Fast Analytical Techniques

Introduction to Fast Analytical Techniques:
Application to Small-Signal Modeling

Christophe Basso – Technical Fellow
IEEE Senior Member
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Course Agenda
 What is a Transfer Function?
 Why do We Need New Analytical Techniques?
 Time Constants and Poles
 Identifying the Zeros
 The Null Double Injection
 2nd-Order Networks
 The PWM Switch Model
 A CCM Buck in Voltage Mode
 A CCM Buck-Boost in Voltage Mode
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2 2/25/2016 Christophe Basso –APEC 2016
Course Agenda
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Definition of Transfer Functions
 What is a transfer function?
function
H(s)
Excitation Response
p
“A transfer function is a Vout  s  response

mathematical relationship linking H s 
a response to an excitation” Vin  s  excitation
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Six Types of Transfer Functions
 Transfer function can involve signals at different places
Response Response
Vout  s  I out  s  I out  s 
Vin  s  H s  Vout  s  I in  s  H s 
Vin  s  I in  s 
Excitation Excitation
Voltage gain Current gain
Response Response
I out  s  Vout  s 
Vin  s  H s  I out  s  I in  s  H s  Vout  s 
Vin  s  I in  s 
Excitation Excitation
Transfer admittance Transimpedance

or transadmittance
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Driving Point Impedance - DPI
 Waveforms can also be observed at the same terminals
Excitation Response
I out  s 
Vout  s  I out  s 
Vout  s  I in  s  Z s  Vin  s  H s 
I in  s  Vin  s 
Response
Excitation
Input impedance Input admittance
 Determining the resistance at reactance’s terminals: DPI

R1 R1 IT
Remove
VT
R2 R3 C1 R2 R3 VT R  R2 || R3  R1
capacitor IT
Test generator
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Writing Transfer Functions
 How to write a transfer function the right way?
 A leading term (if any) with the same unit as the function
 A numerator N(s): its roots are the zeros H  sz   0
 A denominator D(s): its roots are the poles H  s p   
unitless
unitless
il unitless
il  
N s N s
gain H  s  H0 Z  s   R0 impedance
D s D s
N s N s
gain G  s   G Y  s   Y0 admittance
D s D s
V V V V S S
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Course Agenda
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Why a Different Approach?
 A buck power stage involves energy-storing elements
Vout C rC
L1
Vini R1
L rL
C2
 Energy-storing elements host parasitic contributors

 They move with production, temperature, age...
They hide in the transfer function
and must be unmasked!
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Identifying the Contributors
 Brute-force algebra complicates analysis
 1  Dc gain? Zeros?
  rC  || R1
 sC2  R1  sR1rC C2
H s  
 1  R1  rL  sL1  sC2 R1rC  C2 R1rL s  C2 rC rL s  C2 L1 R1 s 2  C2 L1rC s 2
  rC  || R1  rL  sL1
 2
sC  Poles?
 More energy is needed to unveil these terms

 factor and rearrange coefficients
 simplify numerator and denominator
 Don’t make mistakes!
This is a high-entropy expression
In thermodynamics, entropy is a measure of disorder, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy
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Low-Entropy Expressions
 What if you could write the expression in one shot?
R1 1  srC C2
H s 
R1  rL  L  r  R1
1  s  1  C2  rC  rL || R1    s 2 L1C2 C
 rL  R1  rL  R1
 Naturally reading gains, poles and zeros…

s 1 1 rC  R1
1 z  0 
z rC C2 rL  R1
H  s  H0
L1C2
2
s  s  rL  R1 1
1   Q
0 Q  0  L1  C2  rC rL  R1  rC  rL   0
This is a low-entropy expression

R. D. Middlebrook, “Methods of Design-Oriented Analysis: Low Entropy Expressions”, New Approaches to Undergraduate Education, July 1992
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Starting with a Simple Example
 What is the transfer function of the below circuit?
Vout
1 1  srC C1
R1 Z1  s   rC  
rC sC1 sC1
Vin 1  srC C1
Vout  s  sC1
H  s  
Z1 C1 Vin  s  1  srC C1
 R1
sC1
 Is there any easier and faster way to go?

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Two Different Stages
 Consider dc and high-frequency states for L and C
impedance
p 1 Dc state Z C   Cap. is an open circuit
Cap
C ZC 
sC HF state ZC  0 Cap. is a short circuit
impedance D state
Dc Z L  0 IInductor
d is
i a short
h circuit
i i
L Z L  sL
HF state Z L   Inductor is an open circuit
 Change the circuit depending on s
s s0 s s0

C L
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Fast Analytical Techniques at a Glance
 Look at the circuit for s = 0
 Capacitor are open circuited SPICE operating
p g
 Inductors are short circuited point calculation
Vout Vout
R1 R1
rC s0 rC
Vin Vin
C1
C1
 Determine the gain in this condition

H 0  Voutt Vini  1
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 Look at the resistance driving the storage element
1. When the excitation is turned off, Vin = 0 V
Vout
R1 R1
rC Vin  0 V
rC
Vin
Short the
R?
C1 source.
 Remove the capacitor and look into its terminals

 The first time constant is  1   rC  R1  C1
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1. When the excitation is back but Vout = 0 V
Vout Vout  0
R1 R1
rC Vout  0 V Virtual
ground
rC
Vin Vin
No response
C1 R?
 Remove the capacitor and look into its terminals

 The second time constant is  2  rC C1
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Combining Time Constants
 By combining times constants, we have
1  s 2 1  srC C1
H  s  H0 
1  s 1 1  s  rC  R1  C1
Rearrange the equation to unveil a pole and a zero
s 1
1 z 
z H0  1
H  s  H0 rC C1
s 1
1 p 
p
 rC  R1  C1
 This is a low-entropy expression
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Another Example
 How would you calculate Vout / Vin?
Vout  s 
R1 R3
rC
Vin  s  R2 R4
C1
1. Transform the circuit with a Thévenin generator

2. Apply impedance divider involvingg C1
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Apply Impedance Divider
 Reduce circuit complexity with Thévenin
R1 R3 R1 || R2  R3
Vout  s  Vout  s 
R2
Rth  s  rC rC
R2
Vth  s  R4 Vin  s  R4
R1  R2
C1 C1 Z1  s 
 Apply impedance divider involving Z1 and Rth

Rth  s   R1 || R2  R3 Z1  s  R2
H s 

Z1  s   R4 ||  rC 
1 

Z1  s   Rth  s  R1  R2 “Who you
 sC
C1  gonna call?”
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High-Entropy Expression
 How do you make use of this result?

R2 R4 C1 rC s  1 
H2( s ) 
R1 R2  R1 R3  R1 R4  R2 R3  R2 R4  C1 R1 R2 R4 s  C1 R1 R3 R4 s  C1 R2 R3 R4 s  C1 R1 R2 rC s  C1 R1 R3 rC s  C1 R1 R4 rC s  C1 R2 R3 rC s  C1 R2 R4 rC s
 what is the pole/zero position?

 what affects the quasi-static gain for s = 0?
0
Hf
-20
20 50 You can plot the ac
-40 response but it yields no
-60
0
insight on what drives
arg H  f  -50
poles and zeros!
-80
-100
10 100 1k 10k 100k 1Meg 10Meg 100Meg
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Applying FACTs Now
 What is the gain when Vin is a dc voltage?
Voutt  s 
R1 R3
rC
Vin  s  R2 R4
C1
 The capacitor is open circuited,

circuited read the schematic!
R2 R4
H0 
R1  R2 R1 || R2  R3  R4
Fast Analytical Circuits Techniques – FACTs, V. Vorpérian
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Determine the First Time Constant
1. When the excitation is turned off, Vin = 0 V
R1 R3
rC
R2 R4
R?
 1   rC   R1 || R2  R3  || R4  C1
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Determine the Second Time Constant
1. When the excitation is back but Vout = 0 V
Vout  0
R1 R3
rC
Virtual
ground
Vin R2 R4
R?
 2  rC C1
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Assemble the Terms
 You immediately have a low-entropy form
R2 R4
H0 
s R1  R2 R1 || R2  R3  R4
1
z 1
H  s  H0 p 
1
s  rC   R1 || R2  R3  || R4  C1
p
1
z 
rC C1 Way cool!
 We did not write a single line of algebra!
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Use Mathcad® to Check Results
R1  1k R2  22k rC  0.1 R3  150 R4  100 0
x y
||( xy )  C1  1F
x y
 20 50

20 log H1 i 2 
2  f k  10  40  
arg H 1 i 2  f k  
180

 
20 log H2 i 2  f k  10
1 0
R 4   rC 
s  C1 
 
180
   60 arg H 2 i 2  f k  

1
R 4 rC 
s  C1 R2
H( s )   80  50
R4  rC 
1  R1  R2
s  C1 
   R1 R2  R
1 3
R1  R2
R4  rC   100
s  C1 3 4 5 6 7 8
10 100 110 110 110 110 110 110
fk

R2 R4 C1 rC s  1
H2( s ) 
R1 R2  R1 R3  R1 R4  R2 R3  R2 R4  C1 R1 R2 R4 s  C1 R1 R3 R4 s  C1 R2 R3 R4 s  C1 R1 R2 rC s  C1 R1 R3 rC s  C1 R1 R4 rC s  C1 R2 R3 rC s  C1 R2 R4 rC s
 
 2  C1 rC  R1 || R2  R3 || R4  91.812 s
 
Superimposing both transfer functions,
 1  C1 rC  100 ns
R4 R2
matching should be perfect. If not,
H0 
R4  R1 || R2  R3 R1  R2
  0.079
there is mistake.
1  s 1
H1( s )  H0
1  s 2
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Course Agenda
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Time Constants
 Response to a step input is described by a time constant
1V 1V
1 0.632 V
0V 1  s 1 0V
1
1st-order linear system
 A time constant “tau” is associated with a reactance
  RC s 
L
…and a resistance R
L
R   s 
C R
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Time-Domain Response
 The time-domain response y(t) of a linear system is
y  t   rf  t   rn  t 
Forced response Natural response
 The first term depends on the excitation – the force

10.0
R1 5.00
Forced value
C1 vC1  t 
Vin 10 V 0
0 (V)
vC1  t 
-5.00
-10.0 (s)
100u 300u 500u 700u 900u
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Natural Response
 Natural response solely involves initial conditions
9.00
(V)
R1 7.00
C1 vC1  t  5.00
(s)
IC = 10 V
vC1  t 
3.00
1.00
100u 300u 500u 700u 900u
You don’t need a source for the natural response
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Time Constant Involving a Capacitor
 Assume a simple low-pass RC filter
R
V1 u  t   Ri  t   y  t 
dvC  t 
u t  C y t  i t   C
0 dt
i t  Initial capacitor voltage is V0
dvC  t  dy  t 
y  t   u  t   RC  u  t   RC
d
dt ddt
 The state variable associated with C is its voltage, x2

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Time Domain to Laplace
 Take the Laplace transform of the time-domain equation
Y  s     y  t   U  s   RC  sY  s   V0 
U s
RCV0
Y s  
1  sRC 1  sRC
  RC time constant
 Considering 0-V initial conditions, vC(0) = 0

U s
RCV0 Y s 1
Y s   
1  sRC 1  sRC U  s  1  s
=0 1st-order
order transfer function
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Forced and Natural Responses
 Assume that input voltage U is a step function
V1 1  1  RCV0 
 Y  s    
1 1
     RC
 s 1  sRC  1  sRC 
 Use inverse Laplace-transform tables to obtain
 t
 t
y  t   rf  t   rn  t 
 
y  t   V1 1  e    V0 e 
 
No initial conditions No source contribution
Time constant
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Time Constant Involving an Inductor
 Assume a simple low-pass LR filter
di  t 
u t   L  y t 
L
dt
u t  R y t 
y  t   Ri  t 
Initial inductor current is I0

i t 
di  t 
y t   u t   L
dt
 The state variable associated with L is its current, x1
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Laplace Transform
 Take the Laplace transform of the time-domain equation
Y s
Y  s     y  t   U  s   L  sII  s   I 0  I s 
R
 Y s  U s LI 0
Y s  U s  L  s  I0  Y s  
 R  L L
1 s 1 s
R R
 Considering 0-A initial conditions, iL(0) = 0 L

U s LI 0 Y s 1
R
Y s    Time constant
1 s
L
1 s
L U  s  1  s
R R 1st-order
order transfer function
=0
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Response to an Input Step
 Now assume that input voltage U is a step function
V1
U s 
s    
 1  1  LI o 
 Y  s    
1 V1 L
1
    
 s 1 s L  1  s L  R
 R  R
 
t
 
t
y  t   V1 1  e    LI 0 e 
 
No initial conditions No source contribution
Time constant
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Natural Time Constant
 The time constant tau plays a role in rf and rn
 How can we determine tau in the simplest way?
 Look at natural response circuit where Vin is off
R1 Remove C1
R1
Vin  0 V C1 R?
Look into its
terminals
 What resistance do you see? R1 then   R1C1
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Setting the Excitation to Zero
 Turning the excitation off means
 A 0-V source becomes a short circuit
 A 0-A
0 A ggenerator
t isi an open circuit
i it and
d di
disappears
L1 R1 Set source
sou ce R1
L1
R2 0V
R? R2 
Vin R1  R2
to 0 V
R2 R2
R?
Set source
L1
L1 R1 I in R1 0A 
to 0 A R1
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Excitation Plays no Role
 Time constants are part of the network structure
Set Vin to 0 V:
no change
R1 L1 rL R1 L1 rL
Vin rC
R2
rC
C1
R2
Voltage excitation
C1
R1 L1 rL
rC IT
Natural network structure
R2
 When excitation is off, the C1
structure remains the same Current excitation Set IT to 0 A:

no change
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Does Excitation Change the Structure?
 The time constant does not change for Vin = 0 V
R1 rC R2 rC R2 rC R2
Vin  0
R3 R1 C1 R3 R1 R3 R?
C1
Vin  0 R?
1 2 rC  R1 ||  R2  R3 
R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2
rC rC rC 
Vin  0 Vin  0
R3 R3 R3 R?
C1 C1 R?
3a 3b R1 ||  R2  R3 
Modified structure!
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Probing Does not Affect Time Constants
 You can observe the response at any place
 Time constants remain the same
V1  s 
V3  s 
Vin  s 
V2  s 
R1 R3
rC V2  s 
Vin  s  R2 R4 Vin  s 
V1  s 
C1 V3  s 
Turn it off
Vin  s 
 The resistance seen by C1 is the same!

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Denominator and Time Constants
 The response of a SISO system is given by:
n
y  t   rn  t   rf  t    Ci e pi t  rf  t 
i 1
C are the exponential terms coefficients
n is the system order
p are the poles of the systems
 Assume the following 3rd-order transfer function:
N  s   s  2   4  s  1
 2
 2 2  4  1
H 0      4
H s  
D  s   s  1  1 s  3
2
12  1 3 3
   
3rd order denominator, 3 poles: p3  3 p1,2   j  1
SISO: single-output single-input
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SISO Response to a Step Input
 Multiply the transfer function by a step input
1V
1
Y s  H s 0
s
 Extract
E t t the
th time-domain
ti d i response
roots roots roots
4 3t 4
 Y  s   y  t   e  cos  t  e  3sin
1
s
1t
3 i t  e 
1t
3 3
rn  t  rf  t 
 Poles
o es appear
appea in the
t e exponential
e po e t a power
po e terms
te s
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Poles and Natural Time Constants
 A negative sign implies a decaying term

t
m
lim e 
0
t 
LHPP x
 p1 t
...e x e
Stable
Stab e poles
po es x
LHP RHP
Ap
positive sign
g means it is an increasingg term
m
t
lim e  0
t 
RHPP x
...e p1 t x e
Instable poles x
Left or right half plane pole (LHPP or RHPP)
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Time Constant and Pole – 1st Order
 In 1st-order systems, a pole is the inverse of the time constant
Vout  s  Vout  s  1 1 1
R   
Vin  s 
C Vin  s  1  sRC 1  s 1  s
p
1 1
p  
RC 
L
Vout  s  Vout  s  1 1 1
  
Vin  s 
R Vin  s  1  s L 1  s 1  s
R 1
R p
p  
L 
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Determining the Time Constant
 Find the time constant to obtain the pole
R?
C1 rC rC
Set Vin
to 0 V
R1 R3 R1 R3
Vin  s  R2 R4 R2 R4
  C1  rC   R1 || R2  R3  || R4  1
p 
D  s   1  s  1 
s C1  rC   R1 || R2  R3  || R4 
p
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Same Denominator for Zout
 A current generator does not alter the structure
 Denominator does not change! R?
C1 rC excitation rC
Set IT
to 0 A
R1 R3 IT R1 R3
VT
R2 R4 R2 R4
response
 Transfer
T f ffunction
i keeps
k the
h same d
denominator
i
D  s   1  sC1  rC   R1 || R2  R3  || R4 
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Denominator Changes for Zin
 Series insertion of current source alters the structure
R?
excitation rC rC
C1
Set IT
IT R1 R3 to 0 A R1 R3
VT R2 R4 R2 R4
response
 Time constant is changed, cannot reuse D(s)

1
  C1  rC  R1  R3 ||  R2  R4    p 
C1  rC  R1  R3 ||  R2  R4  
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Find the Time Constants
 Find the time constants when excitation is set to 0
R?
R1 C1
Set IT
R1   C1  R1  R3 ||  R2  R4  
to 0 A
R3 R3
IT 1
p 
C1  R1  R3 ||  R2  R4  
R2 R4 R2 R4
Set Vin
R1   C1  R2  R1 ||  R3  R4  
C1 R3 to 0 V R1 R3
R4 R4
R2 R2 R?
Vin 1
p 
C1  R2  R1 ||  R3  R4  
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Course Agenda
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Zero: the Mathematical Definition
 A zero is the root of the equation f  x   0
15
f  x   x2  4
10
x1 x2 f  x  0
f ( x) 5
0 x1  2
x2  2
5
4 2 0 2 4
x
 Transfer function zeros are the numerator roots

N s  0 sz1 , sz2 ...
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Nulling the Response
 If the numerator is 0, then the response is also 0
vôut  0
H(sz)
Complex excitation Complex response
s  sz N  sz   0
 What is happening in the box when s  sz ?
The excitation does not generate a response
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How Does the Response Disappear?
 The signal is lost in the transformed network
p
response R1 p
response
Z1  sz    Vout  sz   0 Vout  sz   0
Vin  sz  Vin  sz  Z 2  sz   0
R1
excitation excitation
A series impedance
p Ap
parallel impedance
p
becomes infinite. shorts the path to ground
 What is a transformed network?
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The Transformed Network
 Reactances are replaced by their Laplace expression
R1 R2 R1 R2
C1 1
sC1
R1 R2 R1 R2
L2 sL
L2
 The circuit is then observed at the zero frequency
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Harmonic Analysis
 Harmonic analysis is performed for s  j
m
Along y  imaginary frequencies only
axis only  no real negative frequencies
0
e
 In the transformed network, consider s    j

m
The four quadrants are considered!
II I
0
e  negative angular frequencies
III IV  real or imaginary ang. frequencies
 There is no physical meaning: mathematical abstraction!

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Considering a Negative Frequency
 For s = sz1, the RC impedance is a short circuit
rC
=0
1  srC C1
 
Z1 sz1  0 Ω
shunt
Z1  s  
sC1 1
1
sz1  
sC1 rC C1
 For s = sz2, the RL impedance is infinite

R2
 
Z 2 s z2   Ω
sL2 R2
Z2  s  
R2  sL2 R2
sL2 =0 s z2  
series
Poles of the RL network become
zeros of the transfer function.
L2
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Zeros by Inspection
 Identify transformed open circuits/short circuits
R1 R3 Vout  s  sz1  
rL
 z1 
rL
R2 L1 L1
rL sL2 rC R2 R2
s z2    z2 
Vin  s  L2 L2
sL1 1
1 1
sC1 sz3    z3 
rC C1 rC C1
 s  s  s  No
N  s   1   1   1   equations!
 z   z   z 
 1  2  3 
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A Zero in the Laboratory
 Can you observe a zero in the lab?
response is non-zero
R1 rC
T  2 rC C1 C1
No because this is a harmonic analysis s  j

 No,
 It works for a zero at the origin: dc block
Vout  0 Hz   0 V
R1 C1
R2
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A Notch Truly Nulls the Response
 When Q approaches infinity, zeros become imaginary
fz
fk
Observable
0
null
1 V pp
 
20 log H 10 i 2  f k  10
Vout  f z   31µV
 50
1
T
fz
-90 dB
 100
10 100
3
110 m
fk
j z1
 Build a high-Q notch and you can observe the null 0
 jz1
 Roots are along the y axis: harmonic analysis
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Find the Zeros by Inspection
 When does the response disappear?
excitation Z1
Z2
IT rL rC Z1  s   rL  sL1  0 sz1  
rL
z 
rL
1
L1 L1
VT
1 1 1 1
response
sL1
sC2 Z 2  s   rC  0 s z2   z 
2
sC2 rC C2 rC C2
 The numerator is obtained without algebra

g
 s  s  Inspection gives the
N  s   1  1  
 z  z  simplest expressions
 1  2 
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Course Agenda
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The Null Double Injection
 A null implies an injection but no response
it ti
excitation
C1 response
H 0V
VT
 What is the time constant in this mode?   C1
IT
2
VT IT
excitation response is
a null
H 0V
1
 Double injection with a nulled response (NDI)

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What is a Null in the Response?
 No current circulates in the load VT
R1 C1 R1
IT IT
NDI
R2 R2 IT I 0
Vin  s  Vin  s 
R3 R3 Vout  0
Vout  s 
configuration, the resistance is R1  R2

 In this configuration
   R1  R2  C1 and N  s   1  s  R1  R2  C1
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Does it Have a Physical Meaning?
 A certain combination of V and I cancels the response
G1
1e23
V2
3.75V 3.75V
I1
R1
1
Go to R1 3mA
250
250
the lab 3.75V
4 3 1
3 00E-026V
3.00E-026V 0V
3.00V 3 Rtau 3.00V
2 2
R2 1.25kV R2
V1 1k R3 V1 1k R3
3 B1 3
10k Voltage 10k
V(4 3)/I(V2)
V(4,3)/I(V2)
 The current source G1 adjusts to set Vout to 0 V: NDI

VT 3.75 V
R   1250 Ω R1  R2
IT 3 mA
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Inspection Would Work Here as Well
 What prevents the excitation from building a response?
R1 1 sC1 Z1  sz   
N s
Z1  s   
Vout  sz   0 D s
R2 D s  0
Vin  sz  R3 Vout  sz 
 What is the denominator of Z1? Look at R driving C1

1
R  R1  R2 D  s   1  sC1  R1  R2  p 
C1  R1  R2 
 Z1’ss pole is H
H’ss zero
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A Null is Not a Short Circuit
 See the output null as a virtual ground: no short!
Vout  sz   0 Vout  0
I1 R1 I1 R1
I out  sz   0
r L r

L
Vin I2 R2 I2 R2 I out  0
L1 L1
I1  I 2 I1  I 2
 0 V across a current generator is a true short circuit
VT  0 IT VT  0
IT Replace
generator Degenerate case
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Degenerate Case Applied to Impedance
 Determine the input impedance of this circuit
R?
L1 Set IT R1
R1
to 0 A
L1
IT VT R2 R3 R2 R3 
R2  R3
R?
L1
D s  1 s
R1 R2  R3
L1
NDI, VT = 0
NDI  L1
short source R2 R3 R2 || R1  R3 N  s   1  s
R2 || R1  R3
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Three Steps for the Transfer Function
 For s = 0, replace the inductor by a short circuit
R? R1
R2 R3 R0  R1  R2 || R3
 Result is well ordered and obtained without KVL/KCL

1
s R0  R1  R2 || R3
z
Z  s   R0 R2  R3 R2 || R1  R3
s p  z 
1
p L1 L1
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Summary for 1st-order Systems - I
 Observe the circuit for s = 0
 short inductor, open capacitor
 You
Y h have H0
 Turn the excitation off

 voltage source is replaced by a short circuit
 current source is open-circuited
 Remove the energy storage element

 Determine the resistance RD looking into its terminals
L
 D  RD C or D 
RD
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Summary for 1st-order Systems - II
 Bring excitation source back in place
 Null the output, Vout = 0 V and Iout = 0 A
 Determine
D t i RN driving
d i i ththe energy-storage
t componentt
L
 N  RN C or N 
RN
 Combine time constants and dc ggain
s
1
1  s N z
H  s  H0  H0
1  s D 1
s
p
If possible, use inspection: simplest possible form
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What if dc Gain Does not Exist?
 If you have a series capacitor
C1 R1 Vout  s  Vout  s   0
s0
R1
Vin  s  R2 Vin  s  R2
 The dc or quasi-static gain is 0

No longer applies 1  s N
H0  0 H  s  H0
1  s D
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Consider High-Frequency Model
 Rather than considering s at 0, consider s 
R1 Vout  s 
s
R2
Vin  s  R2 H 
R1  R2
 Look
L k att the
th resistance
i t driving
d i i C while
hil excitation
it ti iis off
ff
R1
R? R2    R1  R2  C1
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Null the Response to Get the Zero
 Is there a zero other than at the origin?
IT
R1
Vout  s   0
I out  s   0 I R1  0
I out  s   0
VT VT
Vin  s  IT  0 
R2 IT
N  
 We have a high
high-frequency
frequency gain and two time constants
R2
H   D   R1  R2  C1 N  
R1  R2
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Two Formulas for the Same Function
 The Extra Element Theorem shows that
1
1
1  s N s N
H  s  H0 is equivalent to H  s   H 
1  s D 1
1
s D
 Time constants are similar in both expressions
1
1
1 
R2   R2 1
H s  s 
R1  R2 1  1 R1  R2 1  1
sC1  R1  R2  sC1  R1  R2 
 It is a low-entropy form featuring an inverted pole

R. D. Middlebrook, “Null Double Injection and the Extra Element Theorem”, IEEE Transactions on on Education, Vol. 32, NO. 3, August 1989.
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Another Example
 The inductance is a short circuit in dc
Vout  s 
R1 R2
Vin  s  L1 R3 H0  0
s0
 Consider the circuit at high frequency instead

Vout  s 
R1 R2 R3
Vin  s  R3 H 
R3  R2  R1
s
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Time Constant Involving Inductor
 Look at the inductor time constant while Vin is 0 V
R1 R2
L1
R3 D 
R1 ||  R2  R3 
R?
 Now consider a null output voltage

g
0V I out  0 VT 0
 0
R1 R2 I out  0 IT IT
Vin
VT R3 Vout  0
I out  0
L1
N   
R
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Determining the Zero
 Check with SPICE if a doubt exists
V2
0V
R0
2
G1
1e23
R2 R1
100 1k -5.00E-025V
5.00V 0V
3 4 1 L1
RTauN
0V
Vout
N   
V1 R3 R
5 R? B1 5k
g
Voltage
V(4)/I(V2)
 G1 injects a current to maintain Vout at 0: NDI

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Final Transfer Function
 Assemble time constants to form H(s)
1

11
R3   R3 1
H s  s 
R3  R2  R1 1  1 R3  R2  R1 1  1
L1 L1
s s
R1 ||  R2  R3  R1 ||  R2  R3 
 Rewrite
R it th
the expression
i iin a compactt fform
1 R3 R1 ||  R2  R3 
H  s  H H  p 
p R3  R2  R1 L1
1
s
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Check with Mathcad and SPICE
x y
R1  100 R2  1k R3  5k L1  1mH ||( xy ) 
x y R1 R2
100 1k
3 1 2 Vout
L1 R3
 D   10.167s
 Hinf   0.82

R1 || R2  R3  R1  R2  R3 V1 L1 R3
AC = 1 1m 5k
1 1
H1( s )  Hinf  fp   15.655kHz
1 2   D
2
1
s D
0
80
Hf Hf
 20
60
 40
40
H  f  H  f 
 60 20
 80
10 100 1k 10k 100k 1Meg 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1Meg
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Checking for a Zero
 Is there a quick way to check if there is a zero?
 Yes! Put the reactance in its high-frequency state
 Check if the response is still there
 If yes, there is a zero associated with the reactance
 If not,
ot, there
t e e iss no
o zero
e o in the
t e circuit
c cu t
R1
rL L1 R1 R2
Vini R2 Vout
No
Vin C1 R3 Vout
rL L1
rC C1 Vin R2 Vout
Yes No
Vin R2 Vout
Yes
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Course Agenda
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Fractions and Dimensions
 A 1st-order system follows the form
a1
1 s
N s
a0  a1 s f t i
factoring a0 a0
H s   H s 
D  s  b0  b1 s b0 b1
1 s
b0
 Leading term (if any) carries the unit
a1
a1 1 s a1
1 s a0  s    N
a0 a0
Z  s   R0
b1
1 s b1 b1
b0 1 s  s    D
  b0 b0
Unitless Unitless
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2nd-Order System
 A 2nd-order system follows the form
 0  1 s   2 s 2 Factoring 0 1  a1 s  a2 s 2
H s  H  s  H0 Unitless
 0  1 s   2 s 2 Factoring 0 1  b1 s  b2 s 2
Carries the unit
 The second fraction is unitless
1 2
a1   s    1N   2 N a2   s 2    1N 21 N or  2 N 12N
0 0
sum product
1 2
b1    s    1D   2 D b2   s 2    1D 21 D or  2 D 12D
0 0
reactance 1 reactance 2
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Alternating the Reactance States
order circuit,
 In a 1st-order circuit there is one reactance
 it is either in a high-frequency state or in a dc state
s0 s
 In a 2nd-order circuit, there are two reactances

 we can consider individual states
C2 L1 C2 L1
s0 H0 L1 s H
C2 L1
 2
1
C2 L1
 21
C2
R? R?
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Introducing the Notation
 Set one reactance into its high-frequency state
 1 Reactance 1 is in its high-frequency state
2 What resistance drives reactance 2?
R?
 2 Reactance 2 is in its high-frequency state
1 What resistance drives reactance 1?
R?
 There is redundancy: pick the simplest result
b2   1
1 2 b2    2
2 1
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Example with Capacitors
 Assume the following 2-capacitor circuit
Vout  s 
R1 R1
rC s0 rC
Vin  s  C2 H0  1
C1
 Determine the two time constants while Vin is 0 V

R?
R1 rC  1  C1  rC  R1 
b1  C1  rC  R1   C2 R1
R?  2  C2 R1
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Determining the Higher-Order Term
 Place C1 in its high-frequency and look into C2
R1 rC R?
Vin  0 V b2   1 21  C1  rC  R1  C2  R1 || rC 
C2
C1
 21   R1 || rC  C2
 Place C2 in its high-frequency

g q y and look into C1
R1 rC
Vin  0 V C2 b2   2 12  C2 R1C1rC
C1
R?
 12  rC C1
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Denominator is Completed
 The denominator can be assembled
D  s   1  b1 s  b2 s 2  1  C1  rC  R1   C2 R1  s  C2 R1C1rC s 2
 Is there a zero in this network?
Vout  sz   0
1
R1 sz1  
rC rC C1
1 1
rC  0
Vin  sz  sC2 sC
C1 1
1 z1 
rC C1
sC1
1  srC C1
H s 
1  C1  rC  R1   C2 R1  s  C2 R1C1rC s 2
No algebra!
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You Can Rework the Denominator
 Considering a low quality factor Q (roots are spread)
2
s  s   b2 
D  s   1  b1 s  b2 s  1 
2
    1  b1 s  1  s
Low-frequency High-frequency
0 Q  0   b1 
1  srC C1
H s 
 
1  s  C1  rC  R1   C2 R1   1  s
C2 R1C1rC
 
 C1  rC  R1   C2 R1 
C1  rC  R1   C2 R1
s
1 1
z z   p2 
H s  rC C1 C2 R1C1rC
 s  s 
1   1  1
   p   p1 
 p1  2  R1  C1  C2   rC C1
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Check with Mathcad
 It is easy to check results versus a raw expression
x y
Z1( s )   rC   ||  
1 1
R1  1k rC  100 C1  10nF C2  5nF ||( xy ) 
x y s  C1  s  C2 
   
H0  1  
 1  C1 rC  R1  11s  2  C2 R1  5 s a1   1   2  16s
Z1( s )
H2( s ) 
 
 12  C2 R1 || rC  0.455s  21  C1 rC a2   2  21  5 s
2
R1  Z1( s )
2 N1 ( s )
N1 ( s )  1  s  rC C1 D1( s )  1  a1 s  a2 s H1( s )  H0
D1( s )
1
z  0 0
rC C1
1  20 
 50 arg H 1 i 2  f k    180
p1 
a1 
20 log H1 i 2  f k  10  
20 log H2 i 2  f k  10  

180
arg H 2 i 2  f k  
a1  40
 100

20 log H3 i 2  f k  10
p
p2  a2  
aargg H 3 i 2  f k  
180

s  60
1  150
z
H3( s ) 
 1  s   1  s   80
 p1   p2 
3 4 5 6 7
10 100 110 110 110 110 110
   fk
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2nd-Order Example
 What is the buck converter output impedance?
L1 Z out  s 
Vin C2 Rload
D
Voltage mode
Voltage-mode
 Consider parasitic elements for L and C
I out  s 
Vout  s 
L1 C2
response
Vout  s  Z out  s  
Rload
I out  s  excitation
rL rC
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Buck Output Impedance
 Let's find the term R0 in dc: open caps, short inductors
VT
rL Rload VT IT R0   rL || Rload
IT
 The zeros cancel the response

Vout  sz   0?  L  rL
sL1  rL  0 rL  s 1  1  0 z 
1
L1
1  rL 
sL1 I out  sz  1
sC2 1 z 
Rload  rC  0 1  srC C2  0 2
rC C2
sC
C2
rL rC  L1 
N  s   1  s  1  srC C2 
 rL 
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Low-Frequency Time Constants
 All elements are in their dc state
 Look at R driving L then R driving C
1 2
R? R?
L1 C2 Rload L1 C2 Rload
rL rC rL rC
R  rL  Rload R   rL || Rload   rC
L1
b1   C2  rL || Rload   rC 
rL  Rload
l d
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High-Frequency Time Constants
 Set L1 in high frequency state and look at R driving C2
 21  12
R? R?
L1 C2 Rload L1 C2 Rload
rL rC rL rC
L1
 21  C2  rc  Rload   12 
rL  Rload || rC
L1 L1
b2  C2  rc  Rload   C2  rL || Rload   rC 
rL  Rload rL  Rload || rC
b2   1 21 b2   2 12
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Compensating the Buck – Method 1
 We have our denominator!
 L1  2 rC  Rload 
D s  1 s   C2  rL || Rload   rC    s  L1C2 
 L
r  R load   rL  Rload 
 The complete transfer function is now:

 L1 
 1  s  1  srC C2 
Z out  s    rL || Rload   rL 
 L1  2 rC  Rload 
1 s   C2  rL || Rload   rC    s  L1C2 
 rL  Rload   rL  Rload 
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Compensating the Buck – Method 1
 It can be put under the following form:
Z out  s   R0
1  s  1  s  
z1 z2
2
s  s 
1  
0 Q  0 
 We can identify the terms:

rL 1
R0  rL || Rload  z1   z2 
L1 rC C2
1 rL  Rload L1C20  rC  Rload 

0  Q
L1C2 rC  Rload L1  C2  rL rC  rL Rload  rC Rload 
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Check Response with Mathcad®
 Express all time constants independently
x y 1
rL  0.1 rC  10 C2  10nF L1  20H RL  5 ||( xy )  Za( s )  s  L1  rL Zb ( s )   rC
x y s  C2
R0  rL || RL  0.098

Z2( s )  RL || Za( s ) || Zb ( s ) 
L1
 1 
rL  RL
 3.922s  
 2  C2 rL || RL  rC  100.98ns a1   1   2  4.023s
Raw expression
L1
 
 12  C2 rC  RL  0.15s  21 
rL  RL || rC
 5.825s a2   2  21  0.588s
2
 L1  N1 ( s )
rL

N1 ( s )   1  s    1  s  rC C2  D1( s )  1  a1 s  a2 s
2
Z1( s )  R0
D1( s )
 
rL 1 1 rL  RL 
L1 C2 0 rC  RL 
z1  z2  0   Q 
L1 rC C2 L1 C2 rC  RL 
L1  C2 rL rC  rL RL  rC RL 
 1  s  1  s 
 z1   z2 
Z3( s )  R0
   
1
s
 
s 

2
Fault correction is easy!
0 Q
 0 
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Derivation is Correct
 Magnitude and phase curves perfectly superimpose
20
 Z 1 i 2  f k   10 50
 
180
20 log 10 arg Z 1 i 2  f k  
   
 Z 2 i 2  f k   0
 
180
20 log 10 arg Z 2 i 2  f k  
0 
  
 10
 Z 3 i 2  f k    
arg Z 3 i 2  f k  
180
20 log 10 
    50
 20
 30
3 4 5 6 7
10 100 110 110 110 110 110
fk
 Always verify results with a different expression or SPICE

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Checking for Zeros
 Is there a quick way to check if there are zeros?
 Yes! Simultaneously put reactances in their HF state
 Check
Ch k if the
th response isi still
till th
there
 If yes, there are 2 zeros in the circuit
R2
rL L1 rL
L1
rC rC
Vin Vout Vin Vout
C2 C2
1 zero 2 zeros
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Course Agenda
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The PWM Switch Model in Voltage Mode
 The non-linearity is brought by the switching cell
a c
L a: active
c: common
u1 C R p: passive
p
 Why don't we linearize the cell alone?

a c a c
. .
d
PWM switch VM p
Switching cell Small-signal model
(CCM voltage-mode) p
V. Vorpérian, "Simplified Analysis of PWM Converters using Model of PWM Switch, parts I and II” IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, Vol. 26, NO. 3, 1990
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Replace the Switches by the Model
 Like in a bipolar circuit, replace the switching cell…
a c
L . .
u1 C R
p
Small-signal model
 …and
and solve a set of linear equations!
. . L
u1 C R
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An Invariant Model
 The switching cell made of two switches is everywhere!
a c
p
d
PWM switch VM
PWM switch VM p
buck boost
d
P
a c
buck-boost
d
PWM switch VM p
PWM switch VM
d
a
witch VM
d
a
P
Ć
Ćuk
PWM sw
p
c
p
c
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CCM Common Passive Configuration
 The PWM switch is a single-pole double-throw model
d c
a
ia  t  ic  t 
d'
vapp  t  p
vcpp  t 
 Install it in a buck and draw its terminals waveforms

ia  t  d ic  t 
a c
L
d'
Vin C R Vout
vap  t  vcp  t 
p
CCM VM
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The Common Passive Configuration
 Average the current waveforms across the PWM switch
ic  t 
ic  t  Tsw
0 t
ia  t  I a  DI c
ic  t  Tsw
Averaged
variables
0 t
DTsw
DTsw
1
ia  t  Tsw
 Ia   i  t  dt  D i  t 
a c Tsw
 DI c
Tsw 0
CCM VM
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The Common Passive Configuration
 Average the voltage waveforms across the PWM switch
vap  t 
vap  t 
Tsw
0 t
vcp  t  Vcp  DVap
Averaged
vcp  t  variables
Tsw
0 t
DTsw
DTsw
1
vcp  t   Vcp   vcp  t  dt  D vap  t   DVap
Tsw Tsw 0
Tsw
CCM VM
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A Two-Port Representation
 We have a link between input and output variables
DI c d Ic
a c
Two-port
Vap cell DVap
p p
 We can involve current and voltage sources
Ia d Ic
a c
Vap DI c DVap Vcp
p p
CCM VM
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A Dc Transformer Model
 The large-signal model is a dc "transformer"!
Ia Ic
a c Ia
. .
I a  DI c Ic 
1 D D
Vcp dc equations!
Vap  Vcp  DVap
D
p
 It can be plugged into any 2-switch CCM converter
c D
rL L . p
.
a 1 Dc bias point
Vin C R Ac response
CCM VM
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Simulate Immediately!
 SPICE can get you the dc bias point
R2 L1 V(a,p)*V(d)
100m 9.80V 100u 9.80V VIC
14.0V
4 c c 5
p p Vout
10 0V
10.0V
7
d
Vg 300mV a a
C1 R1
10 V(d)*I(VIC) 470u 10
V3 Rdum
03
0.3 1
1u
AC = 1
 …but
but also the ac response as it linearizes the circuit
Hf
40.0 360
20.0 180
 dB
d  0 0 °
-20.0
arg H  f  -180
-40.0 -360
10 100 1k 10k 100k
Hz CCM
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A Small-Signal Model
W need
 We d a small-signal
ll ig l version
i tto get
g t th
the ac response
 Perturb equations or run partial differentiation
2 variables
f  D, I c  ˆ f  D, I c 
Ia DI c iâ  d iˆc iâ  I c dˆ  Diˆc
D I c
2 variables
f  D, Vap  f  D, Vap 
Vcp DVap vˆcp  dˆ  vâp vˆcp  Vap dˆ  Dvâp
D Vap
Vap dˆ
Vap dˆ
I c dˆ Diˆc D
a c a c
. .
Dvâp I c dˆ 1 D
iâ vˆcp
p
p
Small-signal model CCM
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Course Agenda
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A Buck Converter
 Replace the diode and the switch by the model
a c
Vout
rL L1
Control rC
Vin Rload
p
C2
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Model at Work in a Buck Converter
 Plug the invariant small-signal model: all linear!
B2
Voltage
L1 rL
V(a,p)*V(d)/V(D0) Vc 100uH 10m
12.0V 5.00V 4.99V
a a 3 11 c c 4 5 Vout
5.00V 5.00V
B1 B3 B4
417mV static Current Current Voltage
D0 I(Vc)*V(d) I(Vc)*V(D0) rC
12.0V V(3,p)*V(D0) 30m
-582nV
Vin
Vi p R3
p 4.99V
{Vin} d dynamic parameters 6
5
0V
C2
V4 V5 1µΩ
Vin=12 47uF
{D} AC = 1 D=0.417
 We want the ac control-to-output transfer function

Vout  s  Set node a to 0 V
Node p is ground Simplify schematic
D s V  a, p   Vin
i 0
vîn
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Redraw the Simplified Circuit
 Ac contribution from the input is not the subject
L1 rL
100uH 10m
parameters 1 3 4 Vout
Vin=12
rC
D=0 417
D=0.417 30m
B2 R3
d Voltage 5
5
{Vin}*V(d)
{Vin} V(d)
C2
V5 47uF
AC = 1 d̂
 Setting d to 0 V turns the excitation off

Control-to-output
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A Familiar Architecture
 The circuit returns to its natural structure
2
s  s 
D s  1  
L1 C2 0 Q  0 
Rload 1 rL  Rload
0 
L1C2 rC  Rload
rL rC
L1C20  rC  Rload 
Q
L1  C2  rL rC  rL Rload  rC Rload 
 You can reuse the denominator previously determined

Control-to-output
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Determine the Gain in Dc
 Open the capacitor, short the inductor
Vout  s 
rL
Rload
Vin  d  s  Rload H 0  Vin
Rload  rL
control rC
 Losses from the MOSFET and the diode could be added

Control-to-output
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Determining the Zeros
 The response is canceled if Z2(sz) is a transformed short
Vout  sz   0
rL sL1 sL1  rL   Non !
1
Za  s  1 srC C2  1
sC
C2 rC    0?
sC2 sC2
Vin  d  sz 
Rload
l d Oui !
rC
1 1
Zb  s  sz   z 
rC C2 rC C2
 Observe the transformed network at s = sz
Control-to-output
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Final Response
 Assemble the pieces to form H(s)
s
1
Vout  s  z 1 Rload
 H0 z  H 0  Vin l d
D s s  s 
2
rC C2 Rload  rL
1  
0 Q  0 
1 rL  Rload L1C20  rC  Rload 

0  Q
L1C2 rC  Rload L1  C2  rL rC  rL Rload  rC Rload 
 Compare low-entropy form with raw formula

RL || Zb  s 
H ref  s   Vin
Z a  s   RL || Zb  s 
Control-to-output
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Test with Mathcad is Simple and Fast
x y 1
rL  0.01 rC  0.03 C2  47F L1  100H RL  5 ||( xy )  Za( s )  s  L1  rL Zb ( s )   rC
x y s  C2
Vin RL
Vin  12V Vp  1V H0  
Vp RL  rL
 11.976  
20 log H0  21.566
H3( s ) 
Zb ( s ) || RL

Vin
Za( s )  Zb ( s ) || RL Vp
L1
 1 
rL  RL
 19.96 s  
 2  C2 rL || RL  rC  1.879  10  ns
3
a1   1   2  21.839s
 All curves
L1 superimpose!
 
 12  C2 rC  RL  236.41s
  21 
rL  RL || rC
3
 2.511  10  s
3 2
a2   1  12  4.719  10  s
2
N1 ( s )
N1 ( s ) 
 1  s  rC C2 D1( s ) 
 1  a1 s  a2 s H1( s ) 
 H0 0°
D1( s )
21.5 dB
1 1 rL  RL 
L1 C2 0 rC  RL  Hf
z2  0   Q 
rC C2 L1 C2 rC  RL 
L1  C2 rL rC  rL RL  rC RL 
s
H  f 
1
z2
H2( s )  H0
2
 
s s 
1 
0 Q
 0  -180°
-180
10 Hz 10 MHz
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Input to Output Transfer Function
 We can set dˆ to 0 and check Vout to Vin
Vout  s 
rL L1 Set L1 as a short circuit
open capacitor C2
Excitation C2
Vin  s  D0 Rload
Rload
Contributes a zero rC H 0  D0
z 
1 Rload  rL
rC C2
 For Vin = 0, same structure as before, reuse D(s)!

Input-to-output
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Transfer Function is Immediate
 Reuse existing formula and build transfer function
s
1 1 Rload
Vout  s  z z  H 0  D0
 H0
Vin  s  s  s 
2 rC C2 Rload  rL
1  
 0 Q  0 
0°
Q -7.6 dB
L1  C2  rL rC  rL Rload  rC Rload  Hf
0 
1 rL  Rload H  f 
L1C2 rC  Rload
-180°
10 Hz 10 MHz
Input-to-output
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Buck Input Impedance
 Inductance LoL lets you sweep the input to have Zin
VZin B2
Voltage
Ac block LoL
1GH
V(a,p)*V(d)/V(D0) Vc 5.00V
L1 rL
100uH 5.00V 10m 4.99V
12.0V 5.00V
10 a a 3 11 c c 4 5
12.0V
B1 B3 B4
417mV
Current Current Voltage
I(Vc)*V(d) I(Vc)*V(D0) rC
12.0V D0 V(3,p)*V(D0) 30m
-582nV
I1 Vin p R3
p 4.99V
AC = 1 {Vin} d parameters 6
5
0V
C2
V4 V5 Vin=12 47uF
{D} AC = 0 D=0.417
 In this mode, d̂ is equal to zero
Vin  s  Source B2 and B1 are zero

Simplify schematic
Node p is ground
I in  s  dˆ  0
V  a, p   Vin Check ac response
Input impedance
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Simplifying and Rearranging is Key
 Install the dc transformer to obtain Zin
Excitation IT
rL L1 C2
VT  s 
VT Rload Z in  s  
1 D0 I in  s 
rC
R
Response
 Reflect elements to the p

primaryy side
rL L1
IT C2 D0 2
D0 2 D0 2
Rload
l d
VT D0 2 1 D0
rC
D0 2
Input impedance
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Start with s = 0
 Short the inductor, open the capacitor
rL L1
IT
D0 2 C2 rL  Rload
VT
Rload
D0 2
R0 
rC D0 2
D0 2
 For the time constants, suppress the excitation, IT = 0

rL L1 rL L1
D0 2 D0 2 R?
C2 Rload
l d C2 Rload
l d
R? D0 2 D0 2
 rC  RLoad  rC L1 rC
 2  C2 D0 2   1 
2 D0 2 D0 2   D0 2
 D 0 
Input impedance
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Higher Order Coefficients
 Avoid indeterminacy with  1 : use  2 instead
 Determine  12
rL
L1
C2
 2
1 R?
High-frequency
High frequency state
D0 2 L1
R?   2
2
1
Rload D0  
D0 2
rC
D0 2
 rC  RLoad  L1
 2 12  C2 D0 2   2 0
 D0  
2
 D 0
 2  rC  RLoad  L1 
D  s   1  C2 D0    2  s  1  sC2  rC  RLoad 
 D0   
2
  D 0
Input impedance
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The Numerator is Already Known
 Null the response across the current source
Degenerate case, short the generator’s terminals!
rL L1
C2 D0 2 Same network
D0 2 D0 2 Rload
structure as
VT  0 IT D0 2
rC in slide 114!
D0 2
 L1  2 rC  Rload 
N s  1 s   C2  rL || Rload   rC    s  L1C2 
 L
r  R load   rL  Rload 
Input impedance
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Assemble the Pieces
 The transfer function dimension is now in ohms
2
s  s 
1  
0 Q  0  1 rL  Rload
Z in  s   R0 p  R0 
1
s  rC  RLoad  C2 D0 2
p
100 100°
Q
L1  C2  rL rC  rL Rload  rC Rload  H  f 
1 rL  Rload
0 
L1C2 rC  Rload dBΩ
Hf
29.2 dBΩ
0 -90°
10 Hz 10 MHz
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Course Agenda
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A Buck-Boost Converter
 Replace the switch/diode by the PWM switch model
a p
Vout
Control rC
L1
Vin Rload
C2
rL
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Modeling Switches Only
 The PWM switch is invariant in small and large signals
B1
a a Current
Replace by parameters
small-signal
small signal model Vin=12
I(Vc)*V(d)
D=0.6 B2
Voltage B3
V(a,p)*V(d)/V(D0) Current
d
600mV
6
p p Vout
I(Vc)*V(D0)
parameters X1
d
h VM
a
PWMCCMVM
PWM switch
B4
Vin=12 Vout Vin Voltage
D=0.6 {Vin}
10
12.0V -17.9V Vc rC
V(6,p)*V(D0)
11 30m
p
Vin static
c
{Vin} 9 44.7mV 8 D0 2 R2
L1 rC c 10
d 100u 30m c C2
d
R2 47u
44.7mV -17.9V
12 2
10
L1
V5 V4 V1 100u
rL
{D} C2 {D} AC = 1
10m
AC = 1 47u
12
rL
d̂ 10m
Reference circuit
 Always check simplifications versus reference circuit

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Control to Output Transfer Function
 We want the control-to-output transfer function
p
Vout
parameters
Vin=12 B4
Voltage
response
D=0.6 B3 R1
Current V(6,p)*{D} 30m
Vout=-Vin*D/(1-D)
I(Vc)*{D} 4
RL=10
3
Vap=Vin-Vout Vc
R2
Ic=-Vout/(RL*(1-D)) 6
10
B1 B2 7
Current Voltage
L1
{Ic}*V(d)
{Ic} V(d) {Vap}*V(d)/{D}
{Vap} V(d)/{D}
100
100u
Vout  s 
C2
C1
d 47u
47u
8
D s vîn  0
Excitation V1
AC = 1
rL
10m
 Simplify circuit and check ac response is unchanged

g
Control-to-output
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Simplify and Rearrange Expressions
 The final schematic is truly compact
p
Vout
parameters
B3
Vin=12 Voltage
D=0.6 {Vap}*V(d)-V(p)*{D} R1
30m
Vout=-Vin*D/(1-D)
( )
4
RL=10
B1 Vc 3
Vap=Vin-Vout Current
Ic=-Vout/(RL*(1-D)) R2
{Ic}*V(d)+I(Vc)*{D}
7
10
L1
100u
C1
C2
47u
d 47u
response Vout  s  8
rL
D s
V1
excitation AC = 1 10m
Control-to-output
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A Two-Storage Element Circuit
 There are two independent state variables
 This is a 2nd–order network
1  a1 s  a2 s 2
H  s  H0
1  b1 s  b2 s 2
1. Determine the dc gain H0: open capacitor and short inductor
1
2. b1 equals the sum of the time constants when excitation is off
3. b2 combines time constants product when excitation is off
Assemble D(s)
?
1. Determine the zeros
1
 NDI or inspection
Assemble N(s)
()
Mathcad
M th d® and
d SPICE agree?
g ?
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Three Equations for the dc Gain
 Apply KCL on a simple circuit without reactances, s = 0
Vout
Vout  s   Vap 0 D  s   Vout  s  D0
I1 IC I2 IC  s  
rL
Vap 0 D  s   Vout  s  D0 I 2  s   I C 0 D  s   I C  s  D0  I C  s 
rC
Vout  s   I 2  s  Rload Vap 0  Vin  Vout
0V
I C 0 D  s   I C D0 current probe Substitute
Rload rearrange
 1  Vout rL  Rload 1  D0  Vin  Vout 
2
L1
shorted C2 H0    
 rL  Rload 1  D0 
2
 1 D0 
open rL  0, Vout  Vin

D0
rL 1  D0
Vin
H0  
1  D0 
2
Control-to-output
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Excitation is Turned off - 1
i
 All expressions f t i dd̂ or D(s)
featuring D( ) are sett to
t 0
p
V p   I 2 Rload   I1  IT  Rload
I2
V p   IT 1  D0  Rload
I1 V p  D0
rC VT  V p   V p  D0  rL IT
IT
0V Substitute
 IT D0 current probe
rearrange
Rload
VT
 rL  1  D0  Rload
2
VrL R
rL C2 IT
R?
IT open
VT L1
I1 I2 1 
rL  1  D0  Rload
2
Control-to-output
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Excitation is Turned off - 2
Th iinductor
 The d t iis now shorted
h t d
p
I 2  I1  I 3  I 3  D0  1
I2 V p   V p  D0 V p  1  D0 
I3 I3  
rL rL
I1 V p  D0 I 2  IT V p   Rload  I 2  IT 
rC
VT  IT rC  V p 
I 3 D0 Substitute
Rload rearrange
VT Rload rL
IT R  rC 
Rload 1  D0   rL
rL 2
IT
R?
L1
shorted I3
VT  Rload rL 
I1 I2  2  C2  rC  
 Rload 1  D0   rL
2

 
Control-to-output
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Which Combination:   or   ?
1 2
1 2 2 1
i 
1
O
 Open th iinductor:
the d t simplest
i l t configuration
fi ti is 2
p
 21  C2  rC  Rload
l d 
Combine with
V p  D0
I1  0 rC IT 1
L1
1 
2
I 3 D0
I3 Rload
=0 rL IT
R? L1
b2   1 21  C2  rC  Rload 
2
L1
Hi-frequency VT
Control-to-output
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Denominator Expression
 The 2nd-order denominator can be formed
 Rload 
L1 l d rL
b1   1   2   C2  rC  
2
 R 1  D 
2
 rL 
 load 0 
L1
b2   1 21  C2  rC  Rload 
2
 L1  Rload rL   L1  2
D s  1   C  r   s   C2  rC  Rload   s
 rL  1  D0  Rload
2 2
 C R 1  D 2  r   rL  1  D0  Rload
2

 load 0 L 
N s
H  s  H0 Zeros are missing!
1  b1 s  b2 s 2
Control-to-output
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Determining the Numerator
zeros bring the excitation back
 To determine zeros,
p
Response
“What conditions in the
IC iôut  0 transformed circuit
I1
null the response?”
Vap 0 D  s   Vout  s  D0
rC
iôut  0
I C 0 D  s   I C D0
Rload vôut  0 1
Z1  s   rC  0
Excitation sC2
sL1
1
I1  I C
sC2
Z1  s 
rL One zero What if L1 and C2
are in
i HF state?
t t ?
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First Zero is Easy
 The equivalent series resistance brings the first zero
1 1  srC C2
Z1  sz   rC  0 Z1  sz   0
sC2 sC2
 The negative (LHP) root is simply
1 1
sz1   z1 
rC C2 rC C2
 Almost there…  s 
1   ...
  z1 
H  s  H0
1  b1 s  b2 s 2
Control-to-output
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Equate Current Expressions
 The output null implies that vôut  0
Vap 0 D  s 
=0 IC I1  I C  0 IC  s  
I1
L1  rL
sL
Vap 0 D  s   Vout  s  D0
I1  s   I C 0 D  s   I C  s  D0 Substitute IC in I1
=0
Vap 0 D  s  Vap 0 D  s 
IC 0 D  s   D0  0
I C 0 D  s   I C D0 rL  sL1 rL  sL1
Solve for the root
sL1
1  D0  1  D0 
2 2
Rload  rL D0 Rload
s z2  z 2
D0 L1 rL  Rload D0 L1
rL
Positive root, RHPZ!
Control-to-output
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Final Expression
 Assemble the pieces to form the transfer function
 1  Vout rL  Rload 1  D0  Vin  Vout 
2
 D0 L1 
H0     N  s   1  srC C2  1  s 
 rL  Rload 1  D0     
2
 1 D0  1  D
2
Rload  rL D0
 0 
 L1  Rload rL   L1  2
D s  1   C  r   s   C2  rC  Rload   s
 rL  1  D0  Rload
2 2
 C
Rload 1  D0   rL
2
  rL  1  D0  Rload
2

 
 Rearrange under a 2nd-order polynomial form

1 1 1 1  D0
0    
b2 L1 rC  RL L1C2
C2  rC  RL  L1C2
rL  1  D0  Rload rL  1  D0  Rload
2 2
L1
C2  rC  RL 
2
b2 C2
Q   1  D0  Rload
b1 L1  Rload rL  L1
 C2  rC  
2
 R 1  D 
2
 rL 
 load 0  Control-to-output
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Plot the Dynamic Response
 Check response versus that of PWM switch model
d
 s  s  600mV
 1    1  
  parameters X1
d
H  s  H0 
z1   z2 
WM switch VM
a
PWMCCMVM
2
s  s  Vin=12
1   D=0.6
0 Q  0 
PW
12.0V -17.9V
11 Vout
p
Vin d
c
{Vin} 9 44.7mV 8
Vin 1
 z1 
L1
H0 
V5 rC
1  D 
2 AC = 1 100u 30m
rC C2 {D}
R2
44.7mV -17.9V
10
1  D  Rload
2 12 2
z  2
rL
C2
DL1 10m
47u
1 D C2
0  Q  1  D  Rload
L1C2 L1
Large-signal PWM switch model
Control-to-output
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SPICE and Mathcad® Plots
 Curves superimpose: transfer function is correct!
40
100
(dB) Vout  f  (°)
D f 
 H1 i 2  f k   Vout  f 
 
180
20 log 1020  0 arg H1 i 2  f k  
 1V  D f  
 100
0
3 4 5
10 100 110 110 110
fk
Control-to-output
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Input to Output Transfer Function
Thi time
 This ti dd̂ iis 0 and
d Vin is
i now ac-modulated
d l t d
 All sources including d̂ (d) are set to 0
p
Vout
parameters
B4
Voltage
Vin=12 V(a,p)*{D}
D=0.6
D 0.6 6 rC
30m
Vc
B3 2 R2
Current 4
10
I(Vc)*{D} L1
100u
C2
Vout  s 
a
47u
response 12
Vin
Vin  s 
rL
excitation {Vi }
{Vin}
AC = 1
10m
 Excitation is 0,
0 structure is unchanged: Reuse D(s)! slide 131
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Static Gain - Response for s = 0
 Open the capacitor and short the inductor
p I2
Vout  Vini D0  Vout D0
Vout IC 
rL
V  a,Vout  D0
I1  V  Vin D0  Vout D0 
I1   out  D0
rC  rL 
Vout   I1  I C  Rload
I C D0 Rload
IC Solve for Vout
and rearrange
a
C2
Vout D 1  D  Rload D
Vin rL  H0   
1  D  1 D
2
Vin s 0 Rload  rL
Input-to-output
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Determining the Numerator: Null Vout
0
vôut  0
“What conditions in the
transformed circuit
Vin  s   Vout  s   D0
iôut  0 null the response?”
I1
Excitation rC
iôut  0
IC
I C D0 Rload vôut  0
1 1
sL1 Z1  s   rC  0 z 
1
sC2 rC C2
1
sC2 What if L1 is set to its HF state?
rL Z1  s  IC  0 I C D0  0
No response,
p 1 zero onlyy
Input-to-output
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 The transfer function is immediate
d
Vout  s  1  srC C2 
600mV
 D 
  
PWM switch VM
parameters X1
d
Vin  s 
a
 1 D 
2
 s 
PWMCCMVM
s
1   Vin=12
0 Q   0  D=0.6
P
1 0V
15.0V -22.4V
22 4V
Vout
1 D
11
p
Vin
0 
c
{Vin} d
9 55.9mV 8
AC = 1
L1C2 V5
L1 rC
100u 30m
{D}
R2
55.9mV -22.4V
12 2
10
C2
Q  1  D  Rload
rL
10m C2
47u
L1

Input-to-output
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0 Vout  f  150
(dB) Vin  f  (°)
 
100
 
180
20 log H2 i 2  f k  10 arg H2 i 2  f k  

 50
0
50
Vout  f 

Vin  f 
 100 0
3 4 5
10 100 110 110 110
fk
Input-to-output
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Output Impedance Determination
 Install an 1-A ac current source on the output
 dˆ  vîn  0 p
parameters
Vout response
B4
Voltage
Vin=12 V(0,p)*{D}
D=0.6 6 rC
30
30m
Vc
B3 2 R2 AC = 1
Current
excitation
4
10 I1
I(Vc)*{D} L1
100u
C2
47u
Vout  s 
12
rL response
I out  s 
10m
excitation
it ti
 If excitation is 0, structure is unchanged. Same D(s)!

slide 131
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Static Resistance: Response for s = 0
 Open the capacitor and short the inductor
Vout I out
Vout Vout  Vout D0 Vout 1  D0 
IC  
V  0,Vout  D0 rL rL
I1
 V 1  D0  
I2
Vout
rC I1   out  D0 I2 
 rL  Rload
I out  I C  I 2  I1
I C D0 Rload I out
IC
Factor Vout and
rearrange
C2
rL Vout rL
R0  
rL
I out
1  D0  
2
Rload
Output impedance
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Determining the Numerator
vôut  0
vôut  0 “What conditions in the
V  0,
0 Vout  D0 transformed circuit
0 I2 I3  0 null the response?”
I1 IC iôut
rC vôut  0
I C D0 Rload
1
Z1  s   rC 
rL
0
1 sC2
sC2
What if L1 and C2 are in HF state?
Z2  s 
sL
L1
Z1  s 
IC  0 I C D0  0 Vout  I out Rload
Transformed circuit There is a response:

p 2 zeros
Output impedance
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Two Zeros in the Left Half-Plane
 The inductor contributes a zero with rL
vôut  0
vôut  0
IC I2
1 1
iôut Z1  s   rC  0 z  1
rL rC sC2 rC C2
Rload rL
Z 2  s   rL  sL1  0 z 2
I C D0 L1
sL1 1
sC2
Z2  s  Z1  s   s  s 
N  s   1  1  
 z   z 
 1  2 
Output impedance
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d
 L1 
1  srC C2  1  s 
600mV
parameters X1
d
 rL 
PWM switch VM
a
Z out  s   R0
PWMCCMVM
2 Vin=12
s  s  D=0.6
Vout
1  
0 Q   0 
12.0V -17.9V
11
p
Vin d
c
1 D {Vin} 9 44.7mV 8
0  V5
L1
100u
rC
30m
L1C2 {D}
R2
I1
44.7mV -17.9V AC = 1
12 2 10
rL
10m C2
C2
Q  1  D  Rload
47u
L1
Output impedance
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40
20 50
(dBΩ) Z out  f  (°)
0
 H3 i 2  f k  
 
180
20 log 10 0 arg H3 i 2  f k  
   
 20
 40  50
Z out  f 
 60
3 4 5 6
1 10 100 110 110 110 110
fk
Output impedance
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Buck-Boost Input Impedance
 LoL lets you ac-sweep the input to have Zin
B3
a Current p
Vin
12 0V
12.0V
I(Vc)*{D} B4
-17.9V
LoL Ac Voltage
V(a,p)*{D}
Iin
44.7mV
1G block Vc
6 rC
30m
12.0V -17.9V
8 44.7mV 2 R2
4
AC = 1 Vin 10
I1 {Vin} L1
100u
parameters
p C2
44 7mV
44.7mV
12
47
47u
Vin=12 rL
D=0.6 10m
response Vin  s 
excitation I in  s  dˆ  0 Input impedance
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Input Resistance for s = 0
 Open capacitor and short the inductor
a p I C D0  I C  I 2 V p   I 2 Rload
I1 I C D0 I 2  I C  D0  1 V p   I C  D0  1 Rload
V  a, p  D0
I2 V p   VT D0  V p  D0
IC IC 
IT rC rL
Substitute V(p)
VT
Rload
D0VT
IC 
L1 Rload D0 2  2 Rload D0  Rload  rL
C2 IT  D0 I C
response rL
1  D0  Rload  rL
2
VT
 R0 
IT D0 2
Input impedance
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Determine the Denominator, 1
 Turning the excitation off changes the structure
 You cannot reuse D(s) and node (a) is dangling
a I C D0 p I C   IT
V a   D0 IT Rdum I 2  I C D0  IT I 2  IT 1  D0 
V  a, p  D0 V p   I 2 Rload  IT 1  D0  Rload
add
VT  IT  rL  Rdum D0 2  1  D0  Rload D0  1  D0  Rload 
I C D0 IC I2
rC
Rearrange
IT Rload
Rdum rL L1
1 
R?  D0 2 
rL  1  D0   Rdum  Rload 1  D0  
 1  D0 
C2
VT L1
1 R  0
dum 

 Install a dummy resistance to build a dc path Input impedance
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Determine the Denominator, 2
 Short inductor L1 and look into C2’s terminals
a I C D0 p I C  D0  1 V a    D0 I C Rdum V p    I C  D0  1  IT  Rload
V p   V a  D0  V p  D0
V  a, p  D0 V p   VT  IT rC IC 
rL
I C D0 IC I2
rC Substitute
Subst tute and
a d
rearrange IC
IT Rload IT Rload 1  D0 
IC 
Rdum
rL R? Rload l d  D0  Rdum
l d  rL  2 D0 Rload
2
d l d 
 Rload
VT VT  IT rC   I C  D0  1  IT  Rload
L1
I2  R r  Rdum  
Rdum  Rload D0 2  load L 
V
R  T  rC   Rdum 
 rC  Rload
IT  Rload  rL  2 D0 Rload  D0 2 Rload 
 2   rC  Rload  C2 Rdum   D0 2 
 Rdum 
Input impedance
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Determine the Last Term, 
1
2
 Open the inductor and look through C2’s terminals

As L1 is open, current IC is zero
a I C D0  0 p IT
V  a, p  D0
0 IC  0 IT  21  C2  rC  Rload 
rC
IT Rload
Rdum
rL R? b2   1 21 
L1
 C2  rC  Rload   0

VT
IT D  s   1  b1 s  b2 s 2  1  s  rC  Rload  C2
Input impedance
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Null the response for the denominator
 Short the current source for a null in the response
 Structure returns to its original state: use D for N!
a p
Determined for Zout and H
I C D0 V  a, p  D0 2
s  s 
vôut  0 IC
rC N s  1  
0 Q  0 
Rload
1 D C2
rL 0  Q  1  D  Rload
L1C2 L1
C2
L1
slide 131
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2
s  s 
1  
d
12.0V 600mV
0 Q   0  11
Z in  s   R0 parameters
M switch VM
d
a
1  s  rC  Rload  C2 Ac LoL
Vin
Vin=12
block 1G X1 D=0 6
D=0.6
PWM
PWMCCMVM
1 D 12.0V
0  15
p
I1 Vin
c
d
L1C2 AC = 1 {Vin} 44.7mV 9
-17.9V
8
L1 rC
V5 100
100u
{D} 30m
44.7mV -17.9V R2
C2
Q  1  D  Rload
12 2 10
rL
L1 10m C2
47u
1  D0  Rload  rL
2
R0  2
D0
Input impedance
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80
Z in  f 
60 100
(dBΩ) (°)
40
 H4 i 2  f k  
 
180
20 log 10 0 arg H4 i 2  f k  
   
20 13 dBΩ Z in  f 
0  100
 20
3 4 5 6
1 10 100 110 110 110 110
2 2
fk
V   12 
R0   in  Rload     10  4.49 Ω  13 dBΩ
 Vout   17
17.99 
Input impedance
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References
 Middlebrook R.D. “Null Double Injection and The Extra
Element Theorem”,, IEEE Transactions on Education,, Vol. 32,,
NO 3, August 1989
 R. D. Middlebrook, V. Vorpérian, J. Lindal, “The N Extra
Element Theorem
Theorem”, IEEE Transactions on Circuits and
Systems, vol. 45, NO. 9, September 1998
 V. Vorpérian, “Fast Analytical Techniques for Electrical and
Electronic Circuits”,
C C
Cambridge University Press, 9
978-0-
80
52162-442-8, 2002
 C. Basso, “Linear Circuit Transfer Functions: A Tutorial
Introduction to Fast Analytical Techniques”, Wiley IEEE-press,
May 2016
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Conclusion
 Plotting a transfer function is easy with nowadays tools
 You have no insight on what affects poles or zeros
 Analytical analysis is important but the form matters
 A low-entropy expression unveils contributors to poles/zeros
 FACTs naturally lead to low-entropy expressions
 Break the circuit into simple schematics
 Determine time constants in each configuration
 Small
Small-signal
signal analysis makes extensive use of FACTs
 SPICE and Mathcad are useful instruments to track errors
 Becoming skilled with FACT requires practice and tenacity!
Merci !
Thank you!
Xiè-xie!
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Fast Analytical Techniques

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Fast Analytical Techniques

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Introduction to Fast Analytical Techniques:

Application to Small-Signal Modeling

“A transfer function is a Vout  s  response

Voltage gain Current gain

Transfer admittance Transimpedance

 Determining the resistance at reactance’s terminals: DPI

 Energy-storing elements host parasitic contributors

 More energy is needed to unveil these terms

 Naturally reading gains, poles and zeros…

This is a low-entropy expression

 Is there any easier and faster way to go?

 Change the circuit depending on s

s s0 s s0

 Determine the gain in this condition

 Remove the capacitor and look into its terminals

 Remove the capacitor and look into its terminals

1. Transform the circuit with a Thévenin generator

 Apply impedance divider involving Z1 and Rth

 what is the pole/zero position?

 The capacitor is open circuited,

 We did not write a single line of algebra!

1st-order linear system

 A time constant “tau” is associated with a reactance

Forced response Natural response

 The first term depends on the excitation – the force

100u 300u 500u 700u 900u

You don’t need a source for the natural response

 The state variable associated with C is its voltage, x2

 Considering 0-V initial conditions, vC(0) = 0

 Use inverse Laplace-transform tables to obtain

Initial inductor current is I0

 What resistance do you see? R1 then   R1C1

 When excitation is off, the C1

structure remains the same Current excitation Set IT to 0 A:

 The resistance seen by C1 is the same!

Left or right half plane pole (LHPP or RHPP)

 Time constant is changed, cannot reuse D(s)

 Transfer function zeros are the numerator roots

The excitation does not generate a response

 What is a transformed network?

 The circuit is then observed at the zero frequency

 In the transformed network, consider s    j

 There is no physical meaning: mathematical abstraction!

 For s = sz2, the RL impedance is infinite

No because this is a harmonic analysis s  j

 The numerator is obtained without algebra

 Double injection with a nulled response (NDI)

configuration, the resistance is R1  R2

 The current source G1 adjusts to set Vout to 0 V: NDI

 What is the denominator of Z1? Look at R driving C1

 0 V across a current generator is a true short circuit

 Result is well ordered and obtained without KVL/KCL

 Turn the excitation off

 Remove the energy storage element

 The dc or quasi-static gain is 0

 It is a low-entropy form featuring an inverted pole

 Consider the circuit at high frequency instead

 Now consider a null output voltage

 G1 injects a current to maintain Vout at 0: NDI

 In a 2nd-order circuit, there are two reactances

 1 Reactance 1 is in its high-frequency state

2 What resistance drives reactance 2?

 2 Reactance 2 is in its high-frequency state