mattancherry and Fort
Cochin. It was on the 9th July, 1960. This
resolution was sent to Govt. by the
Council. The then Fort Cochin Municipal
Council strongly opposed to the proposal
and declared that Fort Cochin was against
any such formation. The Ernakulam
Municipal Council at its meeting held on
the 2nd August, 1963 put forwarded a
proposal to form Cochin Corporation
amalgamating much more suburban
areas. Thus the Govt. in principle
approved the proposal of formation of
Cochin Corporation and appointed the
then Director of Local Bodies, Major
Balagangadhara Menon, as Special
Officer for submitting a report in this
behalf. He conducted surveys and studies
and submitted his report to Govt. on the
1st July 1967 and the Kerala Assembly
approved the formation of Cochin
Corporation. Govt. of Kerala notified the
formation of the Corporation of Cochin
by amalgamating the three ancient
Municipalities of the state, viz. Ernakulam,
Mattancherry and Fort Cochin and the
116

Willington Island and four Panchayats viz.
Palluruthy, Vennala, Vyttila and Edappally
and the small islands of Gundu Deepu,
Ramanthuruth having an area of 83.524
sq. Km. The new born Corporation came
into existence on 1st November 1967.
Administrative Set Up
According to the 2001 census, Cochin
Corporation has 650,000 residents. The
city’s estimated density in 1996 was
6,250 persons per square kilometre. The
total area of the main part of the city is
94.88 sq.km
Main Office
It is the Head Quarters of the
Corporation and is located in the
east zone at Park Avenue. The Offices
of the Mayor, Deputy Mayor, Standing
Committees and the secretary are
functioning in it. The following
departments are also housed here.
(1) Personal Department & General
Administration
This department is under the control of
the Personal Assistant to the Secretary,
general establishment, record, store,
marriage registration, town hall
reservation and other general
administrative matters are dealt with in
this department. Establishment matters
related to the regular establishment
employees are also dealt with in this
department.
(2) Council Section
The Secretary to Council is the head of
this Section. All matters relating to the
Council, standing committees, and sub
117
committees constituted by the Council,
reception to the distinguished guests,
public grievances etc. are attended to
by this department. People's plan wing
(10th 5 year plan) and decentralisation
wing are also under the control of this
Section.
(3) Engineering Department
It is headed by the Corporation
Engineer having the status of Supt.
Engineer vested with powers of Chief
Engineer in respect of Corporation
works.
(4) Health Department
Health Department is controlled by the
Corporation Health Officer, General
sanitation, prevention and control of
communicable diseases, prevention of
food adulteration, mosquito control,
family planning, births and deaths
registration, maternity and child
welfare activities, licencing and control
of D. & 0. trades, etc. are dealt with
by this department.
(5) Revenue Department
The Revenue Officer is the head of this
Department. All revenue matters
related to the Corporation are dealt
with in this office. The Corporation
treasury is under the control of the
Revenue Officer.
(6) Town Planning Department
It is headed by the Town Planning
Officer having the grade of the
Executive Engineer. Enforcement of
the provisions of Building Rules,
encroachments, dangerous structures,
118

detailed Town Planning Schemes, etc.
are attended to by this Department.
(7) Accounts Department
Accounts Officer is the head of this
Department who is the financial advisor
and internal auditor of the Corporation.
All payments, preparation of daily,
monthly and annual accounts, audit
objection clearance, etc.are managed
by this Department.
In addition to the above departments
office of the Deputy Director of Local
Fund Audit, Deputy Health Officer, Vital
Statistics are also functioning in the
Central Office.
(8) Janaseva Kendram
their problems connected with the
Corporation.
Janaseva Kendram is functioning under
the direct control of the Secretary and the
implementation Committee consists of
the representatives of the service
organisations and other selected
members of staff. The Committee
regulates the function of the enquiry
counter by pointing out the defects and
its remedial measures.
(9) ZONAL OFFICES
Fort Cochin, Mattancherry, Palluruthy,
Edappally, Pachalam (Vaduthala), Vyttila
a n d
Central.

The general public who call at the (10) MATERNITY AND CHILD WELFARE
Corporation Main Office is received at CENTRES
the "Janaseva Kendram" where all the 1. Edacochin 2. Moolamkuzhy
enquiries of the public are responded 3. Pandikudy 4. Thevara
well by the staff members specially posted 5. Elarnkulam 6. Thammanam
at the Counter. Here the public are well 7. Kaloor 8. Edappally
treated. Complaints in respect of non
burning of street lights etc. lodged at the All the above centres are functioning
counter are registered and appropriate under the control and supervision of the
and immediate remedial measures taken Lady Medical Officer.
on each case. Application forms, chalan Functions of Standing Committees in the
forms etc. are being issued at the counter Corporation of Cochin
itself. All applications, petitions,
1. The Standing Committee for
representations etc. are received at the
Finance
Counter and the receipt of the same are
acknowledged. Applications for birth (i) supervise the utilization of budget
and death certificates are dealt with by grants and watch carefully the timely
a special team of staff at the counter for assessment and collection of taxes, fees,
speedy action, as such things are urgently rents and other sums due to the
needed by the public. In short, the public Corporation;
can expect a good guidance from the (ii) inspect frequently the accounts of
counter, as to what is to be done to solve Corporation;

(iii) watch carefully the release of grants
from the Government and its proper
utilization;
(iv) conduct monthly audit of accounts and
check the monthly demand, collection and
balance and abstract of receipts and
expenditure of the preceding month as
furnished by the Secretary;
(v) may, subject to such rules as may be
prescribed, write off the sums due to the
Council as appears to the Committee as
irrecoverable;
(vi) scrutinise the annual accounts,
demands, collection and balance;
(vii) prepare and present the budget
estimate before the Council under Section
286;
(viii) verify whether any amount proposed
to be expended by the Corporation is
within the budget provisions approved by
the Council and whether there is sufficient
fund for this purpose;
(ix) enquire into the allegations against
the employees of the Corporation if
directed by the Council and bring the
result of it to the notice of the Council;
II. The Standing Committee for
development deal with matters of
agriculture, soil conservation, social
forestry, animal husbandry, dairy
development, minor irrigation, fisheries,
small scale industries, co-operation,
institutional finance and prepare the
119
development plants of the Corporation
integrating the proposal of other Standing
Committees;
III. The Standing Committee for Welfare
deal with matters of Welfare of women
and children, development of Scheduled
Caste and Scheduled Tribe, Social
Welfare, Social Security Pension and
Financial Assistance, Slum improvement
and Public distribution system;
IV. The Standing Committee for Health
and Education deal with matters of public
health and health services, sanitation,
education and sports;
V. The Standing Committee for Works deal
with matters of public works, housing,
electricity, water supply, drainage and
sewerage;
VI. The Standing Committee for Town-
Planning deal with matters of town
planning including regulation of building
constructions, environment, urban
beautification, promotion of art and
culture and preservation of monuments
and places and buildings of archaic
importance; heritage value and natural
beauty;
VII. The Standing Committee for Appeal
dispose of appeals on taxation and give
directions to the Secretary to levy tax in
respect of cases which escaped
assessment and to reassess under valued
cases.
120

Mayors of Cochin

K. K. Somasundara
Panicker
C. M. Dinesh Mani 01.02.1992 – 31.01. 1994
04.10.1995 – 2000

K. A. Ummer K. J. Sohan
01.02.1991 – 31.01.1992 01.02.1990 – 31.01.1991

C. A. Madhavan T. M. Muhammed
01.02.1989 – 31.01.1990 01.02.1988 – 31.01.1989

K. Balachandran
03.10.1979 – 02.10.1980 Mathew Paily
01.10.1983 – 30.09.1984 04.10.1982 – 30.09.1983
 121

Mayors of Cochin

K. S. N. Menon E. K. Narayanan
03.10.1981 – 03.10.1982 03.10.1980 – 02.10.1981

Jacob Pallath A. K. Seshadri

14.06.1979 – 01.10.1979 31.12.1975 – 14.06.1979

K. M. Hamsakunju A. C. Jose
30.06.1973-31.12.1975 02.06.1972 – 30.06.1973

A. A. Kochunni
T. M. Aboo
02.06.1969 – 04.06.1971
04.06.1971 – 02.06.1972
122

CENTRE FOR STUDIES IN CULTURAL AND

HERITAGE OF COCHIN (CSCHC)

Cochin, the Queen of the Arabian Sea, has a vibrant cultural past. This
place witnessed the inhabitation of man at least from Neolithic period
onwards. A well documented history of two millenniums will tell us tales
about the intense human occupational activities on this beautiful
landscape. Time has brought in many changes to this land. Its natural
and cultural landscapes have been changed and in the process has
become a living repository of divergent culture and traditions. Though
the Corporation of Cochin has been very earnest in the efforts of
preservation of the cultural heritage of Cochin, for various reasons a
holistic, approach for themanagement of the cultural heritage of Cochin
has not been evolved so far.
It is this realization that led the Corporation of Cochin to establish the
CENTRE FOR STUDIES IN CULTURAL AND HERITAGE OF COCHIN
(CSCHC) an institution committed to espouse the cause of the rich and
vibrant cultural heritage of Cochin. The primary objective of the centre
is to develop an integrated approach for the preservation of the cultural
heritage of Cochin for the enrichment and education of present and
future generation. The centre seeks to develop, apply and make available
appropriate methodology for the preservation of cultural heritage through
research, training, field work and exchange of information. The centre
would provide leadership in engaging policy makers, business leaders,
educators and interested citizens in preservation efforts.
The Centre seeks to develop and disseminate necessary knowledge
concerning values, use and conservation of cultural heritage: It will ensure
that Cultural Heritage considerations are taken into account in all
planning processes. In a nutshell, this newly established centre envisages
playing a catalyst role in the preservation, conservation and management
of the cultural heritage of Cochin.
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Printed and published by

C. M. Dinesh Mani, Mayor, Corporation of Cochin
for Centre for Studies in Culture and Heritage of Cochin