Apdujan, Richard M.

BSECE

Advanced Engineering Algebra

(Math 10)

Research Work

1. What is a square matrix?

A square matrix has the same number of rows as columns. In

computer graphics, square matrices are used for transformations.

(https://chortle.ccsu.edu/VectorLessons/vmch13/vmch13_4.html)

2. All square Echelon matrices are Upper Triangular matrices. (False)

Upper and Lower Triangular Matrices:

Definition: An upper triangular matrix is a square matrix in which all entries below the
main diagonal are zero (only nonzero entries are found above the main diagonal - in the
upper triangle). A lower triangular matrix is a square matrix in which all entries above
the main diagonal are zero (only nonzero entries are found below the main diagonal - in
the lower triangle).

(http://faculty.etsu.edu/joynerm/Diagonal%20Matrices.pdf)

Echelon Form of a Matrix

Row Echelon Form

A matrix is in row echelon form (ref) when it satisfies the following conditions.

 The first non-zero element in each row, called the leading entry, is 1.
 Each leading entry is in a column to the right of the leading entry in the previous
row.
 Rows with all zero elements, if any, are below rows having a non-zero element.
Apdujan, Richard M.
BSECE

Each of the matrices shown below are examples of matrices in row echelon form.
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 1 2
0 0 1 3
0 0 1 3 0 1
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
Aref Bref Cref

Note: Some references present a slightly different description of the row echelon form.
They do not require that the first non-zero entry in each row is equal to 1.

Reduced Row Echelon Form

A matrix is in reduced row echelon form (rref) when it satisfies the following conditions.

 The matrix satisfies conditions for a row echelon form.

 The leading entry in each row is the only non-zero entry in its column.

Each of the matrices shown below are examples of matrices in reduced row echelon
form.
1 2 0 0
1 2 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0
Arref Brref Crref

(https://stattrek.com/matrix-algebra/echelon-form.aspx)

The matrix is echelon, but not triangular (because not square).

However, for non-singular square matrices, "row echelon" and "upper triangular" are
equivalent.

(https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/1720647/is-there-no-difference-between-
upper-triangular-matrix-and-echelon-matrixrow-ec/1720660#1720660)
Apdujan, Richard M.
BSECE

3. All Upper Triangular Matrix are in Echelon form. (False)

Echelon Form

A matrix that has undergone Gaussian elimination is said to be in row echelon form or,
more properly, "reduced echelon form" or "row-reduced echelon form." Such a matrix
has the following characteristics:

1. All zero rows are at the bottom of the matrix

2. The leading entry of each nonzero row after the first occurs to the right of the leading
entry of the previous row.

3. The leading entry in any nonzero row is 1.

4. All entries in the column above and below a leading 1 are zero.

A triangular matrix is invertible if and only if all diagonal entries are nonzero.

(http://faculty.etsu.edu/joynerm/Diagonal%20Matrices.pdf)

The matrix is triangular, but not echelon (because the leading entry 5 is not to the right
of the leading entry 4).

However, for non-singular square matrices, "row echelon" and "upper triangular" are
equivalent.

(https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/1720647/is-there-no-difference-between-
upper-triangular-matrix-and-echelon-matrixrow-ec/1720660#1720660)

4. If A2 is an Upper Triangular Matrix, then A is not an Upper Triangular. (False)

Find a square root of the matrix

Apdujan, Richard M.
BSECE

Therefore, all the square roots of the matrix A are

(https://yutsumura.com/square-root-of-a-diagonal-matrix-how-many-square-roots-
exist/#more-1107).

Triangular Matrix Properties:

 The product of the two upper triangular matrices is upper triangular and the
product of the two lower triangular matrices is lower triangular.

(https://www.tutorvista.com/content/math/triangular-matrix/)

(https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/2095108/multiplication-of-two-upper-
triangular-matrices)
Apdujan, Richard M.
BSECE

5. When do matrices A and B commute?

Commuting Matrices

Two matrices and which satisfy

Under matrix multiplication are said to be commuting.

In general, matrix multiplication is not commutative. Furthermore, in general there is

no matrix inverse even when . Finally, can be zero even without or
. And when , we may still have , a simple example of which is provided
by

for which but .

6. Under what condition is B row equivalent to A?

We say that two m×n matrices are row equivalent if one can be obtained from the
other by a sequence of elementary row operations.

Let A and I be 2×2 matrices defined as follows.

Prove that the matrix A is row equivalent to the matrix I if d−cb≠0.

Proof:
Suppose that b−cd≠0. Then we can obtain the matrix I from the matrix A by the
following sequence of elementary row operations.
First, we apply R2−cR1 and get
Apdujan, Richard M.
BSECE

The next step is (1/d−cb) R2 and get

Note that this is where we need the assumption d−cb≠0 since d−cb is in the
denominator.
The last step is R1−bR2, and we obtain

7. Explain why the following are NOT VALID for matrices. You may use concepts and
examples

a.) (A + B)(A – B) = A2 – B2
b.) (A + B)(A + B) = A2 + 2AB + B2 and A2 + BA + AB +B2

a.) yes, you can "FOIL" matrices:

(A+B)(C+D) = AC + BD + AD + BC, but remember the order of multiplication in

each term is important:

(A+B)(A-B) = A2 + BA - AB - B2, NOT A2 - B2 (because usually AB ≠ BA).

matrix differentiation is just a convenient way of keeping track of the various partial
derivatives involved.

(http://mathhelpforum.com/advanced-algebra/199735-foiling-difference-two-matrices-its-
transpose-then-derivative.html)

b.) Non-commutativity
AB ≠ BA
Distributivity
A(B + C) = AB + AC
(B + C)D = BD + CD

Basic properties that should be followed to prove a and b.

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_multiplication)
 Apdujan, Richard M.
BSECE

8. Explain and discuss with example: Polynomial Curve Fitting

Polynomial Curve

A curve obtained by fitting polynomials to each ordinate of an ordered sequence of

points. The above plots show polynomial curves where the order of the
fitting polynomial varies from to , where is the number of points.

Polynomial curves have several undesirable features, including a non-intuitive variation

of fitting curve with varying coefficients, and numerical instability for high
orders. Splines such as the Bézier curve are therefore used more commonly.

(http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PolynomialCurve.html)

This example shows how to fit a polynomial curve to a set of data points using
the polyfit function. You can use polyfit to find the coefficients of a polynomial that fits a
set of data in a least-squares sense using the syntax
p = polyfit(x,y,n),
where:
 x and y are vectors containing the x and y coordinates of the data points
 n is the degree of the polynomial to fit

(https://www.mathworks.com/help/matlab/math/polynomial-curve-fitting.html)