Contemporary Sorrow Songs

Contemporary Sorrow Songs: Traces of Mourning, Lament, and Vulnerability
in Hip Hop
Joseph Winters
African American Review, Volume 46, Number 1, Spring 2013, pp. 9-20 (Article)
Published by Johns Hopkins University Press
For additional information about this article

https://muse.jhu.edu/article/547079
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Joseph Winters
Contemporary Sorrow Songs: Traces of Mourning,

Lament, and Vulnerability in Hip Hop
W ithinthefieldof hip-hopstudies,scholarsfrequentlylocatehiphopalong
amoreextensivetrajectoryof blackmusic.Tounderstandthesignificance
of hiphop,wemustexaminehowartistsdrawand“sample”fromarichreservoir
of blackmusicalexpression(areservoirthatincludesjazz,blues,androck’n’roll)
intheprocessof creatingsomethingnewanddifferent.TriciaRose,forinstance,
notesthatthereisa“necessarytensionbetweenthehistoricalspecificityof hiphop’s
emergenceandthepointsof continuitybetweenhiphopandseveralAfrodiasporic
forms,traditions,andpractices”(25).AlthoughRoseunderscoresthepostindustrial
forcesthatrenderhiphopsomewhatdiscontinuouswithpreviousarticulationsof
blackculture,sherightlyinsiststhat“hiphopispropelledbyAfrodiasporictraditions”
(25).Theoldofteninformsandmakespossiblethenew.
AlthoughRosecontendsthathiphopincorporatestheimprovisationaland
experimentalqualitiesof jazz,blues,androck,thisarticleexaminestracesof another
formof blackmusicinhiphop—thesorrowsongs.DrawingfromW.E.B.DuBois’s
classicessayonthismusicalgenre,Iusethecategoryof mourningtounderscore
themesof loss,suffering,andtrauma,themesthatreverberatethroughoutthesorrow
songsandhip-hopmusic.Isuggesttwodifferentkindsof mourningareoperating
inDuBois’sessayandthatparsingoutthesedifferentmodesmighthelpusunder-
standsomeof thetropes,themes,andconcernswithincontemporaryhiphop.
Forexample,DuBoissuggeststhatthesorrowsongsarticulateamournfulhopeto
theworld.Inotherwords,thecapacityof enslavedblackAmericanstovoiceand
expressthepainandsufferingembodiedwithinthearrangementsof whitesupremacy
ispivotaltotheimaginationandconstructionof amoreraciallyjustworld.This
possibilityof amorejustworld,asIdevelopbelow,isoftenanimatedbycommit-
menttoaGodwhoidentifieswiththesufferingof blackpeople.Atthesametime,
DuBoishimself adoptsamournfuldispositioninthisessaytowardthelossof
“authentic”performancesof thesorrowsongs.Helamentsthatthesesongshave
beencaricaturedandtarnishedbytheburgeoningpopularityof theminstrelshows.
Therefore,thesetwodifferentkindsof mourninginDuBois’sessayarerelated.
DuBoisfearsthatasthesongsincreasinglybecomeamediumforentertainment
andcomedy,somethingabouttheauthenticityof thismusicaltraditionislost,thus
underminingthistradition’sabilitytoexpressthebeautyandhorrorof blacklife.
Inwhatfollows,Iarguethatthesetwomodesof mourningareprevalentin
hip-hopmusic,andillustratetheresidualpresenceof themes,motifs,andconditions
thatanimatedthedevelopmentof thesorrowsongs.Lookingspecificallyat
GrandmasterFlash’sclassic,“TheMessage,”GhostfaceKillah’s“ThePrayer,”and
JayZ’s“SongCry,”Iexplorethedynamicbetweensorrowandhopewithinhip-hop
musicandanalyzehowthehopeisoccasionallyarticulatedthroughallusionsand
petitionstoadivinepower.IconcludebysituatingNas’spronouncementthat“Hip
HopIsDead”alongsidethesecondtypeof mourningoperativeinDuBois’sreading
of thespirituals.IarguethatNas’spronouncementcanbeinterpretedasaformof
nostalgiaforanearlier,purerepochof hiphop,orasaclarioncallforhip-hop
artistsandaficionadostocreatenewstylesandovercomewhathecallsthedecadence
withinAmericanculture.
African American Review 46.1 (Spring 2013): 9-20

© 2014 Johns Hopkins University Press and Saint Louis University 9
Du Bois and the Soundtrack to Double Consciousness
I maniPerrysuggeststhatcontemporaryblackAmericancultureoftenexpresses
whatDuBoisreferredtoasdoubleconsciousness,atermthathelpsPerryexplain
whytherearemomentsof strongidentificationwithAmericainhip-hopmusicand
othermomentsmarkedbyalienationandrenunciation.AccordingtoDuBois,
doubleconsciousnesssignifiesthesocialpredicamentof blackAmericanswho
oftenexperienceaconflictortensionbetweentheirblackandAmericanidentities.
Thissenseof “two-ness”forDuBoisispartlyaresultof socialarrangementsthat
excludeblackpeoplefromparticipatinginandenjoyingvitalpublicgoods.For
DuBois,thisexperienceof doubleconsciousness,of beinginbutnotof America,
isdebilitatingandenabling.AlthoughDuBoishopesthatthisbrokenpredicamentwill
bereconciledonceblacksarepermittedtosharetheirgiftsandbecome“co-workers
inthekingdomof culture,”healsosuggeststhatdoubleconsciousnessoffersblack
peopleasecondsight,adoublevision,oranalternativewayof seeingtheworld
theyinhabit.ForDuBois,thissecondsighthassomethingtodowithseeingand
experiencingrace-inflectedinjusticesandenvisioningabetterfuture,amorejust
world.Tobesure,DuBois’sformulationmustbeinterpretedwithinitsearlytwentieth-
centurycontext(whereblacksweredeniedmanyof therightsandopportunitiesthat
theyhaveinapost-civilrightsAmerica).Atthesametime,Perry’suseof DuBois’s
concepttoframeherdiscussionof thedissonantrelationshipbetweenhip-hop
cultureandAmericashowshowideascantravelbeyondtheirimmediatecontext.
Inaddition,itsignalsthecontinuationof conditionsandpracticesthatprevent
blackAmericansfromflourishingandfeeling“athome”inAmerica.1
If doubleconsciousnessnamesthestrange,uncannyfeelingof beingablack
bodyinAmerica,thenthesorrowsongsprovidedasoundtrackforthisexperience
of two-ness.In“Of theSorrowSongs,”DuBoisoffersaprovocativeanalysisof the
“rhythmiccriesof theslave,”rhythmiccriesandhollersthathave“traveleddown”
fromonegenerationtothenext.Referringtosongssuchas“SwingLow,”“Roll
JordanRoll,”and“MyWay’sCloudy,”DuBoisconstantlyreferstothestrangeness
of thesesongs,tothewaysinwhichtheyagitateandunsettlehisperceptionsand
sensibilities.Heconfesses,“EversinceIwasachildthesesongshavestirredme
strangely”(185).Heconcomitantlysuggeststhattheseslavesongshaunthim,
indicatingthenaggingpresenceof thepastinanationthatcelebratesprogress
andmovingforward.
DuBoismaintainsinthisessaythatthesorrowsongstellanalternativestory
aboutblackstrivingsvis-à-vis dominantdiscoursesandnarrativesaboutslavelifeand
blackpeople’srelationshiptothisunjustsocialarrangement.Heclaimsthatthe
dominantvoices“tellusintheseeagerdaysthatlifewasjoyoustotheblackslave,
carelessandhappy.”AlthoughDuBoisadmitsthatthereissometruthtothis
ascriptionof happinessandjovialitytoblackfolk,heclaimsthatthesorrowsongs
“arethemusicof anunhappypeople,of thechildrenof disappointment;theytellof
deathandsufferingandunvoicedlongingtowardatruerworld,of mistywanderings
andhiddenways”(187).Thesesongsunveilformsof “deathandsuffering”thatare
oftenconcealedorexpungedfrompublicmemory.Insofarasthesesongsenable
theslaveto“speaktotheworld,”thesongsof sorrowgiveavoicetodimensionsof
Americanlifethattypicallygounvoicedorunheard.Thus,whenDuBoisclaims,
“thereisnotrueAmericanmusicbutthewildsweetmelodiesof theNegroslave”(9),
heisnotmerelyassimilatingthesesongsintotheestablishednarrativesaboutAmerica
anditshistoricaldevelopment.BysuggestingthatthesesongsarethetrueAmerican
songs,heisinscribingahistoryof racialviolenceintotheseentrenchednarratives
andthereforeundoingrelativelysanguinedepictionsof thenation’sidentity,of its
10 AFRICAN AMERICAN REVIEW

pastandpresentformations.Heisinferringthatthecriesof theslave—criesin
responsetoexile,loss,separationfromlovedones,torture,sexualviolence,andthe
agonyandtoilof repetitivelabor—revealsomethingcentraltoandtraumaticabout
Americanlife.
However,thesecriesalsoexpressayearningforabetterworld.AsDuBois
putsit,“Throughallthesorrowof theSorrowSongstherebreathesahope—afaith
intheultimatejusticeof things.Theminorcadencesof despairchangeoftento
triumphandcalmconfidence”(194).Theuseof thepreposition“through”indicates
thathopeisnotacquiredeasily.Thesorrowsongscompelthelistener(andperformer)
tomakeapassage through themoansandcries.Inotherwords,the“longingfora
truerworld”musttraversethesorrowthathasaccumulatedinblackcommunities.
Hope,accordingtothisview,mustbeinflectedandevenconstrainedbyourattune-
menttoongoingmodesof sufferingandinjustice.DuBoisclaimsthatthisbreath
of hopethroughoutthesorrowsongsspringsfromseveralsources.“Sometimesit
isfaithinlife,sometimesafaithindeath,sometimesassuranceof boundlessjustice
insomefairworldbeyond”(194).ThelattersourceresonateswithDuBois’sclaim
thatblackAmericanshavefoundoccasionalmomentsof peaceinthe“altarsof the
Godof Right”(195).Inmanyof thesorrowsongs,wehearreferencestoJordan/
thePromisedLand,asymbolof earthlyfreedomandavisionof areunionwith
Godintheafterlife.Asmanyauthorshavepointedout,manyantebellumblack
communitiesincorporatedtheExodusnarrativebecauseof itsdepictionof aGod
whoidentifieswithanenslavedgroup,theIsraelites,andeventuallydeliversthem
fromEgypt.2 Theyearningforabetterworldheardinthesorrowsongsisoften
emboldenedbyacommitmenttoaGodwhoismovedbythetearsof thedispossessed.
DuBoisreferstothesorrowsongsas“siftingsof centuries”(188),assongs
thattravelacrosstime,affectingandinfluencingsuccessivegenerations.Referringto
anoldmelodythatwaspasseddownbyhisancestors,hewrites,“Thechildsangit
tohischildrenandtheytotheirchildren’schildren,andsotwohundredyearsithas
travelleddowntousandwesingittoourchildren”(188).Althoughthisdescription
elicitsthenotionof atradition,weshouldnotthinkof thesorrowsongsasforming
aseamlesslineortrajectory.AccordingtoDuBois,therearegapsandfissuresin
thesesongs;therearemeaningsthatareveiledand“half articulate,”meaningsthat
havetobedecodedandreinterpreted.Hementionssongs,forinstance,inwhich
thereisnomentionof afather,indicatingthewaysinwhichtheinstitutionof slavery
shatteredfamilybonds.Byexhortingustobeattunedtothe“eloquentomissions
andsilences,”hesuggeststhatwhatisunsaidisoftenjustasimportantaswhatis
said(infact,theunsaidandsaid,absenceandpresence,conditioneachother).If,
asFreudpointsout,mourningisalwaysaresponsetoalostobject,3 thentheomis-
sionsandsilencesregisterthisabsence,anabsencethatremainspartiallypresentdue
tothepowerof memory.
DuBoislocateshisintellectualandpoliticalprojectwithinthishalf-articulate
musicaltradition.Heinformsthereaderthatthesorrowsongsmotivatehisefforts
inThe Souls of Black Folk todocumentthevicissitudesof blacklife.Hewrites,“And
sobeforeeachthoughtthatIhavewritteninthisbookIhavesetaphrase,ahaunt-
ingechoof theseweirdoldsongsinwhichthesoulof theblackslavespoketo
men”(185).Whatiscrucialhereforourpurposesistherelationshipbetweenmusic
andsocialcritique,betweentherhythmiccryandtheunveilingof deeplyembedded
modesof violenceandexclusionwithinoursocialarrangements.Byremindingus
thatthecryprecedeseachthought,thathisreflectionsonracialinjustice arehaunted
andempoweredbythesorrowsongs,DuBoisintimatesaconnectionbetweenaes-
theticexpressionandresistance.Infact,thecryitself isanincipientmodeof resis-
tance.AsTheodorAdornopointsout,thefactthatpain“isspoken,thatdistanceis
thuswonfromthetrappedimmediacyof suffering,transforms
sufferingjustasscreamingdiminishesunbearablepain”(117).Ontheotherhand,
CoNtEMPoRARy SoRRoW SoNgS: tRACES oF MoURNINg, LAMENt, ANd VULNERAbILIty IN HIP HoP 11
listeningtothecriesandaspirationsreleasedinthesorrowsongsrendersusmore
attunedandsensitivetothewaysinwhichrace-inflectedformationsof powerhave
producedpainandsufferingforblacksubjects.Thestrangenessof thesongsmakes
uslessateasewiththestateof things;thesongscompelustoconfrontthe
Unheimlichkeit (traumaticuncanniness)thatoperatesbelowthesurfaceof theracial
order.WithanodtoAdorno,wemightsaythatmourningandsorrowdirected
towardneglectedtensions,contradictions,andinjusticesinthesocialworldcan
becomearefusalof thestatusquo.4
Partof thisrefusalwasdirectedtowardthedehumanizingqualityof white
supremacy,chattelslavery,andsoforth.Inanattempttotracethemusicalstrands
thatprecedeandimplicitlyinspirehip-hopmusic,AnthonyPinnclaimsthatthe
spiritualsenabledslavestomakesenseof asenselesspredicament,to“humaniz[e]
adehumanizingenvironment”(3).Inotherwords,thisincipientformof black
musicalexpressioncounteredasetof arrangementsthatrenderedblackbodies
usefulobjects,arrangementspredicatedontheexclusionof blacksfromthecategory
“human.”Thespiritualsprovidedawayof givingavoicetoconditionsandexperi-
encesthatmanyhavelabeledabsurd.Theypermittedblacksubjectstobeginto
locatetheseabsurdepisodeswithinasetof sense-conferringnarratives.Referring
specificallyto“MotherlessChild,”Pinnremindsusthatthespiritualsenabledslaves
torecordahistorymarkedbyloss,separation,struggle,andpossibility.Thespirituals
arethecriesof thosewhosurvived(themiddlepassage)andbearakindof witness
tothosebodiesthatperished.Pinnsurmises,“Perhapsthesoundsandsightsof this
experience,thisjourney,remainedaliveinthenewrhythmsof theirnewworld
musicalexpression,firstpresentedthroughthespirituals”(2).Crucialhereisthe
notionof theremainderorthatwhichsurvives.Tospeakof “remains”istoregister
atensionbetweenlossandsurvival,absenceandpresence.Thehopethatemanates
fromthespiritualsderivesfromappropriatingtheremainsof thepastandpresentin
theendeavortocreateabetterfuture.Mourningandhopearethereforeintertwined.
Inadditiontothemateriallossesenduredbyblackpeople,DuBoisalsolaments
acertaintheftfromthesorrowsongtraditionitself.Whiletracingthestagesof its
development,headvertstoaphase
wherethesongsofwhiteAmericahavebeendistinctivelyinfluencedbytheslavesongsor
haveincorporatedwholephrasesofNegromelody....Sidebyside,too,withthegrowth
has gone the debasements and imitations—the Negro “minstrel” songs, many of the
“gospel”hymns,andsomeofthecontemporary“coon”songs,—amassofmusicinwhich
thenovicemayeasilylosehimselfandneverfindthereal Negromelodies.(DuBois190;
emphasisadded)
HereDuBoisreferstotheminstrelshowsasimitationsof “real”Negrosongs,
imitationsthatdevaluethequalityof thesongs.Hebemoansthat“[c]aricaturehas
soughtagaintospoilthequaintbeautyof themusic,andhasfilledtheairwith
manydebasedmelodieswhichvulgarearsscarceknowfromthereal.Butthetrue
Negrofolk-songstilllivesintheheartsof thosewhohaveheardthemtrulysung
andintheheartsof theNegropeople”(187).AsEricLotthaspointedout,black-
faceminstrelsyisacomplicatedculturaldevelopmentthatdenoteswhiteculture’s
ridiculeof andfascinationwithblackculture.However,whatinterestsusisDuBois’s
distinctionbetween“realNegrosongs”thatare“trulysungintheheartsof the
Negropeople”andthedebased,adulteratedformof thesesongs.ForDuBois,
somethingislostordevaluedinblackmusicalexpressionwhensongsnolonger
emanatefromtheheartandsoulof blackfolk,whentheyarenolongerconnected
tothereal desiresandemotionsof blackpeople,butratherareperformed(by
blacksandwhitessincetheformergroupironicallyparticipatedinblackface
minstrelsy)primarilyforthepleasureandentertainmentof predominatelywhite
audiences.

LeRoiJonesdevelopsandexpandstheprosaicdistinctionbetweenauthentic
musicandmusicmademerelyforentertainmentinhiscontroversialtextBlues
People.Jonesarguesthatthehistoryof blackAmericanmusichasbeenmarkedby
arecurringclashbetweenauthenticexpression(typicallyassociatedwiththeblues
andothermusicalformsthatarevocalandemotive,andthatallowforspontaneity
andimprovisation)andprepackagedmusicdesignedtoentertainwideaudiences.
Thesecondtype,whichforJonesincludesbigbandjazzandswing,isregulatedby
thedesiretoappealtomainstreamAmericaandtogenerateprofit.Thismusicbears
theheavyimprintof commodificationandthereforedevalueswhatisconstitutive
of blackmusic—spontaneity,creativity,andimprovisation.If blackmusicismain-
streamed,accordingtoJones,itceasestobecharacterizedbyavisceralcryormoan,
thusobscuringblackpeople’suniquerelationshiptoAmerica.Inthismainstreaming
process,somethingvitalaboutblackmusicislost ortaken away.5
Thedistinctionbetweenauthenticityandfabrication,if notalwaysaproblematic
distinction,isdefinitelyspeciousinthecaseof thespirituals/sorrowsongs.AsJon
Cruzarguesinhisstudyof blackspirituals,thenotionthatslavesongswerethe
authenticexpressionof theinnerlivesof blackpeopleispartlytheresultof the
desires,fantasies,andinvestmentsof nineteenth-centuryabolitionistsmotivatedby
FrederickDouglass’sgrippingaccountof thesesongsinhis1845autobiography.
AccordingtoCruz,“Blackculturalpractices,whichhadhithertobeenmisunder-
stoodaswellasscorned,derogated,anddismissed,werenowdiscovered,objectified,
andedifiedbycriticalabolitionists.Theirdesiretotranscribeblacksongmaking,
particularlytheNegrospiritual,reflectedatendencythatextolledthevirtuesof a
preferredandidealizednotionof theculturallyexpressiveandperformingsubject—
inthiscasethespiritual-singingNegro”(6-7).Thisidealizednotionof theperform-
ingblacksubjectgeneratedrecognitionof andsympathyforblackculture.Formany
nineteenth-centurywhiteelites,motivatedbya“romanticquestforauthenticity,”
blackmusicprovidedanalternativetothedamagingforcesof modernindustry.
Themusicthatemanatedfromthe“heartsof slaves”mightre-enchantasocial
worldthatwasincreasinglybeingorderedbythedictatesof scienceandindustry.
AsCruzpointsout,thisidealizednotionreifiesblackculture,thusobscuring
differences,conflicts,andtensionswithinthisculture.Hisanalysisproffersadeci-
sivecaveattothosewhoascribeauthenticitytocertainkindsof culturalproducts.
Authenticityisitself afabrication;ascribingauthenticitytothespiritualswasaway
fornineteenth-centuryAmericanelitestoidentifywith“preferred”aspectsof black
culture,withthoseaspectsthatmightreviveandrevampadisenchantedsocial
world.
DuBoiscertainlyparticipatesinthisromanticquestforauthenticblackculture
evenif hisquesttakeshimthroughdifferentroutesthanhiswhitecounterparts.
YetIremaininterestedintheconnectionbetweenthesetwokindsof mourningin
DuBois’stext.Ontheonehand,DuBoisparticipatesinanaesthetictraditionthat
expressesthepain,torment,andhopeof blackbodieslocatedwithinaviolentand
raciallyunjustwebof socialarrangements.Atthesametime,thedistinctionheputs
forthbetweenauthenticslavesongsandtheimitation/debasementof thesesongs
bespeaksadesiretopreserveorprotectcertainelementsof blackculturefrom
theft,misappropriation,distortion,andfurtherloss.Insofarasthespiritualsconsti-
tuteaculturalresourcethathashelpedblacksubjectsendure,survive,andeven
resistrace-inflectedoppression,DuBois’sconcernaboutfurtherlossandtheftis
understandable,evenif hissuggestionof anauthenticformof blackexpression
generatesproblems.Whatisimportantisthatbothkindsof lossarticulatedin
DuBois’sessay(regardingblackbodiesandblackculturalresources)resultfrom
race-inflectedarrangementsandhierarchiesthatmarginalize,exclude,anddebase
blackpeople.
Contemporary Sorrow Songs
I f DuBoisclaimsthatthesorrowsongshavebeenpasseddownthroughgenera-
tions,thenIsuggestthatwecontinuetodiscovertracesof theserhythmiccries
inhip-hopmusic.Iamnotasinterestedinexplicitreferencestoorsamplesfrom
thismusicaltradition(GhostfaceKillah’s“MotherlessChild”orKanyeWest’s
“Spaceship,”forinstance).Instead,Iaimtoshowhowthemesof mourning,suffering,
andvulnerabilitypermeatehip-hopmusic,evenif thesethemesareoftenmutedto
protecttheartist’simageof beingimperviousandinvincible(animagethatexem-
plifiestheperformanceof hypermasculinitywithinthismale-dominatedgenre).
Atthesametime,amidstoriesof violenceandloss,therearealwaysmomentsof
hopeandpossibilitywithinhiphop.Aswediscussed,thecapacity
tovoiceandarticulatepainfulexperiencescanenableatemporarydistancefrom
suffering.AsrapartistPharoaheMonchpointsoutinhistrack“TheTruth,”artistic
expressioncanbeaformof healing.Art,asAdornopointsout,incorporatesthe
tensions,fissures,andwoundsthatmarkoursocialworldswhilealsoenablingusto
reimagineoursociallandscapes,thuscreatingadistancefromthegripsof current
socialconfigurations.WhereasAdornomightfindtranscendencemerelyinart,
manyhip-hopartistsalsolocatehopeandpossibilityinaGodwhoidentifieswith
theirstrivings.
Thinkforinstanceof “TheMessage,”a1982trackperformedbyGrandmaster
FlashandtheFuriousFive.Consideredaclassicbymanyhip-hoppundits,“The
Message”revealsthestarkeconomicandsocialconditionsinpost-civilrightsurban
America,conditionsoutof whichhiphopemergedandconditionsthatdispropor-
tionatelyaffectedblacksandLatinos.ThisclassiccorroboratesRose’sclaimthat
“[l]ifeonthemarginsof postindustrialurbanAmericaisinscribedinhiphopstyle,
sound,lyricsandthematics”(21).MelleMel,oneof themembersof theFurious
Five,beginshisversebyevokingimagesof brokenglass,urine,anddenizenswho
don’tcare.HereMelleMeloffersatopographyof theurbanenvironmentheinhabits.
Thebrokenglassmostlikelyreferstodiscardedbeerorliquorbottles.
Atthesametime,theglasspointstoamorefigurativesenseof brokennessand
ruin.AsWalterBenjaminputsit,“Intheruinhistoryhasphysicallymergedintothe
setting”(Origin 177-78).Inotherwords,thesettingMelleMelportraysisaphysical
signof historicalarrangementsandforcesthathavedamagedurbancommunities.
Theallusiontourineelicitsthenotionof waste,asif urbanspacesbecomethe
repositoryforthediscarded.Theseconditionsinthesespacesinturnproduce
inhabitantswho,accordingtoMelleMel,lackasenseof concernfortheneighbor-
hoodsthattheyoccupy.
Inthetraditionof thesorrowsongs,“TheMessage”givesavoicetoneglected
dimensionsof Americanlife—drugaddiction,poverty,homelessness,prostitution,
laborstrikes,policeharassment,prisonlife,suicide,andlow-qualityeducation.This
trackalsoexpressesadesiretoescapethesecircumstances,tobreakfromthese
socialrealitiesevenasthisdesirerunsupagainstsocialconstraints.Thinkforinstance
of thelinethatmentionstherepossessionof hiscar,anactionthatprevents Melle
Melfromescapingtheseconditions.If aconstraintcandenotealimit,thenthegroup
playswiththenotionof alimitoredge.Thehookforthesongtellsthelistenerthat
theartistsareclosetotheedgeandtryingtomaintaintheirsanity.Heretheedgeor
limitconnotesbeingonthevergeof insanity,collapse,depression,orevendeath.
Insofaraslifeis“likeajunglesometimes,”thegroupsuggeststhattheboundary
protectinghumansfrombeingtreatedlikepreyisoccasionallyobscured.
Nonetheless,perhapsresidingontheedgeorlimitalsoenablesonetoseepossibilities,
todiscovernewwaysof beingintheworldthatliebeyondthatlimit.Perhapsgoing/
fallingunder,“swinginglow,”orencounteringtheundersideof thesocialworldis
necessaryforchangeandtransformation.

Thecontentof thehooksuggeststhatwhateverpreventsthemembersof the

groupfromcompletely going under isanoccasionforaweandwonder.HereIwantto
suggestthatoneof thethingsthatpreventssuchacollapseislaughter,buta
distortedkindof laughter.Interspersedthroughoutthehookisthefamouschant
“Uhhuhhuhhuh,”whichsoundsalmostlikealaughtingedwithironyandsarcasm.6
Thisdistortedlaughterbecomesmorestrikingwhenjuxtaposedwithoneof the
linesthatsuggeststhereisnothingfunnyinaworlddefinedbytheacquisitionof
wealthandcapital.Thetwistedlaughterthereforeregisterstheseriousnessand
gravityof thethemesbeingvoiced.Thereisnothingfunny,forinstance,aboutthe
finalverseinwhichMelleMeltellsthestoryof achildwhogrowsintoalifeof
crimeandeventuallycommitssuicideinprison.Thefinalverseconcludeswithan
imageof abodyswingingbackandforthandadescriptionof eyesthatexpress
melancholyandgrief.7 Evenindeath,theeyesof thesuicidevictimindicatesorrow
andloss.Atthesametime,the“uhhuhhuhhuh”chantremindsusof howimpor-
tantlaughtercanbeforthosewhoregularlyconfrontpain.AsthenarratorinToni
Morrison’snovelJazz pointsout,“[L]aughterisserious.Morecomplicated,more
seriousthantears”(113).Laughter,likeacry,canbearesponsetopainfulincon-
gruitiesandtensionsinone’slife;laughterdoesn’tnecessarilyresolvethesetensions,
butitcanenableustoreimagineourrelationshiptothem,tofacelife’sdiscordant
noteswithvibrancyandhope.WhenrapartistQ-Tipadmitsthathelaughstokeep
fromcryinginresponsetoaworldfilledwithviolence(ATribeCalledQuest,“Steve
Biko”),heseemstobesuggestingthetriumphof laughterovertears.However,
insofaraslaughterisasubstitutefortears,Q-Tipalsoimpliesthepresenceof
ongoingconditionsthattempthimtoweep.Thedistorted,sarcasticlaughterin
“TheMessage,”Iargue,isinflectedwithtracesof sorrow,vestigesof thecry.
MelleMelsuggeststhatthisdynamicbetweenlaughterandtears,hopeand
mourning,reflectsGod’srelationshiptohumanity.Alludingtoanewbornchildwho
hasbeenthrownintoexistence,MelleMelrapsthatGodissmilingandfrowningon
thischild.HerewegetasensethatGodisaffectedormovedbyourstories,decisions,
andactions.AccordingtoMelleMel,Godhasanintimateanduniqueunderstanding
of whatweexperienceandgothrough.Thesimultaneoussmileandfrownsuggest
thatGodidentifieswiththehumantendencytooscillatebetweenfeelingsof pleasure
andpain,joyandsadness,satisfactionandanger.RecallthattheExodusnarrative
waspopularinslavecommunities,inpart,becausethenarrativedepictedaGodwho
identifiedwiththeircondition.Inmanyof thesorrowsongs,thePromisedLandor
Jordanisasymbolof freedomorescapefromslavery.Whetherthenotionof the
PromisedLandreferredtoescapingtotheNorth,beingrepatriatedtoAfrica,or
crossinganearthlyJordantoheaven,thisideacarriedasetof connotationswithin
antebellumblackcommunitiesthatcontrastedtosomeextentwiththePuritan-
inspiredallusionstoAmericaasthenewJerusalem,asalandof abundantopportu-
nityandprosperity.ThisdifferentrelationshiptoAmerica’spromisecanbeheard
inthelineaboutneedingaconinthislandof milkandhoney.Tosurviveinthis
contemporaryPromisedLand,accordingtothegroup,oneoftenhastosubscribe
toformsof deception,chicanery,andtheftbecausethe“abundant”resourcesand
opportunitiesinthiscountryaredistributedunequally,apredicamentthatisrace-
inflected.
If weheardistortedlaughterin“TheMessage,”thenatracklikeGhostface
Killah’s“ThePrayer”confrontsuswithanextendedmoan.Whereasthedistorted
laughandthemoanareresponsestopain,thelatterexpressespaininamore
directandvisceralmanner.On“ThePrayer,”fellowWuTangClanmemberOx
singsamournfulprayeragainstthebackdropof afingersnap.Inadditiontothis
fingersnap,wehearGhostfaceKillahrespondingtoandencouragingOx’sprayer.
AsImaniPerrypointsout,thiscall-and-responsetropehasbeencentraltothe
formationanddevelopmentof blackAmericanculture(33-37).8 Throughoutthe
prayer,thereisanongoingtensionbetweensorrowandhope.Althoughpainand
hardshipmarklife,Oxexpressesasenseof gratitudeforthelifewithwhichhehas
beenbestowed.Atthesametime,herepeatedlyquestionsGodandwondersif God
isrespondingtohismournfulcall.Oxwondersif Godhearsorloveshim.This
concernaboutGod’spotentialabsenceorneglectresonateswith50Cent’sconfes-
sionin“ManyMen.”Although50talkstoGod,thelatterdoesnotseemtorespond.
Althoughheisconfidentthatheisthebeneficiaryof divineprotection,hestillmust
defendhimself (withagun)frompotentialadversaries.Oxand50Centsuggestthat
theyhavetoconfronttheabsenceorhiddennessof Godaspartof theirstruggle,
aspartof theirsorrow-filledpersistencethroughlife.WhenOxmournshisloved
onesandfriendswhoarenolongerhere,afissureinthedivine/humanrelationship,
acertainlackorabyssthatconstantlydisruptsthisrelationship,intensifiestheloss.
Yetheremainsthankful.As50Centsuggests,joyandpainaredialecticallyrelated;
onecannotexperiencejoywithoutenduringitsopposite.
Takingseriouslythetracesof sorrowwithinhiphopenablesustocomplicate
thedominantdiscoursesonhiphopandmasculinity.Ithasbecomequiteprosaic
toaccusehiphop’sblackmalecultureof beingcruel,violent,andhypermasculine.9
However,if hiphophasprovidedaspaceforblackmalestoarticulatefantasiesof
beingomnipotent,thenhiphophasalsoprovidedaspaceforexpressingloss,
remorse,andvulnerability.Thinkforinstanceof JayZ’s“SongCry,”asongwithin
whichJayZattemptstoofferaremorsefulapologytoapreviousgirlfriendhe
mistreated.Althoughshecommittedtohimbeforehisfameandmoney,JayZ
revealsthatafteracquiringsuccessandfemaleattention,hequicklygoesdowna
pathof infidelityanddeception.Hisgirlfriendreturnsthefavorbyfindingherself
a“specialfriend.”Inthehook,JayZtellsusthathissongisasubstituteorstand-in
forhistears.HereJayZprojectshistearsontothesongasawhole,thuspersonifying
thetrackinaway.Atthesametime,awoman’svoice/crycroonsinthebackground
asif sheissupposedtobearthebruntof thepain.Tobesure,JayZ’svoiceisa
vitalpartof thiscryingsong,whichimplicateshimintheexpressionof painand
sorrow.Atthesametime,hemustremindusthathedoesnotshedatear,thatheis
abletodistanceorcushionhisbodyfromthevulnerabilitythataccompanieshuman
attachments.JayZisveryself-reflexiveaboutthispredicament;heacknowledges
thatcertaincodesof masculinitypreventhimfromshowingtears.Headmitsthat
eventhoughhemustactproudandheroic,hisrelationshipwiththeanonymous
womanhasmadehimemotionallysick.EventhoughJayZdistanceshimself from
histears,thissongstillenableshimtoexpressfeelingsandemotionsthatmenare
trainedtoconceal.Theperformanceof sorrowandvulnerabilitypotentiallybreaks
withhabitsandmodesof being—suchasthetendencytodissimulateweaknessand
feignself-assurance,ortheinclinationtowardaccumulatingpowerandcontrol—
thatreinforcetheviolentqualityof oursocialworlds.Thesorrow-songtradition,
whichartistslikeJayZoccasionallydrawfromandparticipatein,inspireshopefor
adifferentkindof world,aworldinwhichourrelationshipswithothersaremarked
byarecognitionof oursharedvulnerabilityandaheightenedsensitivitytothesuf-
feringof others.10
Lamenting the Death of Hip Hop
I n2006,Nasshookupthehip-hopworld(andfrustratedfellowartists)withhis
pronouncementthat“hiphopisdead.”Whethertheyagreeordisagreewiththis
boldclaim,manypeopletakeNastobesayingthathiphophasbecometoomain-
stream,adevelopmentthathasunderminedthequality,value,andvitalityof hip-hop
music.Backintheday,accordingtothisinterpretation,hip-hopartistsweremotivated

bythedesiretocreateandinnovate,todelineatepoliticallyrelevanthardshipsand
difficultiesfacedbyblackpeople,andtodemonstrateskillsinaccordancewiththe
internalgoodsandstandardsof theartform.Nowthattheprofitmotivealmost
entirelyregulatesproductionof hiphop,“real”hiphopisdeadordyingquickly.
SimilartoDuBoisonthesorrowsongs,thosewhoagreewithNasworrythathip
hophasbeentaintedbytheentertainmentindustry,anindustrythatincreasingly
presentsexaggeratedandone-dimensionaldepictionsof urbanlife,blackculture,
andsoforth.(If thisformulationconjuresupthecaricaturesof blacklifeinvolved
inminstrelsy,recallthatSpikeLeemadeconnectionsbetweenthehip-hopindustry
andthetraditionof blackfaceminstrelsyinhis2000filmBamboozled.)Formany
people,Nas’sperformativeutteranceisclear—hiphopisnolongerwhatitonce
was;itlacksthequalityanddepthitoncehad,andthisispartlybecausehiphophas
lostitsrootednessinthelocalcommunitiesandvenuesthatgavebirthtohiphop
(formanycelebrantsof EastCoasthiphop,thissimplymeansNewYorkCityis
nolongertheepicenter).
Thelyricsto“HipHopIsDead”certainlyconveythisnarrativeof decline.Nas
suggeststhatcommercializationhastakensomethingvitaloutof hiphop.Nasnotes
thatthemainstreamingof hiphophasledtomonotonyandrepetition.Hiscritical
stanceresonateswithAdorno’sconcernsaboutthecultureindustryanditstendency
todiminishcreativityandindividuality.Nas,however,doesnotfallintothetrapof
thinkingthathiphopusedtobecompletelyunfetteredbytheforcesof themarket.
Hereminiscesaboutatimewhentheseforceswerenotthecentral factors determin-
ingtheproductionandconsumptionof hip-hopculture.Thiswistful invocationof a
timewhenturntables,BeatStreet,andgoldcablesdefinedhiphopisaresponsetoa
cultureof forgetfulness,acontemporaryculturethathasforgotten hiphop’sorigins.
Atthesametime,Nasdubiouslyassumesthat“whereitallstarted” isaplaceand
timethatismoreauthentic,meaningful,andcreativethanthepresentstate.
Althoughthetitleof thissongindicatesthatthedeathof hiphophasalready
occurred,itisnotalwaysclearthatNasendorsesthisposition.Think,forinstance,
of thehookthatreverberatesthroughoutthetrack.Nasinvokesthefamouschild’s
prayer(usingtheline“if IshoulddiebeforeIwake”)andsuggeststhatif hiphop
dies,hewillretaliatebyinvadingtheradiostationsthatcontributedtothedeathof
hiphop.Althoughwehearavoiceinthebackgroundinformingthelistenerthathip
hopjustrecentlydied,thehooksuggeststhattherearestillsignsof lifeinthiscul-
turallegacy,thatthedeathof hiphophasnotoccurredjustyet.Italsosuggeststhat
Naswillnotallowthedeejaystomurderhiphopwithoutsomekindof retributive
justice.Heseemstobesendingoutawarningtothosedeejaysandartistswhoare
contributingtohiphop’sdemise.ThefactthatNasevenwrotethissongsuggests
thathe,likeotherartists,isfightingtokeepthelegacyof hiphopalive.Wehaveto
remember,however,thathiphopforNasisnotsomeculturalobjectseparatefrom
thepeoplewhoembodyandliveit.Hecontendsthathiphop’sdeathistantamount
tohis/ourdeath.InsofarashiphopshapedandformedNas,hecannotdivorcehis
ownlife/deathfromthatof hiphop.
Thereareatleasttwowaystothinkaboutthebroaderimplicationsof Nas’s
controversialproclamation.Oneway,asintimatedabove,istointerpretNasassaying
thathiphophassimplyfallenfromitsoriginalstate.Theproblemwiththisviewis
thatitoftenpresupposesagoldenerawhenhiphopwaspure.Whenlamentturns
intonostalgia,thepastisromanticizedanddivestedof itscomplexity.Criticsof
contemporaryhip-hopcultureoftenusethegoldeneraasanincontrovertible
standardformeasuringandevaluatingcurrentstyles,performances,andmodesof
beinginthehip-hopworld.Inlightof theindustry’spresentpredicament(markedby
repetition,ennui,violentrepresentationsof women,andatendencytoflattenthe
complexitiesof blacklife),Iamsympathetictothetemptationtolookbackward,
toreminiscewhenthingsweredifferent,evenif thisdifferenceisnotaspronounced
asmanypunditssuggest.Atthesametime,thedichotomybetweenthepurepast
andtheimpurepresentstiflescreativepossibilities;thedichotomyimpliesthatthe
onlyormainalternativetothepresentisthepast,apastthatmustbepurified(or
imaginedaspure)inordertoprovidethatalternative.Wemustrememberthat
emceeshavealwaysimaginedandregulatedaboundarybetweenthepureandthe
impureortheauthenticandtheinauthentic.Thus,theterm“crossover”hasbeen
attributedtogroupsorindividualswhothreatenhiphopbydraggingitacrossthis
boundaryintheattempttocatertothemainstream.Inaddition,beforeNas’s
pronouncement,otherrapartistshavealludedtothe“death”of hiphop,oftenasa
hyperbolicadmonitionandcallforrevival.Common’s“Resurrection”and“IUsed
toLoveHer”reflectthisall-too-familiartendency.Concernsaboutthedeathof hip
hoporthelossof itsauthenticqualityarenotnew.
However,thereisanotherwaytothinkabouttheimplicationsof Nas’sspeech
act.Nashimself hassuggestedthathiscritiqueof thecurrentstateof hiphopis
alsoacritiqueof America.
WhenIsay“hip-hopisdead,”basicallyAmericaisdead....Thereisnopoliticalvoice.
Musicisdead....Ourwayofthinkingisdead.Everythinginthissocietyhasbeendone.
(qtd.inReid)
HereNassuggeststhatthereisapervasivedecadenceinAmericanculture(heeven
claimsthatif wedon’tchange,wewillfalllikeRome).Ourculture,inotherwords,
lackslifeandcreativity.If thisindictmentiscorrect,thenthenostalgiaforagolden
hip-hoppastcontributestoourculture’sinabilitytocreatenewideas,styles,and
practices.If weareconstantlylookingbackward,thenwemisspossibilitiesinthe
hereandnow.Nietzsche’scritiqueof antiquarianhistoryishelpfulhere.According
toNietzsche,theantiquarianstance“belongs...tohimwhopreservesand
reveres—tohimwholooksbacktowhencehehascome,towherehecameinto
being,withloveandloyalty”(Nietzsche72).ForNietzsche,thedesiretopreserve
valuableelementsof thepastforfuturegenerationscanbeahealthydesire.This
desirebecomesunhealthywhenweveneratethepastandneglectpossibilitiesfor
changeandtransformationinthepresent.Theantiquarianattitude“knowsonly
howtopreserve life,nothowtoengenderit”(75;emphasisinoriginal).If Nas
suggeststhatthereisnolifeinhiphopandAmericanculture,thenthepervasive
tendencytolookbackwardandidealizethebeginningsof hiphopreinforcesthis
predicamentbypreventingusfromengenderingnewformsandstylesof hiphopin
thepresent.Therefore,weareinvitedtoreinterpretNas’spronouncement,tothink
beyondthestandardnarrativeof pristinebeginningsandgradualdecline.
Nietzsche’scritiqueof antiquarianhistoryispredicatedontheassumptionthat
thepastshouldbeusedtoenhanceorcreatelifeinthepresent.Whereasnostalgia
forapurepastisoftenintertwinedwithapessimisticattitudetowardthepresent,
Nietzschesuggeststhatthepastshouldbeusedtoinspirehopeforadifferentkind
of presentandfuture.Criticsof contemporaryhiphopareright,inmyview,tobe
criticalof themonotonywithinrapmusic,thepaucityof criticalvoices,theglorifi-
cationof violenceandmisogyny,andsoforth.Theyarealsorighttoremindpeople
of arichlegacyof emcees,deejays,producers,andartiststhattendstobeforgotten
orneglected.However,althoughcriticsoftenbecomecaptivatedbyanidealized
past,Iamsuggestingthatwemightuseandreinterpretthecomplexlegacyof hip
hoptoimaginenewpossibilitiesandtrajectories.AsWalterBenjaminclaims,images
fromthepastcandisruptthemonotonyof thepresentanddestabilizethecurrent
stateof things(Walter Benjamin 389-400).Animage,idea,orsoundfromthepast
canformwhatBenjamincallsa“constellation”withthepresent,potentiallyopening
upnewwaysof seeing,hearing,andbeingattunedtoourcontemporarysocial
worlds.Thesepossibilitiesarenotopenedupbyidealizingthepast,butbytaking
neglected/forgottendimensionsof therecentpastandcreatingadissonant

relationshipwiththepresent,withthehopethatarupturefromthemonotony
of thepresentmightensue.(Thepracticeof retrievingfragmentsof thepastto
createsomethingnewhasalwaysbeenapartof hiphop,exemplifiedintheartof
sampling.)Therefore,asonglikeNas’s“WhereAreTheyNow,”atributetohip-hop
artistswhohavebeenforgotten,shouldnotonlybeinterpretedasaremindertothe
youngergenerationof theirhip-hopancestors.Thesongshouldalsobereadasa
wayof usingtheremainsof acomplicatedhip-hoppasttointerruptthepresent
courseandcreatespaceforalternativeandnovelpossibilities.Manyof thesepossi-
bilitiesalreadyoperatebelowtheradar,especiallyinspacesoutsideAmerica.
Conclusion
A ccordingtoDuBois,thesorrowsongsenabledadisempoweredpeople
toexpresslossanddisappointmentaswellashopeforabetterworld.
Thisdynamicbetweenmourningandhope,Ihaveargued,canbeheardinhiphop,
invitingustopaymoreattentiontothemessuchasvulnerability,loss,andsuffering
withinthisgenre.If lamentcanbedirectedtowardbodiesthathavebeenexcluded,
alienated,andpersecutedbyrace-inflectedhierarchiesandpatternsof power,then
lamentcanalsobedirectedtowardAfricanAmericanculturalresourcesthathave
beenintegratedintothestatusquo.(Of course,theseblackbodiesandcultural
resourcesareco-constitutive.)Insofarasculturalresourceslikeblackmusichave
occasionallyfunctionedtocontestandresistsocialinjustice,Iamsympatheticto
theconcernsvoicedbyauthorslikeDuBoisandNas.Astheseresourcesbecome
partof theentertainmentindustryandareincreasinglydeterminedbythelogicof
capital,thedissonantqualityof theseresourcestendstowane.Thedissonantquali-
tiesof blackmusicincludethosevoices,tones,sounds,andthemesthatunsettleus,
thatexpresspain,suffering,andhopeforadifferentkindof world.Whenthese
aspectsof blackmusicaremitigatedbytheentertainmentindustry,thenourability
totrack,trace,andexpressthemoreuncomfortabledimensionsof theracialorder
diminishes.Nostalgiaforatimewhenblackculturalexpressionwasmoreauthentic
is,whileunderstandable,aninadequatereactiontothecommodificationof black
culture.Insteadof idealizingandveneratingapreviousepoch,atendencythatkeeps
usenthralledtothepast,Isuggestweusefragmentsof thepasttochallengeand
disruptthepresentorderof things,aprocessthatshouldaimforcreatingnewideas,
practices,andmodesof being.Thiswillenableustotransforminactivenostalgia
intocreativemourning,toturnthedeathof hiphopintothebirthof something
wemaynothaveseenorheardbefore.
1. Here I am thinking of Adolph Reed’s concern that contemporary black intellectuals have taken Notes
Du Bois’s concept of double consciousness out of its historical context and inflated its importance. See Reed,
W. E. B. Du Bois and the American Political Thought: Fabianism and the Color Line (New York: Oxford UP,
1997), 93-125. For Reed, the increasing interest in this concept of two-ness within African American studies
and the decreasing interest in his political disagreements with Booker T. Washington betray the conserva-
tive bent of contemporary black intellectuals. Although I take Reed’s critique seriously, I think he too easily
separates Du Bois’s notion of two-ness from the latter’s political commitments.
2. For a definitive account of the influence of Exodus on antebellum black America, see Eddie S.
Glaude, Jr., Exodus!: Religion, Race, and Nation in Early Nineteenth-Century Black America (Chicago: U of
Chicago P, 2000).
3. See Sigmund Freud, “Mourning and Melancholia” (1917), in The Freud Reader, Peter Gay, ed.
(New York: Norton, 1989), 584-88.
4. This idea is implicit throughout Adorno’s corpus. But it might be most powerfully and famously
articulated in Minima Moralia (1951), E. F. N. Jephcott, trans. (New York: Verso, 1978). To mention Adorno
within the context of black music is complicated, considering his infamous and widely misunderstood
critique of jazz. For Adorno, jazz mirrors the repetitive, monotonous qualities of the culture industry. He
dismisses the conventional idea that jazz is a liberative aesthetic form because it provides space for individ-
uality and spontaneity. For Adorno, movement and change in jazz music are blocked by its rigid underlying
structure. To be fair, Adorno admitted later in his life that his dismissal of jazz was uninformed and hasty.
5. Here I am not endorsing Jones’s categories or the rigid distinction he makes between Negro music
and American music. I am simply offering an example of someone who laments the loss of authentic
black musical expression. For a critique of Jones’s rigid distinctions, see Ellison, Shadow and Act (1964;
New York: Quality Paperback Book Club, 1994), 247-58.
6. I am thankful for my discussions with Tehama Lopez on this point.
7. In this verse, there is a reference to prison taking away one’s manhood. Melle Mel recites: “Got sent
up for an eight-year bid, Now your manhood is took and you’re a Maytag, Spend the next two years as a
undercover fag.” A Maytag is slang for a man in prison who becomes the sexual slave of another man.
The term refers to the reality of rape and sexual violence in prison. Being that the brand Maytag was asso-
ciated with dependable appliances, the term also suggests the sexual availability of “passive” male bodies
in prison. At the same time, these lines also express anxieties about performing manhood properly and
“authentically,” anxieties that are pervasive in hip-hop culture.
8. When Perry uses the term “call and response,” she doesn’t just have in mind the back-and-forth
communication between, for instance, the preacher and the congregation, the members of a musical group,
or the performer and the crowd. She has a broader understanding of the call-and-response trope as a
dialogical ethos that helps explain the importance of sampling and honoring old-school emcees within
hip hop. She likens this to the practice of honoring ancestors, thus creating an ongoing dialogue between
the past and the present.
9. For a very insightful reading of the complexity of black male identity (as expressed through hip hop),
see Perry, 117-54.
10. Here I am indebted to Judith Butler’s understanding of mourning as a potentially transformative
practice. See Butler, Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence (London: Verso, 2004).
Works Adorno, Theodor W. Aesthetic Theory. 1970. Trans. Robert Hullot-Kentor. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P,
Cited 1997.
Benjamin, Walter. The Origin of German Tragic Drama. 1928. Trans. John Osbourne. New York: Verso,
1985.
—-. Walter Benjamin: Selected Writings, 1938-1940. Eds. Howard Eiland and Michael Jennings. Vol. 4.
Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2003.
Cruz, Jon. Culture on the Margins: The Black Spiritual and the Rise of American Cultural Interpretation.
Princeton: Princeton UP, 1999.
Du Bois, W. E. B. The Souls of Black Folk. 1903. New York: Bantam, 1989.
Jones, LeRoi. Blues People: Negro Music in White America. New York: Morrow Quill, 1963.
Lott, Eric. Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Class. New York: Oxford UP, 1993.
Morrison, Toni. Jazz. New York: Plume Books, 1992.
Nietzsche, Friedrich. Untimely Meditations. 1876. Ed. Daniel Breazeale. Trans. R. J. Hollingdale.
Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1997.
Perry, Imani. Prophets of the Hood: Politics and Poetics in Hip Hop. Durham: Duke UP, 2004.
Pinn, Anthony B. “Introduction: Making a World with a Beat: Musical Expression’s Relationship to
Religious Identity and Experience.” Noise and Spirit: The Religious and Spiritual Sensibilities of Rap Music.
Ed. Anthony B. Pinn. New York: New York UP, 2003. 1-26.
Reid, Shaheem. “Nas Previews Hip Hop Is Dead.” MTV News. 10 Oct. 2006. Web. 30 July 2012.
Rose, Tricia. Black Noise: Rap Music and Black Culture in Contemporary America. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan
UP, 1994.
Discography 50 Cent. “Many Men.” Get Rich or Die Tryin’. Interscope, 2003.
A Tribe Called Quest. “Steve Biko.” Midnight Marauders. Jive, 1993.
Ghostface Killah. “The Prayer.” Big Doe Rehab. Def Jam, 2007.
Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five. “The Message.” The Message. Sugar Hill, 1982.
Jay Z. “Song Cry.” The Blueprint. Def Jam, 2001.
Nas. “Hip Hop Is Dead.” Hip Hop Is Dead. Def Jam, 2006.
Pharoahe Monch. “The Truth.” Internal Affairs. Priority, 1999.

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Contemporary Sorrow Songs: Traces of Mourning, Lament, and Vulnerability

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