Lecture 3 Torsion and Dislocations

Torsion - Introduction
• Torsion is a variation of shear occurring in

Outline machine axles, drive shafts and twist drills
• From observation, the angle of twist of the

• Example
shaft is proportional to the applied torque and
• Torsion - introduction to the shaft length.
• Torsion test φ ∝T
• Torsional Failure Modes φ∝L
• Plastic deformation
• Dislocations – introduction • When subjected to torsion, every cross-section
of a circular shaft remains plane and
• Edge Dislocation
undistorted, because a circular shaft is
• Dislocation movements axisymmetric.
• Cross-sections of noncircular (non-
axisymmetric) shafts are distorted when
subjected to torsion.
Dr. M. Medraj Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University MECH 321 lecture 3/1 Dr. M. Medraj Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University MECH 321 lecture 3/2
Torsion - Theory Torsion Test

• Not as common in testing as tensile test.
• Torsion test samples (similar to tensile samples).
2M T • But also used on full sized parts such as shafts, axles, drills etc.
τ max =
r π c3
• Torsion machines use an electrical
motor and gear drive to apply a torque
τJ J = 12 π c 4 to the specimen
MT = → τ = MT r
r J Shear stress is zero at centre of bar • The specimen is gripped on both ends,
increasing linearly to max at surface. with one end remaining stationary and
MT = Torsional moment Torsion machine
τ = shear stress the other rotated by the motor
Shear Strain:
r = radial distance from centre rθ
γ = tan φ = • Troptometers are used to measure how
J = Polar moment of inertia L much the specimen has been twisted.
2 M T c2 Often tests are done on • Combining this twisting information with
τ max = r
π (c24 − c14 ) tubular cross sections the applied torque, we are able to
c2 = outer radius determine the mechanical properties of the
c1 = inner radius (
J = 12 π c24 − c14 ) Troptometer
specimen.
Torsion Test Torsional Failure Modes
During test, measure angle of twist, θ,
(in radians) and plot against MT. • Elements with faces parallel and perpendicular
rθ to the shaft axis are subjected to shear stresses
γ = tan φ =
L only. Normal stresses, shearing stresses or a
In elastic region, we can combination of both may be found for other
measure shear modulus, G: orientations.
• Consider an element at 45o to the shaft axis,
τ = Gγ = M T r → M L
G= T F = 2(τ max A0 )cos 45 = τ max A0 2
J Jθ
Shear stress in plastic region can be F τ max A0 2
σ = = = τ max
45o
calculated using diagram of MT vs. θ’ A A0 2
If r = a, then: • Element a is in ……… shear.
1
τa = ( BC + 3CD ) • Element c is subjected to a tensile stress on
2πa 3 two faces and compressive stress on the other
Also the ultimate torsional shear two.
strength (Modulus of Rupture): • Note that all stresses for elements a and c have
(θ’= θ/L)
3M max the same magnitude
τu =
2πa 3
Torsional Failure Modes Plastic Deformation

Why metals could be plastically deformed?
• Ductile materials generally fail in Why the plastic deformation properties could be changed
shear. Brittle materials are weaker
in tension than shear.
to a very large degree by forging without changing the
chemical composition?
Why plastic deformation occurs at stresses that are much
• When subjected to torsion, a ductile smaller than the theoretical strength of perfect crystals?
specimen breaks along a plane of
maximum shear, i.e., a plane Plastic deformation – the force to break all bonds in the
perpendicular to the shaft axis. slip plane is much higher than the force needed to cause the
deformation. Why?
• When subjected to torsion, a brittle
specimen breaks along planes
………………. to the direction in These questions can be answered based on the idea proposed in
which tension is a maximum, i.e., 1934 by Taylor, Orowan and Polyani: Plastic deformation is
along surfaces at 45o to the shaft due to the motion of a large number of ……………..
axis.
Dislocations Dislocations
• Dislocations result from solidification from the melt, from
mechanical work (e.g., rolling, drawing, compressive impact, tensile
or shear stress), or from thermal stresses
• It is very difficult to prepare a dislocation-free crystal!!!
• 2 Types:
• ……………………
• …………………….
“a” is the lattice constant
• ………………………..
“b” is the Burgers vector
• Think of edge dislocation as an extra
half-plane of atoms inserted in a crystal. Burger's vector, b, describes magnitude and direction of ……….
• Misalignment of atomic planes due to Burger's circuit around section of crystal that includes a
the extra half plane. dislocation shows Burger's vector (a vector needed to close
circuit) (In perfect crystal, however, Burger's circuit closes itself).
Described by ⊥ symbol. Edge Dislocation
Burger's vector (b) = magnitude + direction of lattice distortion.
Dislocations allow deformation at much lower

Caterpillar or Rug Analogy
stress than in a perfect crystal, How?!
• The caterpillar would require a large force (energy) to slide

Bonds across slip plane break consecutively not simultaneously its complete body along
– less energy is required but with same end result.
• it is much easier for it to move one part of its body at a time
The movement of the dislocation (to the right in this sequence) requires
• this analogous to the shearing of the lattice by movement of
the breaking (and formation) of only ONE set of bonds per step.
an edge dislocation
Dislocations move in ………………. directions within • another analogy is the sliding of a rug across a floor
……………………. planes.
Dislocations Dislocation Interaction
• dislocations are intrinsic defects
like vacancies
• dislocation density is the total • dislocations ………. during
+ve plastic deformation
dislocation length/unit volume
• units: mm/mm3 or mm-2 repulsion • dislocations can either repel
– annealed metal:105-106 mm-2
or attract one another
– deformed: 109-1010 mm-2 • depends on orientation or sign
(positive or negative)
• atoms above slip plane are in +ve + -ve → 0
compression • important since deformation
increases dislocation density
• atoms below slip plane are in
→ work hardening
tension Regions of compression (dark) and
attractive • this is a strengthening
• creates a strain field around the tension (colored) located around an edge
dislocation. mechanism
dislocation
• dislocations contain stored energy Two extra half-planes will align and become a complete plane
Theoretical vs. Experimental Mech properties Movement of Dislocations

Under applied shear stress, dislocations can move by breaking bonds
CONSECUTIVELY (rather than simultaneously).
Requires less energy, (reason why expt. Shear strength is lower).
Deformation by dislocations movement is called SLIP.
• The combination of C-P plane (the slip plane) and C-P direction
(the slip direction) is called a …………...
Recall:
SLIP SYSTEMS DEPEND ON
When compared to experimental shear yield strengths, common THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
metals are 1000 to 10,000 times weaker than theory predicts.
OF THE MATERIAL!
Theoretical Shear Strength, τTH ≈ G/2π to ≈ G/30 depending on method.
Slip Systems Movement of Dislocations
Edge dislocations can move “out” of the

slip plane by non-conservative motion.
Requires diffusion of vacancies to bottom
of extra 1/2 plane thus dislocation
CLIMBS to a higher SLIP plane.
Thermally activated process (diffusion +
number of vacancies) so usually only
The more slip systems available, the easier it is for dislocations to important at high temps. > 0.5 Tm (K)
move, which is why (on the average) FCC and BCC metals are Dislocation climb involving
more ductile than HCP metals. vacancy ( ) diffusion to edge
dislocation allowing its movement
number of slip systems ………….. with temperature e.g. HCP to climb from plane A to plane B.
metals → more ductile at high temperature
Movement of Dislocations Strength of a perfect Crystals

Can dislocations climb? If we have a material without dislocations (i.e. SLIP
cannot occur)!!
Is the strength closer to the theoretical value?
when atoms leave the or when atoms are attached to

dislocation line to create the dislocation line by
interstitials or to fill vacancies creating vacancies or
eliminating interstitials Quite close; only
x10 not x10,000.
Next time:
Continue Dislocations
Dr. M. Medraj Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University MECH 321 lecture 3/21

Lecture 3 Torsion and Dislocations

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Lecture 3 Torsion and Dislocations

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Torsion - Introduction

• Torsion is a variation of shear occurring in

• From observation, the angle of twist of the

Torsion - Theory Torsion Test

Torsional Failure Modes Plastic Deformation

Dislocations allow deformation at much lower

• The caterpillar would require a large force (energy) to slide

Theoretical vs. Experimental Mech properties Movement of Dislocations

Edge dislocations can move “out” of the

Movement of Dislocations Strength of a perfect Crystals

when atoms leave the or when atoms are attached to

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