Masonry Design Manual 4th Ed - Sec

MASONRY
DESIGN
MANUAL
FOURTH EDITION
MASONRY INSTITUTE OF AMERICA

www.masonryinstitute.org www.iccsafe.org
(800) 221-4000 (888) 422-7233
MASONRY
DESIGN
MANUAL
FOURTH EDITION
Contributors:
John Chrysler, P.E. Craig V. Baltimore, S.E., Ph.D. Thomas Escobar

Executive Director Cal Poly State University Design Director
Masonry Institute of America San Luis Obispo, California Masonry Institute of America
Published by

(800) 221-4000
www.masonryinstitute.org
INTERNATIONAL CODE COUNCIL

5203 Leesburg Pike, Suite 600
Falls Church, Virgnia 22041-3401
www.iccsafe.org
4th Edition
First Printing, January, 2007
Copyright © 1969, 1972, 1979, 2007
by
Masonry Institute of America
and
International Code Council
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a computer or retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy, fax, recording or otherwise, without
the prior written consent of the Masonry Institute of America or the International Code Council.
ISBN-10: 0-940116-44-8
ISBN-13: 978-0-940116-44-3
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Printed in the United States of America
Portions of this publication are reproduced, with permission, from the 2006 International Building Code, 2006
edition copyright © International Code Council.
In this publication the Masonry Standards Joint Committee’

s (MSJC) Building Code Requirements for Masonry
Structures (ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402) is hereafter referred to as the MSJC Code, and the MSJC’s Specification
for Masonry Structures (ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602) is hereafter referred to as the MSJC Specification.
This book was prepared in keeping with current information and practice for the present state of the art of
masonry design and construction.
The authors, publisher and all organizations and individuals who have contributed to this book cannot assume or
accept any responsibility or liability, including liability for negligence, for errors or oversights in this data and
information and in the use of such information.
MIA 601-07 01-07 2M

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------xix
SECTION 1 MATERIALS
CHAPTER 1 CLAY BRICK UNITS--------------------------------------------------------------------1
1.1 General ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
1.1.1 Reinforced Brick - an Overview------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
1.1.2 Shapes of Brick----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2
1.1.3 Orientation of Brick-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3
1.1.4 Patterns of Brick---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
1.1.5 Mortar and Grout--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5
1.2 Building Brick or Common Brick-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5
1.2.1 Grade of Brick-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5
1.2.2 Appearance---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
1.2.3 Durability------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
1.2.4 Freezing and Thawing-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
1.2.5 Absorption and Saturation--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
1.2.6 Compressive Strength--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
1.2.7 Colors and Texture------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
1.2.8 Size--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7
1.2.9 Coring-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8
1.2.10 Frogging--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8
1.2.11 Tolerances-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8
1.2.12 Initial Rate of Absorption (I.R.A.)------------------------------------------------------------------------------8
1.2.13 Visual Inspection--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9
1.2.14 Efflorescence-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9
1.3 Face (or Facing) Brick-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
1.3.1 Grade-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
1.3.2 Types-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
1.3.3 Durability-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
1.3.4 Freezing and Thawing-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
1.3.5 Absorption and Saturation--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
1.3.6 Compression Strength--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11
1.3.7 Color and Texture-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11
1.3.8 Size-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11
1.3.9 Coring-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11
1.3.10 Frogging--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11
1.3.11 Tolerances-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11
1.3.12 Initial Rate of Absorption (I.R.A.)-----------------------------------------------------------------------------13
1.3.13 Visual Inspection---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13
1.3.14 Efflorescence-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------14
1.4 Hollow Brick-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------14
1.4.1 Hollow Spaces------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15
1.4.2 Types-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16
1.4.3 Tolerances------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16
1.4.4 Color and Texture-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16
vi MASONRY DESIGN MANUAL
CHAPTER 2 CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS---------------------------------------------------17

2.1 General ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------17
2.2 Properties----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------18
2.2.1 Dimensions and Modular Sizes-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19
2.2.2 Metric-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19
2.2.3 Compression Strength--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------20
2.3 Architectural Units------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21
2.3.1 Slumped Units------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21
2.3.2 Split Faced Units--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21
2.3.3 Veneer Units--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21
2.3.4 Screen Block-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------22
2.3.5 Cap Units------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------22
2.4 Concrete Brick----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------22
2.5 Paving Units-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------22
2.6 Concrete Masonry Units (CMU) - Illustrated---------------------------------------------------------------22
2.7 Component Units and Sections--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------31
2.8 Concrete Paving Pattern Units--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------32
2.9 Resin (Glazed) Coatings---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------33
2.9.1 Specifications------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------33
2.9.2 Manufacturer’ s Standards---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------34
2.9.3 Shapes and Sizes of Glazed CMU--------------------------------------------------------------------------34
2.10 Segmental Retaining Wall Units-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------36
CHAPTER 3 NATURAL STONE-----------------------------------------------------------------------37

3.1 General-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
3.2 ASTM Stone Standards----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------38
3.3 Classification of Stone------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------38
3.3.1 Geological Classification-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------38
3.4 Texture of Quarried Stone-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------39
3.5 Physical Characteristics----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------40
3.6 Physical Nature---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------41
3.7 Evaluating Stone-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------41
3.8 Properties----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------42
3.9 Variations-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------42
3.9.1 Granite----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------42
3.9.2 Marble----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------42
3.9.3 Limestone------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------42
3.9.4 Travertine------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------43
3.9.5 Sandstone-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------43
3.10 Quarrying and Milling-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------43
CHAPTER 4 TERRA COTTA-----------------------------------------------------------------------------47

4.1 General-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------47
4.1.1 Characteristics------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------49
CHAPTER 5 GLASS BLOCK----------------------------------------------------------------------------51

5.1 General-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------51
5.2 Special Shapes---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------51
5.3 Glass Block Properties-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------52
5.4 Glass Block Applications---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------53
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
CHAPTER 6 REINFORCING STEEL-----------------------------------------------------------------55
6.1 General-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------55
6.2 Types of Reinforcement----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------56
6.2.1 Reinforcing Bars---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------56
6.2.2 Joint Reinforcement-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------58
CHAPTER 7 VENEER--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------61
7.1 General-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------61
7.2 Shelf Angles-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------62
7.3 Flashing-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------62
7.4 Weep Holes-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------63
7.5 Connectors---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------64
7.5.1 Wall Ties-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------64
7.5.2 Anchors--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------65
CHAPTER 8 MORTAR AND GROUT---------------------------------------------------------------67

8.1 Mortar---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------67
8.1.1 Types of Mortar----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------67
8.1.1.1 Selection of Mortar Types---------------------------------------------------------------------------------67
8.1.1.2 Specifying Mortar---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------68
8.1.2 Mortar Materials----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------70
8.1.2.1 Cements--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------70
8.1.2.2 Hydrated Lime------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------71
8.1.2.3 Mortar Sand---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------71
8.1.2.4 Water------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------72
8.1.2.5 Admixtures-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------72
8.1.2.6 Color-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------72
8.1.3 Mixing-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------72
8.1.3.1 Measurement of Mortar Materials-----------------------------------------------------------------------72
8.1.3.2 Job Site Mortar Mix-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------72
8.1.3.3 Extended Life Mortar----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------73
8.1.3.4 Pre-Blended Mortar------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------73
8.1.3.5 Retempering---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------74
8.1.4 Types of Mortar Joints-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------74
8.2 Grout----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------75
8.2.1 Types of Grout-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------75
8.2.1.1 Fine Grout------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------76
8.2.1.2 Coarse Grout--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------76
8.2.1.3 Slump------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------76
8.2.1.4 Self-Consolidating Grout-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------76
8.2.2 Proportions----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------77
8.2.2.1 Aggregates-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------77
8.2.2.2 Mixing Grout---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------77
8.2.2.3 Grout Admixtures---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------77
8.2.2.4 Grout Strength Requirements-----------------------------------------------------------------------------78
8.2.2.5 Testing Grout Strength--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------78
8.2.2.6 Methods of Grouting Walls--------------------------------------------------------------------------------79
8.2.2.7 Consolidation--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------82
8.2.3 12 Foot Grout Lifts------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------82
viii MASONRY DESIGN MANUAL
SECTION 2 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

CHAPTER 9 BRICK MASONRY CONSTRUCTION-------------------------------------------83
9.1 Aesthetic Design-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------83
9.1.1 Brick Masonry Bond Patterns----------------------------------------------------------------------------------83
9.1.2 Modular Brick Masonry-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------85
9.1.2.1 Dimensions of Modular Units-----------------------------------------------------------------------------86
9.1.2.2 Coordination of Masonry Units---------------------------------------------------------------------------86
9.1.2.3 Initial Design Considerations------------------------------------------------------------------------------86
9.1.2.4 Grid Locations of Masonry Walls------------------------------------------------------------------------86
9.1.3 Brick Masonry Dimensioning-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------87
9.1.4 Color------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------88
9.1.5 Texture----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------88
9.1.6 Scale------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------89
9.2 Design Loads-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------89
9.2.1 Loads-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------89
9.2.1.1 Dead Loads----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------89
9.2.1.2 Live Loads-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------90
9.2.1.3 Wind Loads----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------90
9.2.1.4 Seismic (Earthquake) Loads----------------------------------------------------------------------------90
9.2.1.5 Hydrostatic Loads--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------90
9.2.1.6 Material Property Loads------------------------------------------------------------------------------------90
9.3 Load Distribution-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------90
9.4 Masonry Stresses------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------91
9.4.1 Compressive Stress----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------91
9.4.2 Flexural Tension Stresses---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------91
9.4.3 Shear Stresses-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------91
9.5 Empirical Design-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------92
9.5.1 Allowable Stresses------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------92
9.5.2 Minimum Thickness-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------92
9.5.3 Lateral Support-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------92
9.5.4 Lateral Stability-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------93
9.5.5 Bond and Anchorage---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------93
9.6 Clay Brick Design for Moisture and Movement--------------------------------------------------------------------------------93
9.6.1 Moisture Resistance----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------93
9.6.2 Sources of Moisture----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------93
9.6.3 Selection of Wall Type------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------93
9.6.4 Water Penetration Resistance-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------94
9.6.5 Flashing--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------94
9.6.6 Weep Holes---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------98
9.6.7 Vents------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------98
9.6.8 Coatings--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------98
9.6.9 Efflorescence-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------98
9.6.10 Movement-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------100
9.6.10.1 Thermal Movement-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------100
9.6.10.2 Moisture Movement------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------100
9.6.10.3 Creep------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------100
9.6.10.4 Deflection-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------100
9.6.10.5 Differential Movement---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------100
9.6.10.6 Expansion Joints---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------101
9.6.10.7 Expansion Joint Placement--------------------------------------------------------------------------------101
9.6.10.8 Location of Expansion Joints--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------101
9.6.10.9 Control Joints----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------102
TABLE OF CONTENTS ix
9.7 Heat Transfer-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------102
9.7.1 R-Value---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------103
9.7.2 U-Value---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------103
9.7.3 Thermal Mass------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------104
9.8 Acoustics----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------104
9.8.1 Decibels--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------104
9.8.2 Transmission Loss------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------104
9.8.3 Sound Transmission Class-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------104
9.9 Brick Applications------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------105
9.9.1 Structural Brickwork - Wall Types----------------------------------------------------------------------------105
9.9.1.1 Composite/Non-Composite Wall------------------------------------------------------------------------105
9.9.1.2 Attachment of Components-------------------------------------------------------------------------------105
9.9.1.3 Barrier and Drainage Walls---------------------------------------------------------------------------------106
9.9.1.4 Solid Masonry Walls----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------107
9.9.1.5 Single-Wythe Bearing Walls-------------------------------------------------------------------------------107
9.9.1.6 Double-Wythe Grouted Walls-----------------------------------------------------------------------------116
9.9.1.7 Bearing Wall Types------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------116
9.9.1.8 Reinforced Hollow Masonry Walls-----------------------------------------------------------------------118
9.9.1.9 Cavity Walls---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------118
9.9.1.10 Masonry Cavity Bearing Walls-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------121
9.9.1.11 Masonry Cavity Walls with Concrete Frame-----------------------------------------------------------------123
9.9.1.12 Cavity Wall Connections--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------125
9.9.1.13 Brick Masonry Rain Screen Walls--------------------------------------------------------------------------129
9.9.1.14 Vapor and Air Barriers------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------134
9.9.1.15 Thermal Insulation---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------134
9.9.2 Brick Masonry Arches--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------135
9.9.2.1 Terminology---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------135
9.9.2.2 Structural Function-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------138
9.9.2.3 Weather Resistance-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------138
9.9.2.4 Detailing Considerations------------------------------------------------------------------------------------140
9.9.2.5 Material Selection--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------144
9.9.2.6 Construction and Workmanship--------------------------------------------------------------------------144
9.9.3 Brick Paving Design--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------145
9.9.3.1 Traffic------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------146
9.9.3.2 Site--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------146
9.9.3.3 Drainage--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------146
9.9.3.4 Edging-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------147
9.9.3.5 Installation------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------147
9.9.3.6 Structural Brick Floors-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------148
9.9.4 Landscaping---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------152
9.9.4.1 Steps-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------153
9.9.4.2 Planter Boxes-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------153
9.9.4.3 Screen Walls--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------153
9.9.4.4 Garden Walls--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------153
9.9.4.5 Fountains-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------153
9.9.5 Fireplaces and Chimneys---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------154
9.9.6 Masonry Heaters--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------156
9.9.7 Parapets-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------156
9.9.8 Corbels and Racks-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------156
9.9.9 Thin Brick Veneer-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------157
9.9.10 Brick Sculpture-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------157
9.9.11 Sound Barrier Walls---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------158
9.10 Cleaning------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------158
9.11 Reinforced Grouted Brick Masonry-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------160
x MASONRY DESIGN MANUAL
CHAPTER 10 CONCRETE BLOCK--------------------------------------------------------------171

10.1 General--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------171
10.2 Layout and Assembly--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------172
10.2.1 Modular Considerations------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------172
10.2.2 Modular Dimensions----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------172
10.3 Wall and Opening Dimensions-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------174
10.4 Foundation Details-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------175
10.5 Concrete Masonry Wall Assembly Detail----------------------------------------------------------------------------------177
10.6 Floor and Roof Connections Details------------------------------------------------------------------------------------179
10.6.1 Timber Connections----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------179
10.6.2 Steel Connections-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------181
10.7 Corner Patterns--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------183
10.8 Vertical Steel Placement---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------186
10.9 Pilaster Details--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------186
10.10 Wall to Wall Connections--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------188
10.11 Lintel and Bond Beam Connection------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------189
10.12 Control Joints-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------189
10.13 Door Jamb Details----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------192
10.14 Window Details---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------194
10.15 Residential Design-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------195
10.15.1 Residential Construction Isometric with Roof Diaphragm----------------------------------------------195
10.15.2 Residential Construction Isometric without Roof Diaphragm------------------------------------------197
10.15.3 Resdiential Wall Section-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------198
10.15.4 Raised Wood Floor Connection for Residential Construction-----------------------------------------199
10.15.5 Foundation Details for Residential Construction------------------------------------------------------------200
10.15.6 Roof Connection Details for Residential Construction--------------------------------------------------201
10.16 Garden Fences---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------202
10.16.1 General---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------202
10.16.2 General Notes------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------202
10.16.3 Continuous Footing Walls---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------203
10.17 Retaining Walls---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------203
10.17.1 Gravity Walls-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------204
10.17.2 Counterfort or Buttressed Walls-------------------------------------------------------------------------------205
10.17.3 Cantilever Retaining Walls--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------206
10.17.4 Supported Walls---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------209
10.17.5 Segmental Walls---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------209
10.17.5.1 Conventional or Gravity----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------210
10.17.5.2 Soil-Reinforced or Geosynthetic---------------------------------------------------------------------------------210
10.18 Concrete Masonry Basements-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------211
10.18.1 Maintenance and Low Cost------------------------------------------------------------------------------------211
10.18.2 Strength and Durability-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------211
10.18.3 Textures and Interior Finishes---------------------------------------------------------------------------------211
10.18.4 Natural Lighting---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------211
10.18.5 Energy Efficiency------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------211
10.18.6 Fire Resistance----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------211
10.18.7 Areas of Refuge---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------212
10.18.8 Noise Control-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------212
10.18.9 Basement Design-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------212
10.18.10 Water Penetration Resistance---------------------------------------------------------------------------------213
10.18.11 Construction--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------214
TABLE OF CONTENTS xi
CHAPTER 11 REINFORCING STEEL----------------------------------------------------------------215
11.1 General-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------215
11.2 Tension Stresses-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------216
11.2.1 Beam with Vertical Load----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------216
11.2.2 Wall with Lateral Load-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------216
11.3 Compression Stresses------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------217
11.4 Shear Stresses---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------218
11.5 Shrinkage and Temperature Stresses----------------------------------------------------------------------------------219
11.6 Seismic Forces---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------219
11.7 Minimum Reinforcement Requirements--------------------------------------------------------------------------------221
11.7.1 Minimum Area of Steel------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------221
11.7.1.1 Minimum Steel Requirements for Low Seismic Exposure----------------------------------------221
11.7.1.2 Minimum Steel Reinforcement for High Seismic Exposure-------------------------------------------222
11.8 Reinforcement Spacing-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------223
11.8.1 Location of Reinforcement “ d”Distance--------------------------------------------------------------------223
11.8.2 Tolerances for Placement of Reinforcement---------------------------------------------------------------224
11.8.3 Placement of Steel------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------224
11.8.4 Reinforcing Bar Positioners-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------225
11.8.5 Clearances----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------225
11.8.5.1 Clearance Between Reinforcement and Masonry Units-------------------------------------------225
11.8.5.2 Clear Spacing Between Reinforcing Bars-------------------------------------------------------------226
11.8.6 Reinforcement Cover---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------227
11.8.6.1 Deformed Reinforcement----------------------------------------------------------------------------------227
11.8.6.2 Joint Reinforcement and Ties----------------------------------------------------------------------------227
11.9 Anchorage of Reinforcing Steel in Masonry--------------------------------------------------------------------------227
11.9.1 Development Length---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------227
11.9.1.1 Development Length of Straight Reinforcement-----------------------------------------------------227
11.9.1.2 Hooks------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------228
11.9.2 Special Provisions for Higher Seismic Risk----------------------------------------------------------------229
11.9.3 Lap Splices for Reinforcing Steel-----------------------------------------------------------------------------229
11.10 Anchor Bolts-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------229
11.10.1 General---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------229
11.10.2 Ties at Anchor Bolts in Columns-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------230
11.11 Columns------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------230
11.11.1 General---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------230
11.11.2 Column Ties--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------231
11.11.2.1 Column Tie Requirements---------------------------------------------------------------------------------231
11.11.2.2 Typical Layout of Ties and Masonry Units for Columns--------------------------------------------232
11.11.3 Tie Spacing for Elements that are Part of the Lateral System------------------------------------------232
11.11.3.1 Tie Spacing for Lower Sesimic Risk--------------------------------------------------------------------232
11.11.3.2 Tie Spacing for Higher Seismic Risk-------------------------------------------------------------------233
11.11.4 Non-Projecting Wall Columns------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------233
11.11.5 Projecting Wall Columns or Pilasters------------------------------------------------------------------------234
CHAPTER 12 NATURAL STONE-----------------------------------------------------------------------235

12.1 General-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------235
12.2 Types of Stone----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------235
12.2.1 Rubble and Ashlar Stone----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------235
12.2.2 Stone Coursing-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------236
12.2.2.1 Rubble Stone Masonry Patterns-------------------------------------------------------------------------237
12.2.2.2 Split Stone Masonry Patterns-----------------------------------------------------------------------------237
12.2.2.3 Split Stone Masonry Height Pattern---------------------------------------------------------------------237
12.2.3 Stone Finishes------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------237
12.2.4 Stone Construction------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------239
xii MASONRY DESIGN MANUAL
12.3 Differences in Stone---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------240

12.3.1 Granite----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------240
12.3.1.1 Characteristics----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------240
12.3.1.2 Building Applications-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------240
12.3.1.3 Maintenance----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------241
12.3.1.4 Details-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------242
12.3.2 Marble----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------245
12.3.2.1 Application-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------245
12.3.2.2 Characteristics---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------246
12.3.2.3 Interior Veneer------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------247
12.3.2.4 Installation------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------247
12.3.2.5 Maintenance---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------259
12.3.2.6 Details----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------260
12.3.3 Limestone------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------271
12.3.3.1 Classifications-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------271
12.3.3.2 Discoloration--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------271
12.3.3.3 Anchors-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------272
12.3.3.4 Mortar and Pointing----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------272
12.3.3.5 Cold Weather Protection-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------272
12.3.3.6 Sealant Systems---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------272
12.3.3.7 Expansion Joints---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------272
12.3.3.8 Cleaning-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------273
12.3.3.9 Details------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------274
12.3.4 Travertine------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------278
12.3.5 Sandstone-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------279
12.4 Summary-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------279
12.4.1 Stone Anchorage--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------279
12.4.2 Sealing----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------280
12.4.3 Maintenance-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------280
CHAPTER 13 GLASS BLOCK-------------------------------------------------------------------------283

13.1 General-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------283
13.1.1 Design----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------283
13.1.2 Energy Conservation---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------283
13.1.3 Environmental------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------283
13.1.4 Security---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------283
13.1.5 Maintenance--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------283
13.1.6 Code Requirements-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------283
13.1.7 Installation--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------284
13.2 Typical Glass Block Details-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------285
13.2.1 Head Details--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------285
13.2.2 Typical Jamb Details---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------286
13.2.3 Typical Sill Details-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------286
13.2.4 Connection Detail-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------286
13.2.5 Miscellaneous Interior Details----------------------------------------------------------------------------------286
13.2.6 Panel Anchor Details---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------287
CHAPTER 14 VENEER--------------------------------------------------------------------------------289
14.1 General-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------289
14.2 Structural Support Backup Materials-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------290
14.2.1 Structural Masonry Backup-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------290
14.2.2 Structural Concrete Backup------------------------------------------------------------------------------------291
14.2.3 Wood Stud Backup-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------291
14.2.4 Steel Stud Backup------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------292
TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii
14.3 Shelf Angles-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------293
14.4 Flashing-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------294
14.5 Weep Holes--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------294
14.6 Expansion Joints-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------295
14.7 System Detail Requirements----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------295
14.7.1 General Requirements-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------296
14.7.1.1 Definitions------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------296
14.7.1.2 Installation------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------297
14.7.2 Adhered Veneer----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------298
14.7.2.1 Thin Brick------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------298
14.7.2.2 Honeycomb Stone--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------299
14.7.2.3 Terra Cotta-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------299
14.7.2.4 Adhered Veneer Installation-------------------------------------------------------------------------------299
14.7.3 Anchored Veneer--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------301
14.7.3.1 Stone Veneer--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------304
14.7.3.2 Block Veneer, Concrete Units----------------------------------------------------------------------------307
14.8 Typical Details-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------308
14.8.1 Roof/Parapet Details----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------308
14.8.2 Shelf Angle/Flashing Details------------------------------------------------------------------------------------310
14.8.3 Sill and Jamb Details---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------313
14.8.4 Floor Connection Details----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------316
14.8.5 Wall Base Details-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------317
14.8.6 Expansion Joint Details------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------321
14.8.7 System Configuration---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------323
CHAPTER 15 SPECIAL TOPICS----------------------------------------------------------------------325

15.1 General----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------325
15.2 Moisture Resistance------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------325
15.2.1 What is Waterproof-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------326
15.2.2 Moisture Migration Control-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------326
15.2.3 Moisture Intrusion------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------327
15.2.3.1 Openings-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------329
15.2.4 Water Repellent Types-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------329
15.2.5 Surface Treatments-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------330
15.2.6 Integral Water Repellents-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------331
15.2.7 Consideration in Selection--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------331
15.2.8 Interior Moisture Control-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------332
15.2.9 Other Critical Elements----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------332
15.2.9.1 Wall Caps-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------333
15.2.9.2 Movement Joints------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------333
15.2.9.3 Horizontal Surfaces---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------334
15.2.9.4 Windows and Doors----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------334
15.2.9.5 Wall Penetrations---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------335
15.2.10 Inspections-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------335
15.2.11 Testing---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------335
15.3 Fire Resistance--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------336
15.3.1 Fire Ratings-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------337
15.3.2 Fire Ratings of Brick Veneer Walls----------------------------------------------------------------------------338
15.3.3 Fire Safety Environments---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------338
15.3.4 Fire Safety Facts--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------338
15.3.5 Fire Resistance Ratings----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------340
15.4 Noise Control---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------340
15.4.1 Masonry Sound Transmission Class (STC)-------------------------------------------------------------341
15.4.2 Isolation vs. Insulation-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------342
15.4.3 Insulation by STC-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------342
xiv MASONRY DESIGN MANUAL
15.4.4 STC Values of Masonry Walls------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------342

15.4.5 Sound Absorption and Noise Reduction-----------------------------------------------------------------------------344
15.4.6 Flanking Path Control-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------344
15.4.7 Impact Noise Control--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------345
15.4.8 Traffic Noise--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------345
15.4.8.1 Design Considerations------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------346
15.4.8.2 Visual Considerations-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------348
15.5 Solar Energy-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------348
15.5.1 Introduction---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------348
15.5.2 Principles------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------349
15.5.3 Design---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------349
15.5.4 Energy Systems-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------349
15.5.5 Building Codes---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------349
15.5.6 Roof Overhang-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------350
15.5.7 Passive Solar Energy-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------351
15.5.7.1 Principles------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------351
15.5.7.2 Active Solar Heating-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------351
15.5.7.3 Passive Solar Heating------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------351
15.5.7.4 Hybrid Solar Heating--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------352
15.5.8 Passive Solar Basics------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------352
15.5.8.1 Shape and Orientation-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------352
15.5.8.2 Thermal Storage/Retrieval-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------352
15.5.9 Passive Solar Systems----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------352
15.5.9.1 Direct Gain---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------352
15.5.9.2 Thermal Storage Wall------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------353
15.5.9.3 Attached Sunspace---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------353
15.5.9.4 Convective Loop--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------353
15.5.9.5 Thermal Storage Roof------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------354
15.5.10 Masonry and the Sun------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------354
CHAPTER 16 UNIT CONVERSIONS------------------------------------------------------------------355
CHAPTER 17 GLOSSARY---------------------------------------------------------------------------------359
CHAPTER 18 REFERENCES----------------------------------------------------------------------------373
CHAPTER 19 INDEX-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------377
xv
PREFACE
Masonry is perhaps the oldest building material, yet it is the least understood. This book is intended to
assist the designer in understanding the materials and the construction process. It is our desire to fulfill a need
of the designer, that is, to understand masonry materials in simple terms.
This book incorporates the latest information available and is consistent with the design provisions of the
2006 International Building Code, the 2005 Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ACI 530/
ASCE 5/TMS 402) and the 2005 Specification for Masonry Structures (ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602). The
authors are presenting the material intended for the benefit of non-engineering disciplines, such as architects
and contractors. There are a number of engineering concepts contained in the publication, but they are important
to understanding the value of the basic concepts of masonry.
There are several sources that this publication incorporates, including the previous editions of the Masonry
Design Manual, Technical Notes from the Brick Industry Association and National Concrete Masonry Association
and a number of other technical publications developed by the Masonry Institute of America and other sources
were used in the develpment of this publication. The compilation of this information is focused to the benefit of the
designer and should be a valuable tool in improving the masonry industry.
This publication is not intended to replace the designer and anyone developing a masonry project should
seek the assistance of a design professional. The Masonry Institute of America welcomes recommendations
for the extension and improvement of the material and any new design techniques that may be incorporated into
future editions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We gratefully acknowledge the recommendations and suggestions of the professionals who helped improve
and prepare this publication.
We are particularly appreciative to James E. Amrhein, James J. Kesler, Leonard L. Thompson and John J.
Van Houten who were the contributing authors to the previous edition.
Technical support and comments came from many sources and we are grateful to all. Gregg Borchelt of the
Brick Industry Association provided many useful comments relative to brick masonry. James Feagin and Roger
Utesch continually offer suggestions on practical construction methods.
Countless hours of staff support were provided by Luis Dominguez and Debby Chrysler in the development
and production of this publication. Others that made significant contributions included Larry Carnes, Dan Autovino
and Jim Buckley. We sincerely appreciate their input.
We appreciate the continued support of the Board of Trustees of the Masonry Institute of America, Ron
Bennett, Chairman, Doug Williams, Jim Hensley, Sr., Frank Smith, Ken Tejeda, Rennie Tejeda, Bobby Williams,
Jim Smith, Steve Winegardner and Julie Salazar who have given their full cooperation to see that this publication
has been successful and a benefit for the masonry industry.
xvi MASONRY DESIGN MANUAL
MASONRY INSTITUTE
OF AMERICA
The Masonry Institute of America, founded in 1957 under the name of Masonry Research, is a promotional,
technical research organization established to improve and extend the use of masonry. The Masonry Institute of
America is supported by the California mason contractors through labor management contracts between the
unions and contractors.
The Masonry Institute of America is active in California promoting new ideas and masonry work, improving
national and local building codes, conducting research projects, presenting design, construction and inspection
seminars and publishing technical and non-technical papers, all for the purpose of improving the masonry
industry.
The Masonry Institute of America does not engage in the practice of architectural or engineering design or
construction nor does it sell masonry materials.
INTERNATIONAL CODE
COUNCIL
Since the early 1900s, the United States had been served by three sets of building codes developed by three
separate model code groups: Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc. (BOCA), International
Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), and Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc. (SBCCI). These
codes were extremely effective and responsive to regional needs. But, in 1994, recognizing the urgent need for
a single set of codes that would serve national needs, the three groups united to form the International Code
Council (ICC) with the express purpose of creating and developing one master set of comprehensive, coordi-
nated, design and construction codes.
Substantial advantages are inherent to this single set of codes. Code enforcement officials, architects,
engineers, designers, and contractors throughout the United States can now work with a consistent set of
requirements. States and localities that currently write their own codes or amend the early model codes may
choose to adopt the International Codes without technical amendments, which encourages consistent code
enforcement and higher quality construction. Enhanced membership services are an additional benefit. All
issues and concerns of a regulatory nature now have a single forum for discussion, consideration, and resolution.
Whether the concern is disaster mitigation, energy conservation, accessibility, innovative technology, or fire
protection, the ICC offers a means of focusing national and international attention on these concerns.
The ICC makes available an impressive inventory of International CodesTM, including:
• International Building Code

• International Energy Conservation Code
• International Fire Code
• International Fuel Gas Code
• International Mechanical Code
• International Plumbing Code
• International Private Sewage Disposal Code
xvii
• International Property Maintenance Code
• International Residential Code for One-and Two-Family Dwellings
• International Zoning Code
• ICC Performance Code for Buildings and FacilitiesTM
• International Existing Building CodeTM
• International Wildland-Urban Interface CodeTM
These codes provide a comprehensive package for adoption and use in the 21st Century.
The ICC also offers unmatched technical, educational, and informational products and services in support
of the International Codes, with more than 300 highly qualified staff members at 16 offices throughout the United
States and Latin America. Products and services readily available to code users include:
• Code application assistance

• Educational programs
• Certification programs
• Technical handbooks and workbooks
• Plan reviews
• Automated products
• Monthly magazines and newsletters
• Publication of proposed code changes
• Training and informational videos
MASONRY STANDARDS JOINT

COMMITTEE
The Masonry Standards Joint Committee (MSJC) is an organization comprised of volunteers who through
background, use, and education have established experience in the manufacturing of masonry units and materials
and the design and construction of masonry structures.
Working under its three sponsoring organizations, the American Concrete Institute (ACI), the American
Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), and The Masonry Society (TMS), the Committee has been charged with
developing and maintaining consensus standards suitable for adoption into model building codes. Since The
Masonry Society has received ANSI accreditation, TMS has become the lead sponsor in the production of the
MSJC.
In the pursuit of its goals, Committee activities include:
1. Evaluate and ballot proposed changes to existing standards of the Committee.
2. Develop and ballot new standards for masonry.
3. Resolve negative votes from ballot items.
4. Identify areas of needed research.
5. Sponsor educational seminars and symposia.
6. Monitor international standards.

xviii MASONRY DESIGN MANUAL
THE MASONRY SOCIETY

The Masonry Society, founded in 1977, is an international gathering of people interested in masonry. It is a
professional, technical, and educational association dedicated to the advancement of knowledge on masonry.
TMS members are design engineers, architects, builders, researchers, educators, building officials, material
suppliers, manufacturers, and others who want to contribute to and benefit from the global pool of knowledge on
masonry.
AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE

ACI is a technical and educational society founded in 1904 with 30,000 members and 93 chapters in 30
countries.
As ACI moves into its second century of progress through knowledge, it has retained the same basic
mission: develop, share, and disseminate the knowledge and information needed to utilize concrete to its fullest
potential.
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL

ENGINEERS
The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) was founded in 1852 and currently represents 125,000
members of the civil engineering profession worldwide. ASCE’
s vision is to position engineers as industry leaders
building a better quality of life.
To provide essential value to members, their careers, partners and the public, ASCE develops leadership,
advances technology, advocates lifelong learning, and promotes the profession.
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Masonry structures have been constructed since
the earliest days of mankind, not only for homes but
also for works of beauty and grandeur. Stone was the
first masonry unit and was used for primitive but
breathtaking structures such as the 4000 year old
Stonehenge ring on England’ s Salisbury Plains.
Egyptian Pyramids located in Giza were constructed

around 2500 B.C. Note limestone veneer at the top of
the great pyramid, Cheops.
Stonehenge ring on England’

s Salisbury Plains.
Stone was also used around 2500 B.C. to build

the Egyptian pyramids in Giza. Limestone veneer
which once clad the pyramids can now be seen only
at the top of the great pyamid Cheops, since much of
the limestone facing was later removed and reused.
As with the Egyptian Pyramids, numerous other

structures such as the 1500 mile long Great Wall of
China testify to the durability of masonry.
The 1500 mile Great Wall of China was constructed of
brick and stone between 200 B.C. and 1640 A.D.
MASONRY DESIGN MANUAL
Additionally, structures such as the stone pyramids Masonry has been used worldwide to construct
of Yucatan and Teotihuacan, Mexico, demonstrate the impressive structures such as St. Basil’
s Cathedral in
skill of ancient masons. Moscow.
The Pyramid of El Castillo de Chichén Itzá in Yucatán

in Mexico was built between 700 and 900 A.D.
The outer walls of St. Basil’

s Cathedral in Moscow, were
built in 1492, while the remainder of this impressive
cathedral was constructed in the 17th century.
The Pyramid of the Sun, built in the 2nd century A.D. The Taj Mahal in Agra, India, demonstrates unique
dominates the landscape of the ancient city of monumental characteristics of stone.
Teotihuacan in Mexico.
In fact, the stone walls at the Machu Picchu in

Peru have masonry unit joints so tight that it is difficult
to insert a knife blade between units.
Built between 1631 and 1653, the Taj Mahal depicts

grandeur in symmetry.
The stone walls at Machu Picchu in Peru were built
between 1200 and 1400 A.D.
INTRODUCTION
In the United States, masonry is used from Maine strength concrete block walls are 12 in. (305 mm) thick
to Hawaii and has been the primary material for building CMU for the bottom three floors and 8 in. (203 mm)
construction from the 18th to the 21st centuries. thick CMU for the upper 10 floors.
13 Story Pasadena Hilton Hotel, Completed in 1971.
The Pasadena Hilton, like the newer 16 story

Queens Surf in Long Beach, California and the 19 story
Holiday Inn in Burbank, California is located in one of
the most severe seismic areas in the world.
Built in 1891, the 16 story brick Monadnock Building in

Chicago is still in use today.
In the early 1900’

s concrete block masonry units
(CMU) were introduced to the construction industry.
Later, between 1930 and 1940, reinforcing steel was
introduced into masonry construction to provide
increased resistance to lateral dynamic forces from
earthquakes.
Prior to the development of reinforced masonry,

most masonry structures were designed to support
only gravity loads, while the forces from wind and
earthquakes were ignored. Massive dead loads from Constructed primarily of concrete masonry units, the
the thick and heavy walls stabilized the unreinforced Queen’ s Surf in Long Beach, California rises 16
structures against lateral forces. stories.ses 16 stories.
The introduction of reinforced masonry allowed wall Another oustanding example of reinforced load
thickness to be decreased dramatically and provided a bearing masonry is the 28 story Excalibur Hotel in Las
rational method to design walls to resist dynamic lateral Vegas, Nevada. This large high-rise complex consists
loads from winds and earthquakes. of four buildings each containing 1008 hotel rooms.
The load bearing walls for the complex required
An excellent example of the benefits of reinforced masonry with a specified compressive strength of
masonry is the 13 story Pasadena Hilton Hotel in 4,000 psi at the base of the wall.
California, completed in 1971. The load bearing, high
MASONRY DESIGN MANUAL
28 Story Excalibur Hotel, Las Vegas, Nevada. Walt Disney Concert Hall, Los Angeles, California.
Although taller masonry buildings may someday

be constructed, it is of more importance that the
benefits of reinforced masonry are appropriate not only
for multi-story buildings, but for buildings of every size
and type, even single story dwellings.
Anahola Station, Hawaii.
The Getty Center, Los Angeles, California.
Coe College McCabe Hall, Cedar Rapids, Iowa.
Physical Science Building, Riverside, California.

SECTION 1 M A T E R I A L S
CHAPTER
1
CLAY BRICK UNITS
for easy and safe shipment to the retail distribution

1.1 GENERAL facility or job site. Bricks made in the United States
are of high quality conforming to American Society for
For more than 10,000 years brick has played an Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standards. By
important role in the history and development of conforming to the ASTM Standards, a mason can be
architecture. W hile different methods of brick assured that the properties and characteristics of a
production have been introduced during that time, the brick manufactured in North Carolina are similar to a
basic materials and techniques used to make brick brick manufactured in Oregon. The brick will be precise
have remained essentially the same. That is, earthen in dimension (within tolerances), durable, strong, and
material (clay) is mixed with water to form a thick paste. color-fast. “ Moldability”of brick allows it to be shaped
The thick paste is molded into brick shapes and then into literally thousands of combinations of sizes,
cured with heat to give the brick strength. shapes, colors and textures.
The term “ brick”means manufactured units of In addition to machine manufactured brick, brick
either clay or shale, dried and fired. Any of the other can be hand formed. Hand formed bricks are unique
materials that are made into brick units, such as and the compressive strength characteristics are less
concrete, sand lime, and so forth, must use a than for the machine extruded brick, but still
descriptive adjective relating to the brick material, for conforming to the requirements of the ASTM Standard
example, concrete brick. (ASTM C 62, Standard Specification for Building Brick
(Solid Masonry Units Made From Clay or Shale)).
Brick’ s main ingredient is clay. While clay is one Hand formation of brick, however, allows for additional
of the most abundant materials on the earth, the clays array of shapes and characteristics not created
used in brick production must possess certain through machine manufactured brick.
properties and characteristics. There must be
plasticity, which permits units to be shaped or molded 1.1.1 REINFORCED BRICK –AN OVERVIEW
when mixed with water. Furthermore, units must have
sufficient strength to maintain shape after forming. Brick is intrinsically strong in compression but
Also, when subjected to elevated temperatures during weak in tension. Through the centuries, brick has been
the firing process, the clay particles must fuse together the building material of choice since it “ stacked”well
to create a durable unit. and has high compressive strength properties. While
brick masonry is one of the oldest forms of building
Mechanization and automation have been growing construction, it wasn’ t until recent history that the
in the brick plant during the past fifty years. Heavy weakness of brick in tension was overcome by
machinery is used to mine and transform the clay into combining the brick (strong in compression) with a
dense, precise units. The bricks are fired in continuous material that is strong in tension –steel. In other words,
tunnel kilns at carefully controlled temperatures to the brick was reinforced with the steel. Again, in the
produce the best unit that can be made from the clay modern sense, reinforced brick masonry in the United
used. The brick is inspected, sorted and packaged States is a relatively new type of construction, requiring
2 MASONRY DESIGN MANUAL
new design procedures and construction methods. About 70 years ago, the concept of reinforced
These methods have been developed during the past masonry was advanced in California primarily as an
70 years from experimental investigations, through the outgrowth of the need to improve the resistance of
construction of thousands of buildings which have existing brick masonry structures to earthquake forces.
demonstrated the practicability and economy of Since that time, reinforced masonry has not only been
construction and whose performances have confirmed successfully used on the West Coast of the United
the soundness of the principles of design and through States, but also throughout the world.
ongoing research focused at practical ways to reinforce
old brick masonry and limits on the performance ability
of new masonry construction.
Reinforced brick masonry consists of brick
masonry in which steel reinforcement is embedded in
the brick masonry system. The reinforcement is placed
so that the masonry, as a whole, will have greatly
increased resistance to forces which produced tensile,
shearing and compressive stresses. The principles
of reinforced brick masonry design are the same as
those commonly accepted for reinforced concrete and
similar design formulae are used.
In addition to direct tension (pulling something

apart), bending (causing a member to curve) can
FIGURE 1.1 1933 Long Beach, CA earthquake.
create tension forces. Thus, a reinforced masonry
system (strong in tension and compression) is During the past 60 years reinforced brick masonry
designed to resist bending as well as compression. has been used for the construction of a wide variety of
In order to have the reinforcement and the brick work structures. In the United States the most extensive
as a system, cells or cavities containing reinforcement use has been in the construction of vertical members,
must be filled with a bonding material. The method such as walls and columns. Since no forms are
recommended for accomplishing this is to fill all the required for these members, reinforced brick masonry
interior voids with grout. Grout is made by adding is competitive with reinforced concrete.
sufficient water to a cementitious material and
aggregate to provide a fluid consistency. 1.1.2 SHAPES OF BRICK
Because of bricks ability to be molded, there are
Marc Isambard Brunel, once Chief Engineer of the
a variety of different sizes and shapes of brick. Some
City of New York and later Knighted by Queen Victoria,
of the common types of brick defined by the Brick
is credited with the discovery of reinforced masonry
Industry Association (BIA), Technical Notes 2 are:
nearly 200 years ago.
Angle Brick is any brick shaped to an oblique
He first proposed the use of reinforced brick
angle to fit a salient corner.
masonry in 1813 as a means of strengthening a
chimney under construction; however, it was in
connection with the building of the Thames Tunnel in
1825 that he made his first major application of its
principles.
Brunel’ s discovery of reinforced brick masonry

increased, particularly in seismically active areas of
India, Japan and the United States. These countries
are subjected to severe earthquakes and buildings
which can be expected to withstand such shocks must
be designed with relatively high resistance to lateral
forces. Lateral forces can come in any direction and
therefore impose tension and compression forces, on
a structure in just about any direction. Since structural
steel and suitable form lumber were relatively
expensive in these countries, engineers turned to
reinforced brick masonry and adopted it as standard FIGURE 1.2 Angle brick.
construction for public and important private buildings.
CLAY BRICK UNITS 3
Arch Brick is a wedge shaped brick for special part of any hole is to be closer than 3/4 in. (19.1 mm) to
use in an arch. any face perpendicular to the bearing surface of the
brick. The term Solid Brick does not necessarily mean
100% solid and the holes in the brick are not intended
to be reinforced and grouted.
Arch brick
No Voids Voids 25% or less

FIGURE 1.3 Arch brick. of cross-sectional area
Building Brick is a brick unit for building purposes FIGURE 1.5 Types of solid clay brick.
not especially treated for texture or color and also
called Common Brick, and conforms to ASTM C 62.
Thin Brick are clay units specifically designed for
adhered veneer application. Maximum thickness as
Face Brick or Facing Brick are brick made for
defined in ASTM C 1088 is 13/4 in. (44.5 mm), and are
facing purposes, often treated to produce desired
commonly between 1/2 and 1 in. (12.7 and 25.4 mm)
surface texture. They are made of selected clays, or
thick. Thin brick can also be manufactured in special
treated, to produce desired color and conform to ASTM
shapes, such as corner units.
C 216.
Fire Brick are made of refractory ceramic material

and resist high temperatures. Commonly used in kilns
and fireboxes of fireplaces. 35/8
21/2 21/4
75/8
Hollow Brick is a masonry unit of clay or shale 75/8 75/8
whose net cross sectional area in any plane parallel
to the bearing surface is less than 75% of its gross Modular 21/2 Standard 21/4 Standard
cross sectional area measured in the same plane.
31/2 21/2
111/2 111/2
Jumbo Norman
Solid shell Double shell Cored shell
hollow hollow hollow
brick units brick units brick units
FIGURE 1.4 Types of hollow (structural) brick.

Lintel Corner Standard 900 Corner
Paving Brick are vitrified brick especially suitable

for use in horizontal installation applications where FIGURE 1.6 Types of thin brick units.
resistance to abrasion is important.
1.1.3 ORIENTATION OF BRICK
Solid Brick is any clay or shale masonry unit
whose net cross sectional area in any plane parallel In order for a building to achieve unique character,
to the bearing surface is at least 75% of the gross brick may be oriented a number of different ways in a
cross sectional area measured in the same plane. No wall. Typical orientation is shown in Figure 1.7.
Stretcher Header Rowlock

Flemish Bond
Shiner Soap Split
Running Bond With Rolock Course
Sailor Soldier
FIGURE 1.7
Stack Bond
Typical brick orientation.
1.1.4 PATTERNS OF BRICK

The designer is limited only by his or her
imagination for the available pattern or combination of
patterns. Figure 1.8 shows a few typical examples of
brick patterns.
Running Bond With Soldier Course
American Bond
Running Bond, 1/2 Bond
Dutch Cross Bond Running Bond, 1/3 Bond
FIGURE 1.8 Typical bond patterns.

CLAY BRICK UNITS 5
1.1.5 MORTAR AND GROUT The effect of weathering on brick is related to the
weathering index which is the product of the average
Mortar and grout are the bonding agents that annual number of freezing cycle days times the
integrate masonry units into masonry walls. Mortar average annual winter rainfall in inches for any given
and grout structurally bind masonry units together. locality. Grade requirements for exposures are listed
Mortar is located between bricks. Grout is located in in Table 1.1, and are described below. Figure 1.10
the voids on the inside of the brick or in the cavity displays weathering indexes for the United States.
created between two wythes of brick.
Grade SW (Severe Weathering) brick should be
Brick tie used where a high and uniform degree of resistance
to frost action and disintegration by weathering is
desired and exposure is such that the brick may freeze
Grout in the presence of moisture.
Reinforcing steel
Table 1.1 Grade Recommendations for Face
1
Exposures
W eathering Index
Exposure Less 50 to 500 and
than 50 500 greater
In vertical surfaces
In contact with earth MW SW SW
Not in contact with earth MW SW SW
In other than vertical surfaces
In contact with earth SW SW SW
Not in contact with earth MW SW SW
Mortar joint
1
ASTM C 62, Table 2
FIGURE 1.9 Mortar and grout.
1.2 BUILDING BRICK OR

COMMON BRICK
Building Brick or Common Brick refer to the basic
type of clay brick unit. Applicable standards are
covered in ASTM C 62, Standard Specification for
Building Brick (Solid Masonry Units Made From Clay
or Shale).
This standard covers the acceptable parameters ......

......
......
......
for grades, durability, freezing and thawing criteria,
absorption and saturation, strength, size, coring,
frogging and permissible variations in dimension.
FIGURE 1.10 Weathering index map of the
United States.
Common brick may be used for structural or non-
Grade MW (Moderate Weathering) brick should
structural applications where the external appearance
be used where moderate resistance to frost damage
of the brick is not a requirement. The brick may be
is acceptable and unsaturated freezing of the brick is
exposed and the designer must be aware that the
permissible.
visual quality associated with face brick is not a
requirement for common brick.
Grade NW (Negligible Weathering) brick is
acceptable for interior masonry and backup for interior
1.2.1 GRADE OF BRICK masonry. Grade NW units may disintegrate when
subjected to freezing and thawing cycles.
The three grades of brick, SW (Sev ere
Weathering), MW (Moderate Weathering) and NW Grade SW or grade MW may be substituted for
(Negligible Weathering), are classified according to grade NW brick, and grade SW brick may be
their weathering resistance. substituted for grade MW brick. When the grade of
brick is not specified, grade SW shall govern.
1.2.2 APPEARANCE 1.2.5 ABSORPTION AND SATURATION

When consistent color, texture, finish, uniformity; The total absorption of brick units is measured in
or limited amount of cracks, warping, exposed particles a two step process. Initially, a 24 hour cold water
or lime, are desired, the brick should be specified submersion is performed and the amount of water
according to Face Brick, ASTM C 216, Standard absorbed is recorded as a percentage of total weight
Specification for Facing Brick with such requirements of the dry unit. Next, the brick is placed in boiling water
noted. for 5 hours. The amount of water absorbed is recorded
as a percentage of total weight of the dry unit. The
Brick with glazed surfaces should be specified resultant ratio of the two is the cold water/boiling water
under ASTM C 126, Standard Specification for Ceramic (C/B) ratio, or saturation coefficient.
Glazed Structural Clay Facing Tile, Facing Brick, and
Solid Masonry Units. The associated tolerances Even though durability is a combination of three
should be carefully reviewed and any deviation from physical properties, some consider only the C/B ratio
the specified tolerances should be clearly noted in the a measure of durability, from the concept that water,
design stage of the project. which easily enters the brick, will have room to expand
under freezing conditions.
Brick may be solid or cored at the option of the
installer and seller unless otherwise specified in the When the weathering index, as shown in Figure
contract documents. 1.10, is less than 50, the absorption and saturation
coefficients may be waived in accordance with ASTM
1.2.3 DURABILITY C 62.
The durabili ty of brick is indi cated by Absorption should not be confused with Initial Rate
measurements of water absorption, saturation of Absorption (IRA) as explained in Section 1.2.12.
coefficient and compressive strength as described in
ASTM C 62, Section 4.2. Durability can be evaluated
1.2.6 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
by a pass-fail grading according to the test method
contained in ASTM C 67, Standard Test Methods for Based on the gross area, extruded brick generally
Sampling and Testing Brick and Structural Clay Tile, yield a higher compressive strength and lower absorp-
Section 8. tion than those using the dry-press or soft-mud
process. Additionally, higher firing temperatures in the
1.2.4 FREEZING AND THAWING kiln usually produce higher compressive strength brick.
If firing temperatures are too high, however, brick will
The criteria listed in Table 1.2 shows that Grade melt in the kiln. Therefore, the default specification
SW brick is limited in the absorption and saturation should be for extruded and kiln-fired brick.
coefficient, which means that there will be less moisture
present within the unit when subjected to the freeze-
thaw cycle. Similarly, Grade MW brick is limited to a
less stringent value for the absorption and saturation
coefficient and there is no limit placed on Grade NW
brick.
1
Table 1.2 Common Brick or Building Brick Durability Physical Requirements
Minim um Com pressive Maximum W ater Absorption Maxim um
Strength (brick flatwise), by 5-h Saturation
2
Gross Area, psi (MPa) Boiling, % Coefficient
Designation Average of 5 Individual Average of 5 Individual Average of 5 Individual
brick brick brick
G rade SW 3000 (20.7) 2500 (17.2) 17.0 20.0 0.78 0.80
Grade MW 2500 (17.2) 2200 (15.2) 22.0 25.0 0.88 0.90
3
G rade NW 1500 (10.3) 1250 (8.6) no lim it no lim it no limit no lim it
1
Based on ASTM C 62, C 216 or C 652.
2
The saturation coefficient, or C/B Ratio, is the ratio of absorption by 24-hour submersion in cold water to that after 5-hour
submersion in boiling water.
3
Does not apply for ASTM C 216 and C 652.
CLAY BRICK UNITS 7
The compressive strength of brick produced in
the United States normally exceeds the compressive
22/3” 21/4” 31/5”
strengths associated with concrete. Compressive
strength of brick can be greater than 20,000 psi (137.9 8” 35/ ”- 31/ ” 8” 8”
4” 8 2 4”
MPa), and most brick exceed compressive strength Standard Modular Standard Engineer Modular
of 5,000 psi (34.5 MPa), therefore, the minimum
compressive strengths of Table 1.2 are rarely a 23/4”- 25/8”
22/3” 31/5”
problem. Higher required strengths, such as for
heavier loads in multi-story construction or other 95/8” 12” 12”
3” 4” 4”
specific requirements for loading or weathering, must
be expressly specified. King Size Norman Engineer Norman
1.2.7 COLOR AND TEXTURE

4” 8”
Building bricks are manufactured in a variety of 4”
colors and textures. The colors and textures, however, 8” 12” 8”
4” 4” 4”
are supplied as standard units of the brick manufacturer
unless a specific requirement has been stated, or Closure Modular Utility 8”x 8”
mutually agreed upon, between the buyer and seller
prior to delivery.
4” 31/5”
The standard common building brick (ASTM C 62) 12” 12”

color is terra cotta red. Units of buff, salmon, orange, 8” 6”
red or brown may also be supplied. The brick texture
is usually smooth or wire cut, but it may also be scored,
combed face, or whatever textures are agreed upon
FIGURE 1.11 Common brick sizes (nominal
prior to delivery. dimensions).
1.2.8 SIZE
Bricks are manufactured in a variety of different
sizes and shapes. Some of the modular brick
terminology listed includes Modular, Engineer Modular, Round Cap Ridge Cap
Roman, Norman and Utility brick.
Other common terms used to designate brick in

non-modular sizes are Oversize, Jumbo, Common,
Tread Cove
and King Size. One should check the local market to
find out what is readily available and sizes associated
with local terminology.
Notwithstanding the dimension terminology stated Ogee Watertable Interior Single

above, manufacturers have the discretion to produce
brick in various sizes. For example, one manufacturer
may consider a 71/2 in. (190 mm) long brick standard,
another may consider a full 8 in. (203 mm) long brick
as standard. Napoleon Cap Interior Corner
There are limits to physical dimensions as noted

in ASTM C 62 and special attention should be given
to the quality control of long thin brick. Bullnose Exterior Corner
Lipped Stretcher Exterior Double
FIGURE 1.12 Special brick shapes.

1.2.9 CORING
Coring is the term used to describe the voids in

the brick perpendicular to the bearing surface. These
voids, or holes, save on material used, permit more
uniform firing and reduces the weight of the unit, which
is beneficial in the transportation of the brick from the
manufacturing plant to the project site.
As required in ASTM C 62, the net cross sectional

area of the cored brick in the plane parallel to the
bearing surface shall not be less than 75% of the gross
cross sectional area. Also, the holes shall be at least
3
/4 in. (19.1 mm) from any surface which is perpendicular FIGURE 1.13 L.A. Brick Company “
frog”
.
to the bearing surface.
not contain more than 5% broken brick. If a higher
degree of precision from chips and cracks is required,
1.2.10 FROGGING
the brick should be specified under ASTM C 216, which
contains guidelines of distance for visual inspection.
A frog is a recession (not exceeding 3/8 in. (9.5
mm)) in the bearing surface of the brick and often
contains the stamped name of the manufacturer. 1.2.12 INITIAL RATE OF ABSORPTION (I. R. A.)
Frogs exceeding 3/ 8 in. (9.5 mm) are permitted, The Initial Rate of Absorption is a measure of the
providing conformance as noted in the material amount of water that a brick will absorb in one minute
standard. Like the holes in cored brick, a frog may not expressed in number of grams per 30 sq. in. (194 cm2)
be any closer than 3/4 in. (19.1 mm) to the exposed per minute. It does not have any consistent relationship
surface of the brick. Frogs were also common in with the total absorption.
ancient masonry where the craftsmen wrote the name
of the reigning monarch on the brick, which offers a The maximum bond strength between the clay
means for archaeologists to identify the age of brick and the mortar will be achieved when the I.R.A.
discovered ruins. is between 5 and 30 grams per minute per 30 square
inches (194 cm2) of brick surface immersed in 1/8 in.
Today, f rogs are less comm on si nce the (3.2 mm) of water.
manufacturing of this type of brick requires a labor
intensive ‘
dry press’or ‘
molded’ process. Frogs were There are a number of reasons that the I.R.A. is
common when brick manufacturers ‘ stamped’their important:
product (see Figure 1.13).
1. If the I.R.A. exceeds the proper rate, a good
bond between the brick and mortar may not
1.2.11 TOLERANCES
be achieved.
Table 1.3 shows the allowable dimensional
tolerances in the manufacturing of building brick. Minor 2. When mortar is spread on the bed joint, the
indentations or surface cracks incidental to the rate of laying brick will be influenced by the
manufacturing process, or minor chipping caused by rate of water loss from the mortar bed before
the handling and delivery of brick shall not be grounds the brick is laid.
for rejecting the brick. Additionally, brick deliveries shall
1
Table 1.3 Permissible Variations in Dimensions
Specified Dimension, inches (mm) Maximum Permissible Variations from Specified
Dimension, + or -, inches (mm)
3
Up to 3 (76) incl. /32 (2.4)
1
Over 3 to 4 (76 to 102) incl. /8 (3.2)
3
Over 4 to 6 (102 to 152) incl. /16 (4.8)
1
Over 6 to 8 (152 to 203) incl. /4 (6.4)
5
Over 8 to 12 (203 to 305) incl. /16 (7.9)
3
Over 12 to 16 (305 to 406) incl. /8 (9.5)
1
ASTM C 62, Table 3
CLAY BRICK UNITS 9
3. When bricks with an excessively high I.R.A. on the inside of the brick will dry out. By drying out,
are tapped into place, the bond between the the water will migrate to the surface of the brick. This
brick and the mortar may be disturbed. migration has the potential to bring with it soluble salts
and create efflorescence. Precautions must be taken
4. An extremely high I.R.A. will have the tendency to minimize efflorescence and achieve the optimum
to rapidly dry the mortar so that the proper in masonry strength and aesthetics.
water retention for high strength and good
bond may not be achieved.
1.2.13 VISUAL INSPECTION
5. Brick with an extremely low I.R.A. do not draw The building brick delivered to the site shall, by
water from the mortar and the brick tend to visual inspection, conform with the requirements as
float. This can be compensated for by using specified by the purchaser if special requirements have
a mortar with low water retention. been stated in addition to ASTM, or comply with the
sample or samples supplied to the purchaser. For
6. A good bond between the mortar and brick is customary construction, minor flaws, indentations,
preferred to achieve the desired resistance to surface cracks and minor chips resulting from the
water penetration through the masonry customary handling of building brick shall generally
system. not be deemed grounds for rejection in the wall.
Burned clay units shall have an initial rate of Unl ess otherwise agreed upon by the
absorption not exceeding 0.035 ounce per square inch manufacturer or the seller, building bricks, when
(1.6 L/m 2) during a period of one minute. The delivered to the job site, shall contain not less than
International Building Code references MSJC Code 95% whole brick according to ASTM C 62.
for requirements. Article 3.2 C.2 of the 2005 MSJC
Specification requires that the initial absorption rate shall 1.2.14 EFFLORESCENCE
not exceed one gram per minute per square inch.
Requirements are the same as 30 grams per minute Efflorescence is caused by the leaching of soluble
per 30 square inches (194 cm2). Wetting of the brick salts from within the masonry to form a whitish surface
prior to laying achieves a lower I.R.A. which may be deposit. In order to minimize efflorescence, proper
necessary for the stated reasons. planning is necessary. The key is to minimize the
migration of water into the masonry. Attention should
The wetting of the brick is preferred 3 hours to 24 be given to the following:
hours prior to laying, but may be done immediately
before laying if time is a constraint. Figure 1.14 shows 1. Proper design of construction details such as
different water content conditions of the brick unit. providing dampproof course at proper levels
Surface dry is the ideal condition where the center is and at correct locations.
wet and the surface is slightly damp.
2. Prevention of water entering into the body of
Surface dry is the ideal condition for creating the the brickwork. Special attention should be
maximum bond strength. However, the excess water given to properly tooled mortar joints.
3. Specify and use a weather resistant joint, such

as concave tooled.
4. Avoid using brick with high soluble salt content.
5. Use portland cement with low alkali content

(a) Saturated (b) Dry and chemically pure lime.
6. Prevent brick work coming into contact with

salt bearing materials.
7. Fill all joints at sills.
8. Keep gutters and drain pipes functional.

(c) Surface Wet (d) Surface Dry
9. Fill cracks and joints properly.
FIGURE 1.14 Moisture condition of inside
brick.
Type FBS (Face Brick Standard) is for general

1.3 FACE (OR FACING) BRICK use where normal variation in size is permitted.
Clay units manufactured to a higher visual
standard than Building Brick for the purpose of being Type FBX (Face Brick Extra) is for general use
an exposed surface of the masonry wall are called in exposed faces of interior and exterior masonry
Face Brick. These brick follow the guidelines of ASTM where a higher degree of mechanical precision and a
C 216, Standard Specification for Facing Brick. The lower permissible variation in size is required.
criteria for Face Brick is based on grade, type, physical
properties, compressive strength, total absorption, Type FBA (Face Brick Architectural) is for
initial rate of absorption, material, finish, texture, color, general use in masonry manufactured and selected
warping and visual inspection. to produce characteristic architectural effects resulting
from non-uniformity, color, size or texture of the
individual units. Type FBA is usually related to a
1.3.1 GRADE specific project.
There are two grades of face brick, Grade SW When Face Brick is specified, and no type is noted,
(Severe Weathering) and Grade MW (Moderate the designer should be aware that the basic
Weathering). The definitions and weathering index, requirements of Type FBS govern.
for these two grades, are identical to those for building
brick, however, there is no classification for Grade NW
(see Figure 1.10 for U.S. Weathering Index Map), and
1.3.3 DURABILITY
there is no Grade NW brick in Table 1.4 (as there is As with common brick, the durability of face brick
for common brick) since face brick is not intended for is indicated by measurements of water absorption,
use as a back up brick. saturation coefficient and compressive strength as
described in ASTM C 216, Section 6.1. For face brick,
durability can be evaluated by a pass-fail grading
Table 1.4 Grade Recommendation for Face according to the test method contained in ASTM C 67,
Brick Exposure* Section 8.
Weathering Index
Exposure Less 50 and
than 50 greater 1.3.4 FREEZING AND THAWING
In vertical surfaces The criteria listed in Table 1.5 show that Grade
In contact with earth MW SW SW brick has the least absorption and saturation
Not in contact with earth MW SW coefficient, which means that there will be less moisture
In other than vertical surfaces
present within the unit when subjected to the freeze-
In contact with earth SW SW thaw cycle.
Not in contact with earth MW SW
*ASTM C 216, Figure 1
1.3.5 ABSORPTION AND SATURATION
As in the absorption and saturation measurement
1.3.2 TYPES for common brick, the total absorption of a face brick
In addition to the criteria for building brick, face unit is measured in a two step process. Initially, a 24
brick is also categorized according to type. There are hour cold water submersion is performed and the amount
three types of face brick, Types FBS, FBX and FBA. of water absorbed is recorded as a percentage of total
weight of the dry unit. Next, the brick is placed in
1
Table 1.5 Face Brick Durability Physical Requirements
Min. Compressive Strength Maximum Water Absorption Maximum
2
(brick flatwise), psi (MPa) by 5-hour Boiling, % Saturation Coefficient
Designation Average of Individual Average of Individual Average of Individual
5 brick 5 brick 5 brick
Grade SW 3000 (20.7) 2500 (17.2) 17.0 20.0 0.78 0.80
Grade MW 2500 (17.2) 2200 (15.2) 22.0 25.0 0.88 0.90
1
Based on ASTM C 216, Table 1
2
The saturation coefficient on C/B Ratio, is the ratio of absorption by 24-hour submersion in cold water to that after 5-hour
submersion in boiling water.
CLAY BRICK UNITS 11
boiling water for 5 hours. The amount of water absorbed 1.3.8 SIZE
is recorded as a percentage of total weight of the dry
unit. The resultant ratio of the two is the cold water/ Brick manufacturers may name brick rather than
boiling water (C/B) ratio, or the saturation coefficient. list by size. Most manufacturers follow the terminology
and sizes for brick defined for modular brick such as
The C/B ratio is considered a measure of durability Standard Modular, Economy, Norman and Roman (see
from the concept that water, which easily enters the Figure 1.11).
brick, will have room to expand under freezing
conditions. Standard practice in the masonry industry is to
define unit size in the order of width x height x length.
The best practice is to specify brick size in the order
When the weathering index, as shown in Figure
of width x height x length, and then by name. The
1.10, is less than 50, the absorption and saturation
designer should verify that the size and orientation of
coefficients may be waived in accordance with ASTM
the brick is compatible with the project drawings.
C 216.
Manufacturers frequently make special brick to
Absorption should not be confused with Initial Rate satisfy project requirements.
of Absorption (IRA).
1.3.9 CORING
1.3.6 COMPRESSION STRENGTH
Unless specified, the brick may or may not be
Similar to common brick, compressive strength cored at the option of the manufacturer or possibly
of 2,500 psi (17.2 MPa) for Grade MW brick and 3,000 the option of the contractor. Normally, a manufacturer
psi (20.7 MPa) for Grade SW brick is required (Table will provide a majority of the brick with cored holes
1.5). Higher required strengths, such as for heavier which permit a more uniform firing, saves on material,
loads in multi-story construction or other specific and is beneficial in the trasportation process.
requirements for loading or weathering, must be
expressly specified. The net cross sectional area in any plane parallel
to the surface containing the cores shall not be less
1.3.7 COLOR AND TEXTURE than 75% of the gross cross sectional area, and no
core hole may be closer than 3/4 in. (19.1 mm) to any
Color and texture are “ strong points”of face brick, exterior face of the brick.
since both attributes are exposed. Face brick can be
manufactured in a variety of textures ranging from 1.3.10 FROGGING
smooth to combed face. According to ASTM C 216, a
majority of the brick will have one end-texture and color One bearing edge of the face brick may contain a
similar to the face. If the project requires two ends or frog not exceeding 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) deep and the frog
two faces to be of finished texture and color, the may not be closer than 3/4 in. (19.1 mm) to any exterior
requirement must be clearly stated by the specifier. face of the brick. As with building brick, deep frogs
are permitted, with the same restrictions.
Face brick is available in many appealing textures
and finishes while enjoying relative freedom from At one time, nearly all brick in the United States
cracks, warpage or exposed particles. were molded with the signature of the manufacturer
embossed in the frog, but most brick are now
There is a wide range of available colors for face manufactured using the extruded process and frogs
brick. The colors may range from off-white to jet black, are only occasionally seen in new brick.
with intermediate colors of yellow, orange, red, blue,
purple, brown and gray. Some projects require a 1.3.11 TOLERANCES
consistent color, while others specify a ‘ blend’ , or
The dimension tolerances for face brick are
combination of colors.
contained in Table 1.6 and the distortion tolerances
are in Table 1.7. The dimensional tolerances require
Brick samples of at least four units should be
greater precision than that for common or building brick
approved for texture and color prior to the start of the
and type FBX brick require greater precision than FBS
project.
brick.
California Used Honey Mushroom
Cedar Bark Mohave Bark
Desert Sand Bank Saturn Red
Harbor Mist Sedona
FIGURE 1.15 Various brick textures. (Courtesy of Higgins Brick Company).

CLAY BRICK UNITS 13
1
Table 1.6 Face Brick Tolerances on Dimensions
Maximum Permissible Variation, in. (mm)
Specified Dimension or
plus or minus from:
Average Brick Size in Job
Column A Column B
Lot Sample, in. (mm) 2
(for Specified Dimension) (for Average Brick Size in Job Lot Sample)
Type Type Type Type FBS Type FBS
3 4
FBX FBS FBX Smooth Rough
1 3 1 1 3
3 (76) and under /16 (1.6) /32 (2.4) /16 (1.6) /16 (1.6) /32 (2.4)
3 1 1 3 1
Over 3 - 4 (76 - 102) incl. /32 (2.4) /8 (3.2) /16 (1.6) /32 (2.4) /8 (3.2)
1 3 3 3 3
Over 4 - 6 (102 - 152) incl. /8 (3.2) /16 (4.8) /32 (2.4) /32 (2.4) /16 (4.8)
5 1 3 1 1
Over 6 - 8 (152 - 203) incl. /32 (4.0) /4 (6.4) /32 (2.4) /8 (3.2) /4 (6.4)
7 5 1 3 5
Over 8 - 12 (203 - 305) incl. /32 (5.6) /16 (7.9) /8 (3.2) /16 (4.8) /16 (7.9)
9 3 3 1 3
Over 12 - 16 (305 - 406) incl. /32 (7.1) /8 (9.5) /16 (4.8) /4 (6.4) /8 (9.5)
1
ASTM C 216, Table 3
2
Lot size shall be determined by agreement between purchaser and seller. If not specified, lot size shall be understood to include all
brick of one size and color in the job order.
3
Type FBS Smooth units have relatively fine texture and smooth edges, including wire cut surfaces. These definitions relate to
dimensional tolerances only.
4
Type FBS Rough units have textured, rounded, or tumbled edges or faces. These definitions apply to dimensional tolerances only.
1
Table 1.7 Face Brick Tolerances on Distortion
Maximum Dimension, in. (mm) Maximum Permissible Distortion, in. (mm)
Type FBX Type FBS
1 3
8 (203) and under /16 (1.6) /32 (2.4)
3 1
Over 8 - 12 (203 - 305) incl. /32 (2.4) /8 (3.2)
1 5
Over 12 - 16 (304 - 406) incl. /8 (3.2) /32 (4.0)
1
ASTM C 216, Table 4
In order to determine dimensional tolerances, a body of the brick. In other words, it may not be merely
sample of ten brick representing the extreme range is a surface color unless specifically agreed upon by the
selected and compared to the allowable variation in purchaser and seller. The standard also states that
Table 1.6, Column A. From the sample of ten brick, the brick shall be free of cracks and other defects that
the average size is determined and the permissible will interfere with the proper setting of the brick or that
dimensional tolerances from the average size is listed will impair the strength or the permanence of the
in Table 1.6, Column B. construction.
1.3.12 INITIAL RATE OF ABSORPTION (I. R. A.) Except for chips, FBX brick shall be free of cracks
and other imperfections when viewed from a distance
The I.R.A. requirements for face brick are the same of 15 ft (4.6 m), and FBS or FBA brick shall not exhibit
as common or building brick. these imperfections when viewed from a distance of
20 ft (6.1 m).
1.3.13 VISUAL INSPECTION This visual guideline applies to the installed
ASTM C 216 states that all brick units shall be materials, and can also be used for workmanship
made of clay, shale or fireclay materials and that any acceptance of the complete brick installation. Table
admixtures or colors used in giving a special color to 1.8 list the ASTM acceptable extent of chipping.
a unit shall be uniformly distributed through the entire
Table 1.8 Maximum Permissible Extent of Chippage from Edges and Corners of Finished Face or
1
Faces onto the Surface
Percentage Chippage in in. (mm) Percentage Chippage in in. (mm)
Type
allowed2 in from allowed2 in from
Edge Corner Edge Corner
1 1 1 3 1 1
/8 - /4 /4 - /8 0 - /8 0 - /4
FBX 5% or less 95 to 100%
(3.2 - 6.4) (6.4 - 9.5) (0 - 3.2) (0 - 6.4)
3 1 5 3 1 1 3
FBS /4 - /16 /8 – /2 0 - /4 0 - /8
10% or less 90 to 100%
(Smooth) (6.4 - 7.9) (9.5 - 12.7) (0 - 6.4) (0 - 9.5)
FBS4 5
/16 - 7/16 1
/2 - 3/4 0 - 5/16 0 - 1/ 2
15% or less 85 to 100%
(Rough) (7.9 - 11.1) (12.7 - 19.1) (0 - 7.9) (0 - 12.7)
FBA to meet the designated sample or as specified by the purchaser, but not more restrictive than Type FBS (rough)
1
ASTM C 216, Table 2
2
Percentage of exposed brick allowed in the wall with chips measured the listed dimensions in from an edge or corner.
3
Smooth texture is the unbroken natural die finish.
4
Rough texture is the finish produced when the face is sanded, combed, scratched, or scarified or the die skin on the face is entirely
broken by mechanical means such as wire-cutting or wire-brushing.
1.3.14 EFFLORESCENCE The specimens are then compared at a distance

of 10 ft (3.1 m) with illumination of at least 50
Since face brick are used for appearance, exposed footcandles (538.2 lm/m2). If no perceptible difference
surfaces with unsightly white stains from salt is not is observed, then the brick are rated as “ not
acceptable. Thus, the standards for efflorescence are effloresced”.
more stringent for face brick than for common or
building brick. In order to minimize efflorescence in the system,
the same precautions as noted in Section 1.2.14
When face brick are tested in accordance with should be observed.
ASTM C 67, the brick shall achieve a rating of “
not
effloresced”
.
1.4 HOLLOW BRICK
This test requires five pairs of brick which are
separated. One of each of the pairs of brick is partially Hollow brick units are very similar in shape and
immersed on end, in 1 in. (25.4 mm) of water for seven use to concrete masonry units. Hollow brick are made
days in a drying room. The brick are inspected and all of dried and fired clay, like solid brick. In the United
brick are placed in a drying room for 24 hours. States, hollow brick were first developed and marketed
in the Southeast under a regional specification of
“Jumbo Brick” . As their popularity grew, these units
were made and marketed under several different
names in different regions of the country, but Jumbo
Brick has remained a common reference name. They
were typically 8 in. (203 mm) nominal in through-the-
wall thickness, and had face sizes ranging from
nominal 21/4 by 12 in. (57.2 by 305 mm) to nominal 4
by 12 in. (102 by 305 mm). Hollow brick units contain
cells, approximately 40 percent void, 60 percent solid.
The units have been used in thousands of buildings
since the 1920’ s. Since the geometry of this type of
brick is a significant departure from Face Brick, the
term Hollow (Clay) Brick applies and is widely
recognized and understood.
FIGURE 1.16 Efflorescence.
CLAY BRICK UNITS 15
Today, hollow brick are prevalent in reinforced brick patterns, such as one-third bond and bonds at corners
bearing walls because they hav e cells, which may require different unit configurations to permit
accommodate vertical reinforcement and grout. placement of reinforcement. The designer should
Hollow units shall meet the requirements of ASTM C check with the brick manufacturer to determine the
652 Standard Specification for Hollow Brick. The cell patterns available.
standard describes hollow units in two classes based
on void area. Hollow units with void areas up to 40
percent are Class H40V. Units with void areas up to End shell Solid face shell
60 percent of the gross area are defined as Class or end web
Cell or core
H60V. Void areas are defined by the void space that
yields the least cross-sectional area, where the cross- Cell
section is aligned parallel to the bedding surface.
Webs
Within the two classes of hollow brick (H40V and

H60V), there are two Grades that exist in ASTM C
652: Grades SW and MW. The Grade establishes Solid Shell Hollow Brick Units
requirements to ensure adequate freeze/thaw
resistance. Grade SW units provide high and uniform Cell Core or cell in face shell
resistance to frost action when saturated with water. Core in face shell
Grade MW units are intended for applications that are
unlikely to be saturated with water when exposed to Double
freezing temperatures. face shells
Webs End shell or
end web
1.4.1 HOLLOW SPACES
Double Shell Hollow Brick Units
The thickness of face shells and webs are limited
by ASTM C 652. Figure 1.17 defines the nomenclature End shell or Cored face shell
associated with hollow brick units and Table 1.9 end web Core in face shell
provides the minimum required thickness of face shells Cell
and cross webs. The dimensions of the unit and the
configuration of voids are critical for reinforced brick Webs
masonry. The cells intended to receive reinforcement
must align so that reinforcing bars can be properly
placed. Most Class H60V hollow brick contain two cells Cored Shell Hollow Brick Units
that are aligned when laid in running bond. Other bond
FIGURE 1.17 Hollow brick units.
3
Table 1.9 Hollow Brick Section Properties
Nominal width of Minimum solid Minimum cored Minimum end
units, in. (mm) face shell or double face shell or end web
1 2
thickness, in. shell thickness , thickness , in.
(mm) in. (mm) (mm)
3 3
3 & 4 (75 & 100) /4 (19) ---- /4 (19)
1
6 (150) 1 (25) 1 /2 (38) 1 (25)
1 1
8 (200) 1 /4 (32) 1 /2 (38) 1 (25)
3 5 1
10 (250) 1 /8 (35) 1 /8 (41) 1 /8 (30)
1 1
12 (300) 1 /2 (38) 2 (50) 1 /8 (30)
1
Cores greater than 1 in.2 (650 mm2) in cored shells shall be not less than 1/2 in. (13 mm) for any edge. Cores
not greater than 1 in.2 (650 mm2) in shells cored not more than 35% shall be not less than 3/8 in. (10 mm)
from any edge.
2
The thickness of webs shall not be less than 1/2 in. (13 mm) between cells, 3/8 in. (10 mm) between cells and
cores or 1/4 in. (6 mm) between cores.
3
Based on ASTM C 652, Table 2.
1.4.2 TYPES 1.4.4 COLOR AND TEXTURE

Color and texture are “ strong points”
of hollow brick,
Four Types of hollow brick are covered by ASTM
since both attributes are exposed. Hollow brick can
C 652: Types HBS, HBX, HBA and HBB. Each of these
be manufactured in a variety of textures ranging from
Types relate to the appearance of the unit. Dimen-
smooth to combed face. According to ASTM C 652, a
sional variation, chippage, warpage and other imper-
majority of the brick will have one end-texture and color
fections are qualifying conditions of Type. The most
similar to the face. If the project requires two ends or
common type, Type HBS, is considered to be stan-
two faces to be of finished texture and color, the
dard and is specified for most applications. Type HBX
requirement must be clearly stated by the specifier.
brick is specified where a higher degree of precision
is required. Type HBA brick are unique units which
Hollow brick is available in many appealing
are specified for non-uniformity in size or texture.
textures and finishes while enjoying relative freedom
Where a particular color, texture or uniformity is not
from cracks, warpage or exposed particles.
required, Type HBB brick is specified. These applica-
tions are usually unexposed locations.
There is a wide range of available colors for hollow
brick. The colors may range from off-white to jet black,
1.4.3 TOLERANCES with intermediate colors of yellow, orange, red, blue,
The dimension tolerances for hollow brick are purple, brown and gray. Some projects require a
contained in Table 1.10 and the distortion tolerances consistent color, while others specify a ‘ blend’ , or
are in Table 1.11. The dimensional tolerances require combination of colors.
greater precision than that for common or building brick
and type HBX brick require greater precision than HBS Brick samples of at least four units should be
and HBB brick. approved for texture and color prior to the start of the
project.
In order to determine dimensional tolerances, a
sample of ten brick representing the extreme range is
selected and compared to the allowable variation in
Table 1.10, Type HBX. From the sample of ten brick,
the average size is determined and the permissible
dimensional tolerances from the average size is listed
in Table 1.10.
1
Table 1.10 Hollow Brick Tolerances on Dimensions
Permissible Variation, max.
Specified Dimensions
Type HBX Type HBS and HBB
1 3
3 (76) and under ± /16 (1.58) ± /32 (2.38)
3 1
Over 3 to 4 (102), incl. ± /32 (2.38) ± /8 (3.18)
1 3
Over 4 to 6 (152), incl. ± /8 (3.18) ± /16 (4.76)
5 1
Over 6 to 8 (204), incl. ± /32 (3.97) ± /4 (6.35)
7 5
Over 8 to 12 (306), incl. ± /32 (5.56) ± /16 (7.94)
9 3
Over 12 to 16 (408), incl. ± /32 (7.14) ± /8 (9.52)
1
ASTM C 652, Table 3
1
Table 1.11 Hollow Brick Tolerances on Distortion, in. (mm)
Permissible Distortion, max.
Dimension, max.
Type HBX Type HBS
1 3
8 (204) and under /16 (1.58) /32 (2.38)
3 1
Over 8 to 12, (306), incl. /32 (2.38) /8 (3.18)
1 5
Over 12 to 16 (408), incl. /8 (3.18) /32 (3.97)
1
ASTM C 652, Table 4
CHAPTER
2
CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS
When concrete masonry is not required to resist

2.1 GENERAL large forces, some or all of the cells of the concrete
masonry units may remain empty (a void space). The
Ancient Greeks and Romans used natural stone hollow cells in the concrete masonry provide an
as their primary building material which is evidenced airspace within the masonry wall which helps resist
by the existence of the monuments that still remain. the transmission of heat or cold, and sound. Under
In addition to using natural stone for its inherent strength, extreme weather conditions, the hollow cells may be
the ancient Greeks and Romans also used natural stone filled with an insulating material such as vermiculite,
for beauty. The artists of the time crafted stone into perlite or insulating foam.
sculptures of different shapes, sizes, and form. Because
of its endurance from ancient times, stone has earned The evident advantages of concrete masonry are:
a reputation as the material symbolic of permanence.
The concrete masonry industry considers concrete  Strength (compression and tension when
masonry units (CMU) as the “ stone”of modern times. reinforced)
Concrete masonry, that is masonry constructed of  Durability
concrete masonry units, enjoys a reputation for strength  An insulator for extreme weather conditions
and durability. The beauty of concrete masonry is left  An insulator for sound
to the designer’ s imagination, as concrete masonry is  Aesthetic beauty
available in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, textures  Fire resistance
and colors.
The advancement in building construction practices
Concrete masonry units are made up of concrete have opened new opportunities in creative design with
(cement, aggregate, and water) that consists of natural concrete masonry units. In the tradition of stone, but
aggregates carefully graded to provide the concrete without the expense, concrete masonry demonstrates
masonry units with properties of strength, durability, sturdy and honest expression with viable properties;
and beauty. Concrete masonry units are designed, in while also allowing for flexibility and delicacy, but never
shape and size, for ease of handling in the installation being superficial in appearance.
process. Part of this ease of installation is that concrete
masonry units contain cells (large voids inside the A look at some of the work accomplished by
concrete masonry unit) which conceal the reinforcing distinguished architects will convince the designer of a
steel. When the cells containing the reinforcing steel material that is indeed beautiful, in good taste and
are properly grouted (filled with cementitious material), sophisticated, providing infinite possibilities for self
the system acquires strength that is capable of resisting expression. Concrete masonry’ s characteristics of
large compression and tension forces. In addition to strength, durability, fire resistance and sound insulation
structural integrity, concrete masonry units can vary in demand a look at its versatile design possibilities when
color and texture allowing the designer to create an all these advantages can be included at a competitive
aesthetically pleasing structure. cost with other materials.
Concrete masonry units are equally adaptable for for future additions to the structure. Color can also be
interior as well as exterior treatments; for appealing altered or enhanced by aging and erosion, sandblast-
space dividers and for attractive exterior terrace walls ing, or by the action of acid or detergent cleaners. A
and other enclosures. Many times a unit which can be sparkling white color can also be achieved with the use
readily made with the same pattern or treatment on of natural white sand and white cement.
both faces serves handsomely as both exterior and
interior finish wall material with added economic and The size of concrete masonry units is designated
aesthetic advantages. by width by height by length, in that order. The nominal
dimensions are typically 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) larger than the
Concrete masonry units can be installed in a actual unit dimensions, which allows for a 3/8 in. (9.5
multitude of pattern arrangements and combinations to mm) mortar joint while still keeping a standard module.
create an unending diversity of effects. The designer The most common nominal widths of concrete masonry
not only prefers to express ingenuity in development of units are 4 in. (102 mm), 6 in. (152 mm), 8 in. (203
the design, but also can very often obtain helpful mm), 10 in. (254 mm) and 12 in. (305 mm). The
suggestions or useful guidance through consultation common heights are 4 in. (102 mm) and 8 in. (203
with manufacturers’representatives or industry mm), except for concrete brick, which may be typically
professionals. One should not hesitate in availing such 22/3 in. (67.7 mm) high. The nominal length of concrete
expert technical knowledge. brick is commonly 8 in. (203 mm), but can be as long
as 12 in. (305 mm). Nominal block lengths are normally
Projecting or recessing a certain number of units 16 in. (406 mm).
can create a geometric pattern or design. Another
interesting variation consists in using units which are The weight of concrete masonry units varies.
only half the usual course height and occasionally Depending on the aggregates used, concrete masonry
projecting these units slightly beyond the face of the units are normally manufactured using concrete with
wall plane. Ground face units can be utilized to add densities ranging from 85 to 140 pounds per cubic foot
interest in the form of color and texture. (1362 to 2243 kg/m3). The lighter units provide more
fire resistance, have an improved noise reduction
Many of the fluted and ribbed units are designed coefficient and are more economical to place in the
so the vertical flutes or striations will appear in the wall. Heavier units occasionally provide increased
finished wall as unwavering continuous straight lines compressive strength, higher water penetration
for indefinite height, even when laid in regular running resistance and greater thermal storage capabilities.
bond wherein the joints alternate over the center of the Concrete masonry units are referred to as lightweight,
block unit in the courses above and below. The medium weight, or normal weight depending on the unit
continuity contributes to creation of the soaring density (see Table 2.1).
monolithic effect.
With any configuration or texture the designer Table 2.1 CMU Weight Classification
chooses, the overall effect will be influenced and Unit Weight, Classification
3
heightened by the play of lights and shadows, enhanced pcf (kg/m )
by control of colors and textures and by introducing Less than 105 (1680) Lightweight
contrasts. Curved surfaces will produce interesting 105 to 125
Medium weight
(1680 -2000)
shadows caused by broken surfaces. Vertical surfaces
125 and greater Normal weight or
can produce bold rugged effects.
(2000) Heavy weight
One of the many benefits of concrete masonry is
natural appearance. The color of natural sands and
aggregates render an earthy look of the masonry units. 2.2 PROPERTIES
Use of natural colors makes the structure appear to
Concrete Masonry Units can be either hollow or
belong to the environment. Different colors can be pro-
solid load-bearing in accordance with ASTM C 90
duced by using different aggregates or different natural
Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete
cements, or color can be changed by pigments or by
Masonry Units or hollow or solid non-loadbearing,
surface treatment. Occasionally, use of a transparent
conforming to ASTM C 129 Standard Specification for
sealer may be warranted. Use of natural materials,
Non-Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units. Concrete
sands, cements and aggregates is recommended. This
brick should conform to ASTM C 55, Standard
will result in a more natural appearance with lower main-
Specification for Concrete Brick. There are many
tenance costs and can facilitate material duplication
different sizes and textures of concrete masonry units
to fit any application. There are precision units,
CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS 19
slumped, or adobe textured block, split-faced block,
Nominal length - less mortar joint
fluted block, ground faced block and special effect = Actual length
architectural units.
Face shell thickness

Most block manufacturers have an excellent
Actual width
support staff and offer valuable assistance to the A A
designer in the conceptual phase of the project.
Consultation with the manufacturers support staff is
invaluable assistance to the designer in the choice of
materials.
2.2.1 DIMENSIONS AND MODULAR SIZES

Web thickness
The industry standard for block dimensions is to
state the nominal width by the nominal height by the Plan View of a Modular Block
nominal length, in that order. For example, a 6 x 8 x 16
in. (152 x 203 x 406 mm) block would refer to a unit
that is 6 in. (152 mm) wide by 8 in. (203 mm) tall by 16
in. (406 mm) long, even though the actual dimensions
are 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) less: 55/8 in. x 75/8 in. x 155/8 in. (143
mm x 194 mm x 397 mm). The 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) is the
allowance for the size of the mortar joint. Slumped
(adobe textured) block are made by a wet mix process
under high vibration with the actual dimensions, typically Cross Section of a Modular Block, A-A
1
/2 in. (12.7 mm) less than the nominal dimension.
The industry standard modular concrete block is FIGURE 2.2 Industry standard modular block.
shown in Figure 2.1. The manufacturing process of the
concrete block causes the bottom of the block to have Table 2.2 Minimum Thickness of Face Shells
1
narrower thickness and sloped interior sides. This also and Webs
allows a larger surface for bedding of mortar as units Minimum Minimum
are laid in the wall. The sloped sides helps the block Nominal Specified Face Shell Web
slide out of its mold after it has cured. Figure 2.2 and Width Width Thickness Thickness
2
(in) (in) (in) (in)
Table 2.2 lists the minimum thickness of the shell and 5 3 3
webs. 4 3 /8 /4 /4
5
6 5 /8 1 1
5 1
Web 8 7 /8 1 /4 1
5 3 1
10 9 /8 1 /8 1 /8
Cell 5 1 1
12 11 /8 1 /2 1 /8
1
This table is to be used in combination with Figure 2.2
2
For solid grouted masonry construction, minimum face
shell thickness shall be not less than 5/8 in. (16 mm).
Face shell
Shapes of block include straight, radius and angled.
End
Web Standard colors are gray, tan and pink. Manufacturers
also have a wide variety of colors available on special
Cell
order.
Ears
2.2.2 METRIC
Many countries use the metric or Systems
Face shell International (SI) method of measurement. The United
States favors a conversion to the ‘ soft metric’ system
Concave end
for concrete block, which is maintaining the current size
of the unit and using metric nomenclature that is not
FIGURE 2.1 Industry standard modular block. rounded to size. A (US) standard nominal size concrete
block 8 in. wide by 4 in. high by 16 in. long is 194 mm For historical references, the widely used 1997
by 92 mm by 397 mm. Adding a typical 9 to 10 mm Uniform Building Code (UBC) Standard 21-4 was similar
mortar joint makes the US units slightly, but intolerably, to ASTM C 90, however Standard 21-4 did contain some
larger than the metric units. intentional differences relating to the concrete masonry
unit requirements. One of the differences is the
Adding a 10 mm mortar joint, the standard 190 x recognition of both Grade N and Grade S by Standard
90 x 390 metric block becomes 200 x 100 x 400 block 21-4. In addition to the Type I unit, which is the required
in metric (millimeter) units. unit for ASTM C 90, Standard 21-4 recognizes the Type
II unit.
In November, 1996, the Cox Bill, also known as the
Savings in Construction Act went into effect in the As a practical matter, there are very few block
United States. This bill gave designers and the industry manufactured that conform only to Type S specifica-
the flexibility to continue design and use of the English tions.
System of units for concrete block masonry. Even
though the dimensional difference of 8 in. (203 mm) Also, UBC Standard 21-4 specifically recognizes
and 200 mm is small, it is too great to be compensated slumped block units as a structural unit. The slump
by a 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) mortar joint. The cost to industry textured block is widely used in the Southwestern
to manufacture and stock two sets of units (English United States to duplicate the traditional adobe
and Metric) would be staggering. Since 1996 the use appearance.
of English Units has continued and will continue for the
foreseeable future. The amount of moisture a concrete unit absorbs
can affect its strength. Table 2.3 lists the strength and
In Chapter 16, there are conversion tables for values absorption requirements for concrete masonry.
of length, speed, area, weight or mass, volume, density,
force, pressure, energy and temperature from English The specified compression strength value that is
measurement to SI (metric) measurement. common for ASTM C 90 conforming units can be used
to verify a design strength (f’ m
) = 1,500 psi (10,342 kPa)
2.2.3 COMPRESSION STRENGTH for solid or partially grouted reinforced masonry walls.
The definition of f’m
is the design value used in masonry.
ASTM C 90, Standard Specification for Load- The actual compressive strength of the masonry system
bearing Concrete Masonry Units, requires that the must not be less than the design value of f’ . This
m
average compressive strength of 3 units, based on the value of 1,500 psi is not the compression strength of
net area of the unit, be at least 1,900 psi (13,100 kPa). the unit, it is the design value of the total masonry
In 1990, ASTM deleted the differentiation between Grade system.
N and Grade S concrete block and required all block
units under ASTM C 90 designation meet the higher, Table 2105.2.2.1.2 of the 2006 International Building
old Grade N, standard. Code (2006 IBC), lists verified compression strengths
Grade N units were defined as acceptable for of the masonry based on the compression strength of
exterior use above or below grade, whereas Grade S the concrete unit and the type of mortar used. The
units were limited to above grade exterior use provided strength of the grout should conform to ASTM C 476
the units are covered with a protective coating or not and the minimum compression strength of the grout
exposed to the weather. must equal or exceed f’ m
but not be less than 2,000 psi
(2006 IBC Section 2105.2.2.1.2).
1
Table 2.3 Strength and Absorption Requirements
Water Absorption, Max. (Avg. of 3 units) With
2 3
Compressive Strength , min. psi Oven-Dry Weight of Concrete. lb./ft
Average Net Area Weight Classification
Lightweight Medium Weight Normal Weight
Avg. of 3 Units Individual Unit
Less than 105 105 to Less than 125 125 or More
1900 1700 18 15 13
1
ASTM C 90, Table 2.
2
Higher compressive strengths may be specified where required by design. Consult with local suppliers to determine availability of
units of higher compressive strength.
For example, when a masonry wall is designed for 2.3.2 SPLIT FACED UNITS
a compression strength of 1,500 psi, the concrete
masonry units need to be 1,900 psi using Type S or M Split-faced units have an irregular surface
mortar. appearance. Two split faced units are manufactured
as one block and separated into two units by splitting
For high-rise load-bearing buildings, high cantilever the block (Figure 2.3). This provides an irregular
retaining walls, tall slender walls with an h/t ratio roughened texture on the face shell.
between 30 and 50, or heavily loaded members, the
strength of the concrete masonry unit may require more
than the basic minimum strength of ASTM C 90. When
high strength units are required, the units should be
specified as follows:
“Concrete masonry units shall conform to the

requirements of ASTM C 90, except that the average
unit net area strength shall be at least _______psi and
the specified compression strength of the masonry wall,
solid grouted, shall not be less than the design strength,
f’
m
= _______psi.”
‘ Split line
The percentage of desirable increase over the

specified f’m
is dependent on the materials and FIGURE 2.3 Plan view of a fluted split face
experience in the area. Typically, the material strengths unit (Before splitting).
should be 25% to 33% greater than f’ m
.
.
Split-faced units are manufactured in standard and
2.3 ARCHITECTURAL UNITS special sizes and in a variety of textures and colors.
One special feature of these units is the architectural
The technology of the manufacturing process keeps appearance of one or more sides. This makes possible
the concrete masonry unit cost effective as a useful a standard block texture on one side of the wall and a
building material. The same technology also offers the special stone-like texture on the exposed side.
designer more variety in the creative selection of the
building appearance. As the architectural features of Split face units are also available with one or more
the building change, so too must the materials change. vertical scores, as well as a fluted split face block
configuration. These units are usually available by
2.3.1 SLUMPED UNITS special order only.
Concrete masonry units are manufactured with 2.3.3 VENEER UNITS

virtually zero slump (very low water/cement ratio).
However, the finish and texture of some architectural Veneer units are manufactured in a multitude of
units require a higher water/cement ratio (more water) colors and many textures. They are non-structural and
that causes the concrete block mix to slump or provides laid against a structural backup wall. The width of veneer
an adobe texture. units varies from approximately 2 in. (50.8 mm) for
precision units up to 41/2 in. (114 mm) for fluted and
In the Western United States, where adobe is split face units. The height may vary depending on the
popular, slumped concrete masonry units are readily design requirements, however, the standard heights are
available in standard colors, such as gray and tan. 4 and 8 in. (102 and 203 mm).
Special colors, such as brown and buff, are also available
by special order. The slump block width varies, with 6 Veneer units can also be used under special
in. (152 mm) wide units commonly used. conditions in a structural wall, such as the exterior facing
of a concrete floor line where the floor intersects the
With modern technology, slumped units can be structural masonry wall.
manufactured as slumped on one side only and radius
wall units. These are usually limited to special orders.
Producers also make a special slumped cap unit, which
is readily available.
2.3.4 SCREEN BLOCK 2.4 CONCRETE BRICK

Screen wall units are manufactured in standard face
and sculptured designs. The sizes have a range to Concrete brick are manufactured in block modular
meet nearly every decorative need from a 4 in. (102 and regular brick sizes and conform to ASTM C 55,
mm) cube to the giant 16 in. (406 mm) square. These Standard Specification for Concrete Brick. They may
units are used in areas to screen out direct sunlight as be used as backup units to a clay face brick wall or as
well as to add to the aesthetic design of the wall or units making up the total wall.
structure. Manufacturers will typically inventory grey
or stock color units, however, the units may be ordered Concrete bricks are manufactured in various colors,
to provide a specific color. textures and sizes and are economical and attractive
masonry units. Concrete brick can be produced to
effectively imitate clay brick.
2.5 PAVING UNITS

Concrete paving units are manufactured to high
strength and density specifications. They come in a
variety of patterns, colors and arrangements as shown
in Figure 2.7 and can add significantly to the beauty of
any paved area. They can be used for walkways,
driveways, patios, streets, or virtually any horizontal
application. See the specifications provided by the
manuf acturer for vehicular and non-vehicular
FIGURE 2.4 Screen block units. recommendations.
2.3.5 CAP UNITS

Cap units are manufactured in a variety of sizes to 2.6 CONCRETE MASONRY
match wall widths. They are typically used to cap the
top of free-standing walls and may be used for patio
UNITS (CMU) - ILLUSTRATED
paving. Many integral colors are available. Shown below and on the following pages are a few
of the many types of concrete masonry units available.
Consult with the local manufacturer for complete
availability of product line and colors.
4" WIDE WALL; 4" High Units
4 x 4 x 16 Standard 4 x 4 x 8 Half 4 x 4 x 12 Corner 4 x 4 x 16 Stretcher Unit
4 x 8 x 16 Standard 4 x 8 x 8 Half 4 x 8 x 12 Corner 4 x 8 x 16 Stretcher Unit
FIGURE 2.5 Typical concrete masonry units.

6 x 4 x 16 Standard 6 x 4 x 16 Stretcher Unit 6 x 4 x 8 Half
6 x 4 x 16 Bond Beam 6 x 4 x 14 Corner
6 x 8 x 16 Standard 6 x 8 x 8 Half
6 x 8 x 16 Bond Beam 6 x 8 x 16 Open End 6 x 8 x 16 Return Corner
FIGURE 2.5 Typical concrete masonry units (Continued).

8 x 4 x 16 Standard 8 x 4 x 16 Bond Beam 8 x 4 x 8 Half 8 x 4 x 16 Open End
8 x 6 x 16 Standard 8 x 6 x 16 Bond Beam 8 x 6 x 16 Bond Beam Closure
8 x 8 x 16 Standard 8 x 8 x 16 Open End 8 x 8 x 16 Double Open End

Bond Beam
8 x 8 x 8 Half 8 x 8 x 16 Lintel 8 x 8 x 16 Bond Beam
8 x 8 x 16 Open End Bond Beam 8 x 8 x 16 Grout Lock 8”Y-Block

10 x 4 x 16 Standard 10 x 4 x 16 Bond Beam 10 x 4 x 8 Half
10 x 8 x 16 Standard 10 x 8 x 16 Open End 10 x 8 x 16 Open End 10 x 8 x 8 Half

Bond Beam
12 x 4 x 16 Standard 12 x 4 x 8 Half 12 x 4 x 16 Open End 12 x 4 x 16 Bond Beam

Bond Beam
12 x 8 x 16 Standard 12 x 8 x 16 Bond Beam 12 x 8 x 8 Half 12 x 8 x 12 Column
12 x 8 x 16 Double 12 x 8 x 16 Open End 12 x 8 x 16 Open End 12 x 8 x 8 Lintel

Open End Bond Beam Bond Beam

24" LONG UNITS, 8" WIDE WALL; 8" High Units
8 x 8 x 24 Open End 8 x 8 x 12 Half
8 x 8 x 24 Standard 8 x 8 x 24 Vertical Score 8 x 8 x 24 Open End

Bond Beam
PILASTER UNITS; 8" High Units
12" Wide Pilaster 16" Wide Pilaster
12 x 8 x 16 Banjo Pilaster 16 x 8 x 16 Banjo Pilaster
16 x 8 x 6 C-Alternate 12 x 8 x 8 C-Alternate

8" WIDE RADIUS WALL, 8" High Units
8 x 8 x 16 - 2 Foot Radius 8 x 8 x 16 - 4 Foot Radius
2 Foot Radius - Alternate Course 4 Foot Radius - Alternate Course
ACCESSORY BLOCK
21/2 x 8 x 16 Veneer 21/2 x 8 x 16 Split Face Veneer 10 x 4 x 8 Sill 8 x 2 x 16 Cap
8 x 8 x 16 H-Pilaster 8 x 8 x 16 Standard 45o 8 x 8 x 16 Corner 45o 8 x 8 x 16 Bullnose

4" WIDE; 4" High Slumped Block
4 x 4 x 16 Standard 4 x 4 x 16 Solid Top Cap 4 x 4 x 12 Corner 4 x 4 x 8 Half
6 x 4 x 16 Standard 6 x 4 x 16 Bond Beam 6 x 4 x 16 Solid Top Cap 6 x 4 x 14 Corner 6 x 4 x 8 Half

8 x 4 x 16 Standard 8 x 4 x 16 Bond Beam 8 x 4 x 16 Open End
8 x 4 x 16 Open End Bond Beam 8 x 4 x 16 Solid Top Cap 8 x 4 x 8 Half
8 x 6 x 16 Standard 8 x 6 x 16 Bond Beam 8 x 6 x 16 Open End 8 x 6 x 16 Open End

Bond Beam
8 x 6 x 8 Half 8 x 6 x 18 Standard 8 x 6 x 18 Bond Beam 8 x 6 x 9 Half

SLUMPED CAP UNITS
4 x 2 x 16 Cap 6 x 2 x 16 Cap 8 x 2 x 16 Cap
ARCHITECTURAL FEATURE UNITS
155/8”
15 /8”
5
15 /8”
5
75/8”
75/8” 75/8”
75/8” 75/8” 95/8”

1” 23/4” 1”
3” 1 /4” 3”
11/2” 2”
1
1”
8 x 8 x 16 - 3 Score Split Face 8 x 8 x 16 Fluted Split Face 10 x 8 x 16 - 3 Score Split Face
155/8” 155/8”
75/8” 75/8”
115/8” 115/8”
2” 1”
11/2” 2” 3”
1”
12 x 8 x 16 Scored Split Face 12 x 8 x 16 - 3 Score Split Face

ARCHITECTURAL FEATURE UNITS - CONTINUED
8 x 8 x 16 Shadow 8 x 8 x 16 Split Face 8 x 8 x 16 Projected Block 8 x 8 x 16 Center Score
8 x 8 x 16 - 3 Score 8 x 8 x 16 - 5 Score 8 x 8 x 16 - 11 Score 8 x 8 x 16 Combed Face
2.7 COMPONENT UNITS AND cavity between units (where the web of the standard
unit would normally be) and the void is filled with grout
SECTIONS (Figure 2.6). This system of creating walls allows the
designer to vary the width wall without having the block
A component masonry wall is a system of creating manufacturer make special block and permits different
concrete masonry walls by using the face shell pieces colors and textures on opposite faces of the wall.
of the block. The component units are held in place
through cross ties. Reinforcing bars are placed in the
115/8” 23/4”
235/8”
75/8” 235/8” 21/4”
Variable wall thickness
Reinforcing steel 513/16”
75/8”
12”
513/16”
Ties
21/4 x 8 x 12 x 24 21/4 x 8 x 24
Grout Outside Corner Return Standard Inside Face
cavity
21/4 x 8 x 24 21/4 x 8 x 12 x 24
Variable wall thickness Split Face Split Face Outside
Corner Return
FIGURE 2.6 Masonry component system.

The expense of a special order block is directly

related to the quantity of the order. There is an initial
set up fee associated with stopping the production line
run of standard modular block, then setting the molds
for the special order, producing the special order, and
finally resetting the molds for the standard production.
The greater the number of special order block, the
greater the set-up fee can be distributed over and thus
bring the cost per unit down. If the quantity of special
order is not large enough to justify the cost, a designer
might consider the component unit system of concrete
masonry wall construction, providing that component
units are readily available.
Both designer and engineer can enjoy the versatility

of components which typically conform to ASTM C 55
with 2500 psi (17,237 kPa) compressive strength. The
designer enjoys the flexibility of wall thickness and the
engineer benefits from higher strengths. Components
can act as a façade/formwork thus combining the
formwork and veneer cost in one labor step. The
structural system is the reinforced concrete located on
the inside of the component units. However this design
approach sacrifices the economy in wall thickness,
since the component units might not be considered in
Symmetry and Square Units and Pattern
the structural design. Wall thicknesses are available
from 8 in. (203 mm) to 24 in. (610 mm) in 1 in. (25.4
mm) increments.
The components are given a 4 hour fire rating when

used in 8 in. (203 mm) walls. Since the face shells are
separated until tied in the wall, different units may be
used on each side of the wall. Due to this unique
feature, components are the most economical method
of using white cement and limestone units for one
finished wall face.
2.8 CONCRETE PAVING

PATTERN UNITS
Concrete paving units are high strength, dense,
durable and available in multiple designs and colors.
They are economical and construction is rapid and easy.
Concrete paving units are designed and manufactured
for efficient locking of individual units in place providing
an attractive arrangement of maintenance-free areas.
The following figure shows some of the paving units Basketweave/Parquet Units and Pattern
available. Check local manufacturer for availability.
Varying the bond or joint pattern of a concrete FIGURE 2.7 Paving bond patterns.
masonry patio or walk can create a wide variety of
interesting and attractive designs.
2.9 RESIN (GLAZED) COATINGS

Glazed concrete masonry units are concrete block,
with finished and exposed surfaces covered at point of
manufacture with a thermo-setting resinous compound
permanently adhered onto base block by an external
heat-polymerizing process. Block shall conform to type
and use noted in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 Concrete Masonry Unit Standards

Product Specification
Concrete Building Brick ASTM C 55
Hollow Loadbearing Block ASTM C 90
Hollow Nonloadbearing Block ASTM C 129
Solid Loadbearing Block ASTM C 145
2.9.1 SPECIFICATIONS
Facing material shall conform to ASTM C 744,
Standard Specification for Prefaced Concrete and
Calcium Silicate Masonry Units, with respect to
imperviousness, resistance to fading (chemical
Venus II Unit and Pattern resistance), opacity and tolerances on dimensions, and
when tested in accordance with ASTM E 84, Standard
Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of
Building Materials, shall have a flame spread index and
other fire characteristics in accordance with local
requirements. Units tested for shrinkage as per ASTM
C 426, Standard Test Method for Linear Drying Shrinkage
of Concrete Masonry Units, shall be free of crazing,
cracking and spalling. The facing shall return over ends
and edges of the block, forming a lip at least 1/16 in. (1.6
mm) thick, resulting in a 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) exposed mortar
joint. When tested for abrasion, the facing shall have a
wear factor not in excess of 130, in accordance with
ASTM C 501, Standard Test Method for Relative
Resistance to Wear of Unglazed Ceramic Tile by the
Taber Abraser.
Glazed units shall be used in the widest nominal

dimension compatible with accepted concrete masonry
design, and single through-the-wall units shall be used
where possible.
Deliver units to job site on pallets with individual

faces protected. One method of protection at the job
site is to carefully stack and protect from weather by
covering with tarpaulins or storing inside until placed in
wall.
Herringbone Unit and Pattern
The glazed surface must be free from chips, cracks,
pinholes and other imperfections detracting from the
FIGURE 2.7 Paving bond patterns (Contin- appearance of the finished wall when viewed at five feet
ued). (1.5 m), at right angles to the wall, using daylight without
direct sunlight.
At all times use reasonable and proper care in Double-glazed units, if available, permit construction
handling units to prevent marring or damaging faces, and finish of two-faced walls in a single operation. This
edges and corners. During erection, keep walls free of system should be used only when tight bed depth
excess mortar and, upon completion, clean walls with tolerance or second face alignment is not mandatory.
a masonry cleaning compound recommended by the
manufacturer. Structural glazed units offer many fire safety
advantages. Glazed units provide the same fire rating
2.9.2 MANUFACTURER’
S STANDARDS as concrete block. As with precision concrete block,
fire ratings of 1, 2, 3 and 4 hours can easily be achieved
Concrete units to be glazed shall be top grade units with structural glazed units, depending on wall
conforming to the latest revision of ASTM Specifications thickness and grouting requirements.
for Concrete Masonry Units.
Structural glazed units are often used where sanitary
Tolerances on dimensions shall be: conditions are a concern, such as kitchens and
hospitals. The impervious facing is easily cleaned and
1. Permissible variation in face dimensions from sanitized.
Standard: ______________ 1/16 in. (1.6 mm).
2. Permissible variation in bed depth dimensions As with any manufactured item, a minor variation
from Standard: _________ 1/16 in. (1.6 mm). in shade or color is to be expected. A wide range of
3. Maximum permissible face distortion: colors, including blue, green, yellow and brown are
_____________________ 1/16 in. (1.6 mm). available.
The color of the surface shall conform to an approved Laying of these units is performed in the same
sample consisting of f iv e stretcher units fully manner as for precision structural concrete block units.
representing the range of shade and color.
2.9.3 SHAPES AND SIZES OF GLAZED CMU
Stretcher Units
Glazed 1 Side
2 X 8 X 16 4 X 8 X 16 6 X 8 X 16 8 X 8 X 16
Glazed 2 Sides
4 X 8 X 16 6 X 8 X 16 8 X 8 X 16 8 X 8 X 16
FIGURE 2.8 Glazed Concrete Masonry Units.

Cove Base
Glazed 1 Side
2 X 8 X 16 4 X 8 X 16 6 X 8 X 16 8 X 8 X 16
Glazed 1 Side and 1 End
2 X 8 X 16 4 X 8 X 16 2 X 8 X 16 4 X 8 X 16
Jamb
Glazed 1 Side and 1 End
4 X 8 X 16 2 X 8 X 16 4 X 8 X 16
Cap
2 X 8 X 16 4 X 8 X 16 2 X 8 X 16 4 X 8 X 16
FIGURE 2.8 Glazed Concrete Masonry Units (Continued).

2.10 SEGMENTAL RETAINING

WALL UNITS
Relatively new on the scene is Segmental Retaining
Walls. This type of masonry unit uses weight and
gravity to retain soil. The units are not mortared, but
are designed with a mechanical interlock for stability.
Segmental Retaining Wall (SRW) units have a

separate material standard, ASTM C 1372, Standard
Specification for Segmental Retaining Wall Units. This
standard is somewhat different from ASTM C 90
requiring compressive strength of the units to average
at least 3,000 psi (20.68 MPa). Other properties, such
as the maximum water absorption requirements and
the weight classification, are equivalent to ASTM C 90.
Individual units, however, are significantly heavier, up to
100 pounds (45 kg) each due to more volume with each
unit.
The manufacturer’ s product data is essential for

the correct application of SRW units, since there is a
limitation on how tall the walls can be constructed while
maintaining a factor of safety. Walls not exceeding 4
feet (1.2 m) are normally constructed without any
significant special provisions, however, taller walls
typically require design with a geogrid mesh assisting
in the retention of the SRW units.
FIGURE 2.9 Segmental retaining wall units.

CHAPTER
3
NATURAL STONE
and color. For physical and structural properties,

3.1 GENERAL weathering characteristics, size and thickness
limitations are factors of selections. Consideration also
Today, natural stone is used in building as a facing, should be given to cost and availability.
veneer, and decoration. This is in contrast to natural
stones used as a structural load carrying building Hundreds of stone types and colors are available
material, such as the Parthenon of ancient Greece. for use as veneer on buildings. In addition, the
When considering the use of natural stone as a facing, arrangement of the stone type and color should be
veneer or decoration, the major factors affecting the considered. Figures 3.1 and 3.2 provide various patterns
suitability and use of stone fall under two broad, but of rubble and ashlar stone.
overlapping categories, physical and structural
properties versus aesthetic qualities. Stone may be trimmed and cut to form regular
patterns such as range, random or broken ashlar.
For aesthetics, three factors of building stone that
most influential in the selection are pattern, texture,
Range Course Random Range
Uncoursed Field Stone Polygonal or Mosaic
Broken Range Long Stone Random

Range
Coursed Square Stone
FIGURE 3.2 Ashlar stone.
FIGURE 3.1 Rubble stone.

ASTM C 880 Standard Test Method for Flexural

3.2 ASTM STONE STANDARDS Strength of Dimension Stone.
In order to assure quality stone the following ASTM
Standards may be referenced: 3.3 CLASSIFICATION OF STONE
ASTM C 97 Standard Test Method for Absorption and Natural stone, such as marble and granite, is one
Bulk Specific Gravity of Dimension Stone. of the most beautiful of earth’ s natural materials used
ASTM C 99 Standard Test Method for Modulus of in construction. The variegated surface of marble and
Rupture of Dimension Stone. the visual strength of granite have made these stones
ideal for the creative designer.
ASTM C 170 Standard Test Method for Compressive
Strength of Dimension Stone.
3.3.1 GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
ASTM C 503 Standard Specification for Marble
Dimension Stone (Exterior). In the most general sense, masonry stone are rocks
ASTM C 568 Standard Specification for Limestone that form the earth’s crust and fall into three genetic
Dimension Stone. groups: Igneous; Sedimentary; and Metamorphic.
ASTM C 615 Standard Specification for Granite
Igneous - When the earth formed, the crust was
Dimension Stone.
at one stage a viscous liquid skin that slowly cooled
ASTM C 616 Standard Specification for Quartz-Based and hardened into igneous rock. Granite is a multi-
Dimension Stone. colored intrusive igneous rock ranging in color from
ASTM C 629 Standard Specification for Slate
Dimension Stone.
Table 3.1 Building Stone Surface Finishes

Geological Category Common Name Finishes
1. Sedimentary Sandstone A) Smooth (machine finished by saw, grinder or planer)

Limestone B) Machine tooled (with uniform grooves)
Dolomite C) Chat Sawn (non-uniform)
D) Shot Sawn (irregular and uneven markings)
E) Split Face (concave-convex)
F) Rock Face (convex)
2. Metamorphic Marble G) Sanded
Serpentine H) Honed
Onyx I) Polished
1
Slate J) Wheelabraded
1
Quartzite K) Bush-Hammered
2
Gneiss L) Split Face
4
Travertine M) Rock Face
3. Igneous Granite N) Sawn
Syenite O) Honed
3
Diorite P) Polished
Gabbro Q) Machine Tooled (4-cut, 6-cut, chiseled, axed,
Andesite pointed, etc.)
Basalt R) Flamed
S) Sand Finished
T) Split Face
U) Rock Face
1
Slate and quartzite cannot be polished.
2
Gneiss will take all of the finishes of marble and may also be flame finished.
3
Diorite will not take flame finish.
4
Travertine is actually a limestone but is classified with marbles for surface finishes. Travertine finishes include filled, partially filled
and unfilled.
NATURAL STONE 39
white to black. Granite is composed of quartz, feldspar,
mica and ferro magnesium minerals. As igneous rock
3.4 TEXTURE OF QUARRIED
weathers, it deteriorates into deposited soils that are
then consolidated due to heat, pressure and
STONE
cementitious action to produce sedimentary rock. The term “texture”
, as applied to marble, relates to
the size, shape, degree of uniformity and arrangement
Sedimentary - Sedimentary rocks are formed by of the component grains or crystals. The texture or
the process of cementing, consolidating crystallization grain pattern can be:
and hardening of chemical solutions and biological
deposits. Equigranular - grains of approximately the same
size, such as limestone.
Metamorphic - W hen sedimentary rocks are
subjected to increasing heat, pressure and shear, the Inequigranular - grains of markedly unequal sizes
minerals are then altered chemically and distorted or such as granite.
physically realigned to produce metamorphic rocks. Porphyrithic - relatively large, coarse crystal called
phenocrysts of one or more mineral components
Table 3.1 lists some of the common masonry stone in a ground mass of markedly finer texture such as
types and their geologic category, along with a granite.
description of the available finishes.
Interlocking - where grains with irregular boundaries
Metamorphic rocks may resemble their original interlock by mutual penetration such as granite and
sedimentary ancestors but are usually more crystalline breccia.
and dense. Igneous rocks may also be metamorphosed Mosaic (or Granulitic) - closely packed grains with
by heat, pressure and shear but the changes are usually smooth to moderately irregular, non-interlocking
less drastic. mutual boundaries such as feldspar and pyroxene.
This manner of heat and pressure forms dense Elastic - naturally cemented fragmental grains but
metamorphic rocks, differing widely from the igneous without interlocking or mosaic relation such as
or sedimentary types. When limestones or dolomites quartzite.
crystallize, they form a metamorphic rock commonly Grano Balstic - a granular mosaic texture in which
called marble. All calcareous (calcium based) rocks, the grains are tightly compacted, the minerals are
as well as some dolomitic and serpentine rocks that dominantly of equidimensional kinds and present
are able to be polished, are commercially called marbles. irregular mutual boundaries such as granite.
Natural patterns within the stone can be highly Table 3.2 list some common stone veneers used in
varied, and provide special features that make building the United States.
stone a unique material. In addition to the pattern, the
texture is varied, ranging from coarse fragments to fine
grains and crystalline structures. Texture also varies
with the hardness of minerals composing the stone.
Pattern, texture, and color are all affected by how

the stone is fabricated and finished. Granites hold color
and pattern, while limestone color changes with
exposure. Textures may range from rough and flamed
finishes to honed or polished surfaces. As a ‘ hard’
stone, granite has the ability to become a highly
polished finish which can be maintained over the life of
the stone.
FIGURE 3.3 Getty Center, Los Angeles.

Table 3.2 West Coast Veneer Stone

Name Type Color Texture Coverage
(SqFt/Ton)
Palos Verdes Sedimentary Limestone Off White to Gray Flat to Uneven 40-45
Bouquet Canyon Granitic Schist Tan to Rust Flat to Uneven 40-45
Santa Maria Sedimentary Limestone Cream to Rust Flat 40-45
Drift Stone Wallostonite Brown to Black Rough to Rugged 40-45
Black Lava Lava Black Rough to Rugged 45-50
White Marble Limestone White Irregular 40-45
Arizona Cut Wall Sandstone Tan and Red Smooth 45-50
Featherock Pumice Gray-Black Rough 150-180
Slate Sedimentary Shale Gray-Green-Plum Smooth 300-350
Texas Shell Oolitic Limestone Cream Irregular 45-50
Texas Lime Oolitic Limestone Cream Smooth 45-50
Whitewater Canyon Unknown Red w/Yellow Irregular 45-50
Mariposite Quartzite Green w/White Irregular 25-30
Grimes Canyon Unknown Red w/Yellow Irregular 45-50
Desert Bark Shale Red to Brown Irregular 45-50
Santa Rita Sedimentary Limestone Cream to Gray Flat 45-50
Apache Stone Shale Green-Red-Pink Flat 45-50
of the stone, its method of anchorage, and the loads it

3.5 PHYSICAL must resist, the size and thickness of the stone should
CHARACTERISTICS be established. Also, based on the variability of the
stone properties as well as other considerations such
as anchorage, deficient workmanship, method of support
The use of the physical characteristics of a and degree of exposure of the cladding installation a
particular stone must be appropriate. Physical correct safety factor should be developed. To prevent
properties of the actual stone must be determined and unacceptable loading of the stone, relieving angles for
applied, as opposed to using generic table values, to stone support and anchorage may be necessary. The
assure an adequate design and installation. The stone should be protected from staining and breakage
physical properties of the stone being selected include: during shipment, delivery and installation. With these
variables and factors, the need for an experienced and
• coefficient of expansion qualified designer in stone attachment is a necessity.
• change in shape
• modulus of rupture The development of stone in construction has been
• shear strength a continually evolving process. Stone was first used
• modulus of elasticity for shelter simply because it formed the walls of caves
• weatherability in which people took refuge from the ravages of the
• creep deflection elements. This worked, but early man had to leave the
• moisture resistance shelter of the dark cave to forage and hunt. Later, as
• compressive strength humanity evolved, the use of large, solid blocks of stone
to build homes gave the builder choice of location and
Epoxy adhesives, which are frequently used with layout. This worked better. The home could be built
stone are affected by cleanliness of the surfaces to be closer to food and water and also be built with a greater
bonded and ambient temperature. Curing time degree of comfort. Unfortunately, building with solid
increases with cold temperatures and decreases with stone was a costly venture requiring much time and
warmer temperatures. labor. Only the very wealthy could build with stone.
Costs can be controlled with the introduction of Today, natural stone is not used as a structural
new systems of manufacture, installation and recent element of buildings. Instead, thin slabs of natural stone
developments in the design and detailing of stone are used to clad buildings in aesthetically pleasing stone
cutting, support and anchorage. The quality and veneer. This use allows any building to be economically
durability of installation is affected by the correct design constructed with stone.
of joints, selection of mortars, and use of sealants. The
adequate design and detailing of each piece of stone
anchorage is required. Based on physical properties
NATURAL STONE 41
Features of stone construction include natural
beauty, subliminal feeling of security, and eternal
3.7 EVALUATING STONE
strength. In addition, marble and granite do not lose Tests that measure physical properties are
beauty with age as do so many other materials. Marble important in evaluating material durability, permanence
and granite age gracefully with passing years and and safety. For predicting the utility of stone, these
weather nature’s fury with serenity. tests are the designer’ s foundation. Inconsistent
properties can be accommodated into a safe and
Over the last four decades, natural stone has been permanent building system, even when the stone is
incorporated in massive architecture as one of the unpredictable and widely varying compared to other
preferred building claddings. Natural stone is easy to materials.
obtain, is less expensive and the manufacturing
technology for producing thinner stone which could fit The initial tests of the material to discover the basic
in the evolving curtain wall has advanced to make stone strength values and the variability are required even before
lighter. beginning to design the stone’ s support. This data is
collected by statistical analysis to determine standard
Stone used in buildings is not new and was utilized differences and mean values from which correct factors
as a shelter in ancient times. Today, designers have of safety are suggested. Support backup behavior
included stone in their material palette in recognition of climate, superimposed pressures, prospective
that inherent permanence and durability. For self- anchorage types and redundancy are parameters that
supporting stone, the historic anchorage approaches should be considered in the implementation of this
of stacking, friction, mass and gravity have been objective information. Before a final judgment on factor
replaced by pins, grooves, wedges and other means of of safety is provided, analysis of risk and consequence
positive anchorage. Stone that appears to exceed its of a potential failure is essential.
own carrying capacity can be self-supporting under wind
or seismic loads, with or without reinforcement or Conclusions drawn from the initial testing of a
special support considerations. This is possible due generous sampling of the selected stone become the
to the manufacturers’ ability to make stone thinner and foundation of structural proof of each stone panel’ s
in larger face sizes. This requires that practices be adequacy. While published strength values are
developed to evaluate each stone’ s ability to function practical, these values are never acceptable data for
as a structural component combined with other different natural stone engineering. Initial testing is the only
elements within a building’ s skin. acceptable data source for engineering when it comes
to natural stone.
3.6 PHYSICAL NATURE
The buyer must conduct quality control testing, as
Stone is a natural material which, as an end product, necessary, to assure strength conformance of the stone
maintains the same indigenous and varying physical since natural stone wasn’ t created within a quality
characteristics that it did in the ground. Extracting control program. Typically, to assure aesthetic
deposits in the original or natural place and then characteristics, a similar program is introduced which
changing rough stone blocks into thin slabs typically requires visual inspection of the production stone
increase any natural inconsistent behaviors due to supplied and comparison to an approved range of
imperfections. Products of refined recipes of minerals sam ples. To assure basic strengths and
and matter combined under controlled processes to inconsistencies, do not depart from the safe useful range
yield clearly measurable and predictable physical established on the conclusions of the initial tests. Stone
behavior are concrete, steel, aluminum, glass, rubber engineering requires stone strength characteristics be
and other familiar curtain wall building materials. Natural confirmed throughout the project. Using the same initial
stone contains varying minerals, even within the same testing sequence, the results of which, when
quarried block, yielding non-isotropic and uneven completed, are compared to the initial testing values
mixture of substance with moderately irregular and and conclusions, the quality control program usually
changeable behavior. Thus, the need for testing to consists of tests conducted on smaller sample
determine the behavior properties is a requirement. quantities.
As with any masonry product, the v arying Where the new stone is to be installed, a review is
characteristics of individual units enhance the beauty required prior to the stone installation to permit
of the finished product. If consistency in the final product adjustments of anchorage or thickness to be
is desired, natural stone may not be the correct material incorporated into the design of the facade area.
selection.
3.8 PROPERTIES 3.9.2 MARBLE

Marble is a metamorphic rock, composed of fine
The composition of natural stone is an uneven to coarse-grained recrystallized calcite and/or
mixture of many mineral and fossil ingredients. Also, dolomite. When it is at its purest form, marble is
the natural composition of natural stone differs along crystalline white calcite. However, the majority of
length, width and throughout the mass, resulting in marbles are mixed with impurities such as dolomite
location-dependent physical properties. Most natural silica or clay, which provide difference in color and
stone has veins or rifts, which means that there exists patterned movement. The marble colors vary from white
a predominant direction of crystal flow resulting in to black with a wide variety of hues. Marble, when
direction-dependent physical properties, although rifts subjected to greater wear and weathering, is
are almost invisible with some dense granites. In considerably softer than granite. The surface of all
addition, the presence of moisture modifies stone’ s marbles may trap water, which consequently freezes
behavior, resulting in wetness dependent physical and cracks the stone with the corners more vulnerable
properties. In the sampling testing programs the to fissures and chipping. Marble is not appropriate for
designer must recognize that different stones possess environments where it will be exposed to many foods,
different degrees of heterogeneity, non-isotropicity, rift chemicals or air pollution, since it may stain.
and moisture susceptibility which must be evaluated.
The major metamorphic stones utilized in
construction are slate and marble. Slate formed from
3.9 VARIATIONS clay, displays closely spaced planes of cleavage, which
allows it to split into sheets usable for roof shingles
In today’s stone industry there are many different
and thin wall facings. Slate comes black, gray, purple,
types of building stones. Typically, granite, marble,
blue, green and red and is quarried in Vermont and
limestone, travertine and sandstone are the most
Pennsylvania.
common. The physical characteristics of each stone
is distinctive which affects applicability to numerous
Marble is a recrystallized form of limestone. It is
building designs. The characteristics and physical
soft, which makes it easily carved and polished. Marble
properties of these important building stones are
is available in white, black and nearly every color,
described below.
frequently with beautiful patterns of veining. Marble
used in the United States comes from Georgia,
3.9.1 GRANITE Missouri, Tennessee and Vermont. Europe, Italy and
Granite is an igneous rock created in the deep part Greece also have large sources, and recently Africa
of the earth’ s crust and slowly cooled and hardened has increased marble quarrying.
under great pressure. It is the most commonly stone
quarried for construction in North America. Granite is 3.9.3 LIMESTONE
a mosaic of mineral crystals, principally feldspar and
The principal sedimentary stones used in
quartz, and can be obtained in a range of colors that
construction are limestone and sandstone. They can
includes gray, black, pink, red, brown, buff and green.
be found in a strongly stratified form, or in deposits
This stone is known as the hardest building stone with
that show little stratification (free-stone). None of them
a very dense grain, which makes it resistant to stain.
will accept a high polish.
Granite is nonporous, hard, strong and durable, the
most permanent of building stones, suitable for use in
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed of
contact with the ground or exposed to severe
calcites or calcium carbonate. Most limestones
weathering. Due to its highly polished finish, granite
originated from the deposits of shellfish and fossils of
resists severe environments. The surface can be
marine invertebrates, which makes it marine in origin.
finished in a number of textures including a mirror-like
Limestone contains several natural characteristics, is
polish. Granite may be mixed with other minerals to
non-crystalline and has very uniform composition,
provide color and different patterned movement. With
texture and structure. Due to its soft consistency
very little movement, however, granite may also be
limestone is easy to quarry and shape. Limestone
quarried in highly consistent grains. This means it is
may experience discoloration and disintegration from
possible to get a large square footage of granite with
air pollution and show erosion over time.
similar color and pattern. In the United States granite
is quarried primarily in the eastern mountains and the
upper Midwest.
NATURAL STONE 43
Major quarries for large dimension stone located in The stone producer works from the designer’ s
Indiana and Missouri supply limestone throughout North drawings when preparing cut stone for a building to make
America. Originally formed by the skeletons or shells a set of shop drawings that show each individual stone
of marine organisms, limestone may be composed and how it is to be dimensioned and shaped. The
either of calcium carbonate or a mixture of calcium and designer’ s drawings are used to guide the work of the
magnesium carbonates. Colors range from white mill in producing the stones. Then, rough blocks of
through gray and buff to iron oxide red. When quarried, stone are selected in the quarry, brought into the mill,
limestone is a porous stone that contains considerable and sawed into slabs. Finishing may require the stone
ground water (quarry sap). Most limestones are easy slabs to be sawed, carved, edged, planed flat, or planed
to work with, but are vulnerable to frost damage when to a molding profile to give the desired surface. As
saturated. The stone becomes harder and is resistant indicated on the shop drawings, the finished pieces of
to frost damage after seasoning in the air. stone are marked to match the precise position in the
building and delivered to the construction site.
3.9.4 TRAVERTINE
Thin slabs of stone should be cut from a large block
Travertine exhibits characteristics similar to of quarried stone so that the slabs will be attached to
limestone and it is classified as sedimentary rock. It the structure in the same perspective they had in the
is considered a precipitate calcium carbonate formed quarry as shown in Figure 3.4.
by deposits of warm or hot water, particularly hot
springs.
Travertine is marble-like and has a polished surface

which brings out the full color and the character of this Block
stone. Colors range from light buff through tan to brown
and shades of red.
3.9.5 SANDSTONE
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock usually consisting
of quartz cemented with silica, iron oxide or calcium Block
carbonate. Sandstone has a wide range of colors, from
red to yellow to white, depending on the presence of
other minerals. Sandstone is easy to quarry and shape
due to its soft consistency. It is vulnerable to erosion
and deterioration from air pollution. Brownstone is a
variety of sandstone.
Sandstone is quarried primarily in New York, Ohio, FIGURE 3.4 A quarried block and a cut slab.
and Pennsylvania and formed from deposits of sand
(silicon dioxide). Two types of sandstone are
brownstone, typically used in wall construction, and
bluestone, principally for paving and wall copings.
3.10 QUARRYING AND MILLING

Since the quarrying and milling process affect the
finish stone qualities, a presentation of these items can
help in the stone decision process.
Several sedimentary rocks are cut out from the

quarry strata and used as rubble masonry. However,
the majority of building stones must be cut from the
quarry in big blocks.
FIGURE 3.5 A quarried block with an Edge

Bedded slab.
Figure 3.5 illustrates a stone slab that is attached

to a structure with the bedding planes perpendicular to
the face of the wall. This type of stone is called edge
bedded. The natural seams are exposed on the
surface and could wash out in time.
When the bedding planes are parallel to the face of

1 2
the wall it is called face bedded as shown in Figure
3.6. The stones could have a tendency to scale off in
layers. FIGURE 3.8 Finishing for blend or slip patterns
is on the same face of each slab.
1 2
FIGURE 3.6 A quarried block with a Face

Bedded slab.
Consideration of the veining or rifts is essential for 3 4

the aesthetics of natural stone. The architect may visit
the quarry and view the quarried block prior to the cutting
of the slabs.
FIGURE 3.9 Finishing for matched patterns is
on adjacent faces.
Blend Pattern - A random arrangement of stone

panels that may or may not be from the same block.
The pattern is arranged to uniformly blend the different
stones into the wall. If no pattern is specified then a
blend pattern will be provided.
43
21
FIGURE 3.7 Quarried block of stone ready for

fabrication into slabs.
The drawings shown in Figures 3.7 and 3.8 illustrate

how the veins of the slab are related to the block. The
figure is idealized. Actual stone patterns will have
variations due to the portion of the stone that will be
lost during fabrication and sawing. For optimum pattern FIGURE 3.10 Blend Pattern.
uniformity, panel arrangements should be planned for
groupings of four panels of equal size.
NATURAL STONE 45
Slip Pattern - Stone slab panels are placed side Quarter or Diamond Matched Pattern - A
by side so that veining patterns run parallel with each combination of book matching stone slab veneer from
other and is usually done with stones from the same the same block so that veining patterns are mirror
block. imaged in the adjacent stones.
1 2
FIGURE 3.11 Slip Pattern.
Match Pattern - Stone panels from the same block

are inverted and finished on adjacent surfaces so the
veining will be a mirror image.
3 4
FIGURE 3.13 Quarter or Diamond Match

Pattern.
1 2
FIGURE 3.12 Matched Pattern.

Kerlan Jobe Medical Center, Los Angeles, California.
FAA Federal Credit Union, Hawthorne, California. Soka University, Aliso Viejo, California.
CHAPTER
4
TERRA COTTA
4.1 GENERAL According to Davis terra cotta is of ancient origin

and like brick, the shapes or blocks are molded and
carved or otherwise decorated by hand. Like brick,
Terra cotta is a Latin word that means “
baked earth”
. terra cotta was produced even in the days of early
This ancient process has been used for thousands of Greece with ceramic slips as well as natural finishes.
years. A special aged clay is used which can be
molded into simple building units or into very ornate Following the development of the extrusion brick
three-dimensional figures. This clay is fired at high machine, architectural terra cotta shapes of the simplest
temperatures to give nearly glass hardness and designs were machine made.
compact.
The development, about 1883, of so-called terra
Terra Cotta or Architectural Terra Cotta, as it is now cotta lumber resulted in a confusion of terminology and
known, is described by Charles Thomas Davis in his the application of the name ‘ terra cotta’to products
book, “Manufacture of Bricks, Tiles and Terra Cotta,” which have little or no resemblance to the original
published in 1884, as follows: product or to its rightful successor, the present
architectural terra cotta.
“
Terra cotta is but another name for architectural
enrichments of brickwork of various designs and Terra cotta lumber, as produced by the New York
shapes. The term is of Italian derivation, and, literally Terra Cotta Company in 1884, is described by Davis in
translated, means cooked or baked clay. ‘ Terra Cotta’ his book previously referenced to as follows:
is more descriptive of the ancient material which was
usually less burned, not as homogeneuos and coarser “The New York Terra Cotta Lumber Company has
in texture. Current manufacturing processes yield a established large works at Perth Amboy for the
material that is kiln-fired for quality and durability and manufacture of lumber by mixing resinous sawdust with
well-mixed for more consistent and smoother texture. the wet clay, which is left porous after the burning by
the sawdust being consumed.
Terra cotta was largely used for architectural
decorations in Greece, Etruria, Pompeii, Rome, and The material is thoroughly ground and mixed in a
Mediaeval Italy, and it was in the clay plains of Northern mill and carried to the upper portion of the building by
Italy that terra cotta was first predominantly employed an elevator bucket belt. There it is shoveled into a
over other materials in architectural construction and compressor, through which it passes to the floor below,
ornamentation. The inspiration of modern designs in and is forced through a die into any requisite shape,
architectural terra cotta is largely drawn from these and remains in that portion of the building for a time to
works, especially those structures erected from the stiffen. It is then carried to the ground floor and dried
middle of the thirteenth century until the commencement on a brick floor heated by flues running underneath it
of the sixteenth century.” from a furnace.
It then goes in the form of slabs to the kilns, where cladding material on skeletal-framed structures. It
it is brought to a high heat, which burns out the sawdust served as an excellent cladding which architects
and fuses clay particles. appreciated for its fire safety, light weight and low cost,
as well as for its aesthetic appeal.
This process takes about forty-eight hours, and
produces in that period about one hundred and eighty Terra cotta can be molded into any designs or
tons of fireproof lumber. architectural shapes or colors needed. It is frequently
used for special ornamental work and architectural
It is next planed, tongued, grooved, or sawed into detail.
any desirable shapes.”
Heinrich Ries and Henry Leighton, in their book,

“History of the Clayworking Industry in the United
States,”published in 1909, credited the discovery of
terra cotta lumber to a man named Gilman of Eldora,
Iowa. These authors report:
“He was a clay manufacturer who in 1883 made

the experiment of mixing prairie soil with clay and found
that it burned to a light porous block. This was used
for absorbing alcohol, which he subsequently fired and
placed under a receptacle for heating coffee.
The attention of a New York architect being

accidentally drawn to this porous block, he exclaimed:
‘This is what I have always been looking for, for
fireproofing purposes.’Mr. Gilman sought to carry out
the idea and hit upon the use of sawdust as a desirable
substitute for prairie soil.
Whether or not Mr. Gilman was the actual discoverer

of the method of making this porous fireproofing, it is
true that ever since the introduction of fireproofing in
the New Jersey works, there has been a steady and
increasingly large demand for these hollow blocks,
whether filled with sawdust or not, and now New Jersey
stands as the leading producer.” FIGURE 4.1 Decorative terra cotta, T he
Woolworth Building, New York, NY.
Hollow brick, used for partitions, floors and
fireproofing iron or steel structural members, produced
In recent years, increasing interest in the
from clays to which high (30-50) percentages of sawdust
preservation and conservation of historic structures has
had been added, were used extensively during the early
returned terra cotta to the attention of the building
part of the 20th century and since these products were
industry. The material is also being used increasingly
produced from the same raw materials as terra cotta
in new construction, both for cladding and ornamental
lumber, they were improperly referred to as terra cotta
purposes.
or porous terra cotta, a practice which still continues in
some parts of the country. However, as previously
If properly maintained, terra cotta can enjoy a long
indicated, the term terra cotta has for centuries been
and successful service life. Buildings such as the his-
applied to decorative molded clay units whose properties
toric Rookery Building in Chicago, designed by Burnham
are similar to brick. This material is now known as
& Root, have passed their 100th anniversary with the
architectural terra cotta and it would appear that the
terra cotta intact and in good condition.
term should be limited to this product alone.
Although used in construction since ancient times,

terra cotta enjoyed renewed popularity in North America
from the late 19th century through the 1920’ s as a
TERRA-COTTA 49
Today units are used as cladding are supported by
steel shelf angles at floor levels, above wall openings
and at projections such as cornices. Steel straps are
set into slots at the back of each unit for horizontal
support and tied to the anchorage system of the
supporting wall. The projecting cornice units are
suspended from the anchorage system by steel bolts,
which hold horizontal bars threaded through holes
formed in the webs of the terra cotta block. Well
engineered systems will withstand earthquake and
severe weather conditions..
FIGURE 4.2 Rookery Building in Chicago

designed by Burnham & Root. FIGURE 4.3 Terra cotta cornice, Two Rodeo
Drive, Beverly Hills, CA.
4.1.1 CHARACTERISTICS
Toady terra cotta is used as a ceramic veneer, it is

fired clay, fired to vitrification and impervious to moisture.
The clays are a composition of fire clays, ball clay,
feldspars, sand and grog. They are processed and
ground to enable a smooth surface. Both hand pressed
and extruded shapes are manufactured.
Typically terra cotta units are formed in hollow

blocks, open at the back with several web stiffeners to
reduce the weight of terra cotta manufactured for
cladding. They can be ashlar units or have more intricate
profiles. Typically, the units are glazed on surfaces
that will be exposed when the block is set in the wall.
In the past, terra cotta units were laid up in the wall

with narrow mortar joints using a cement-lime mortar.
In some buildings, the hollow backs of the units were
filled with masonry and mortar, with the fill keyed into
the masonry backup wall. Also, metal ties were used
providing positive anchorage of the terra cotta.
Two Rodeo Drive, Beverly Hills, California.

CHAPTER
5
GLASS BLOCK
5.1 GENERAL Glass block may also be solid, resistant to impact

while allowing transparency. A practical example of
the use of solid units is for high security applications,
Glass block is one of the most attractive and such as police stations. Solid glass units also possess
practical materials available to architects and designers. beneficial solar properties. Solar control units have either
Glass block widen the aesthetic possibilities of glass inserts or exterior coatings to reduce heat gain.
whi le combining unique design and f unct ion
characteristics.
The glass block unit is made by combining two

halves together with a partial vacuum inside. Glass
block faces may be clear, figured, or with integral relief
forms.
FIGURE 5.3 Thick block.
Normal nominal face sizes for glass block are 6 in.

x 6 in. (152 mm x 152 mm), 8 in. x 8 in. (203 mm x 203
mm) and 12 in. x 12 in. (305 mm x 305 mm). Some
styles offer half units for the 8 in. (203 mm) module.
FIGURE 5.1 Glass block halves.
These half units can be oriented vertically or horizontally.
Check with the manufacturer for available products.
The typical thickness of glass block ranges from 3
in. (76 mm) to 4 in. (102 mm). Standard glass block panels are limited in size by
2005 MSJC Code, Section 7.2.1. Exterior limitations
are based on Design Wind Pressure with a maximum
width dimension of 25 ft. (7.6 m) between supports or
20 ft. (6.1 m) in height.
5.2 SPECIAL SHAPES

End block units have a rounded, finished surface
on one edge. When installed horizontally, glass end
block may be used to end interior partitions or walls as
FIGURE 5.2 Solid glass block. well as space dividers.
FIGURE 5.6 Glass block entrance.
FIGURE 5.4 End block.
Manufacturers produce special shapes for executing

corner designs. These units may also be placed
together for varying patterns and forms.
53/4”
Mortar
37/8”
FIGURE 5.7 Light diffusion.

53/4”
The maximum sound insulation possible among

Glass block unit light transmitting materials, including double glazing,
/4”
1
corner block is provided by glass block.
Horizontal
reinforcement Glass block, among light transmitting materials, is
the most successful insulator against heat and cold.
Glass block unit
Solar reflective glass block screens out approximately
70% of the sun’ s heat while standard glass block
37/8” screens out approximately 35% of the sun’ s heat.
FIGURE 5.5 Corner block.
5.3 GLASS BLOCK PROPERTIES

One of the major characteristics of glass block is
allowing soft daylight into a building while controlling
undesirable heat and glare.
FIGURE 5.8 Sound reduction.

GLASS BLOCK 53
Panels of glass block are strong and provide
security without a closed-in feeling. Typically, when
one surface of a glass block is broken, the other surface
usually remains intact and the unit can easily be
replaced by a mason without interruption of normal
activities.
FIGURE 5.9 Heat dissipation.
The high levels of condensation related to wide

temperature variations between interior and exterior is
reduced significantly with glass block.
FIGURE 5.12 Security.
5.4 GLASS BLOCK

APPLICATIONS
Today’ s architecture glass block is emerging as a
classic building material, combining unique and highly
desirable functional values with versatility as a design
element. Selection of glass block includes plain and
patterned surfaces with variations in transparency,
translucency, light directive, solar reflection and color
options. The flexibility of masonry installation offers a
wide range of design possibilities for walls, windows,
FIGURE 5.10 Condensation reduction. partitions and skylights, including curved and serpentine
shapes.
The glass block is noncombustible and has the
highest fire resistive capacity among any light The designer’ s imagination is the only limitation in
transmitting materials. the application of glass block, which range from
walkways, floors, skylights, partitions, facades, interior
dividers, windows and stairways. The architect
Gwathmay Siegel used glass block for a bridge in the
Disney World Convention and Exhibition Center. In all
applications, glass block units permit the control of light,
both natural and artificial, for function and beauty.
Architect Peter Hamilton demonstrates the versatility
of glass block in his design at 136 Cumberland Street,
Toronto. Glass block also allows the control of noise,
dust and thermal transmission. Security can also be
achieved when using bullet-resistant glass block.
FIGURE 5.11 Fire resistance.

FIGURE 5.13 Glass block bridge, Disney World

Convention & Exhibition Center.
FIGURE 5.15 Glass block walk-in shower.
FIGURE 5.14 Glass block panel, Cumberland

Street, Toronto.
FIGURE 5.16 Glass block jacuzzi enclosure.

CHAPTER
6
REINFORCING STEEL
on extensive tests conducted on reinforced brick

6.1 GENERAL masonry. The data obtained from the tests provided
answers to many of the questions which had been
Unreinforced masonry has been used throughout raised regarding reinforced masonry construction.
the world since the earliest known history. In biblical
times, Moses made bricks of clay while the Egyptian The first major use of reinforced masonry in the
pyramids and numerous temples in Guatemala, Mexico, United States occurred in 1931. Two 52 ft (16 m) high
and Peru were constructed of stone masonry. Ancient reinforced brick masonry sand storage bins were
Greece and Rome were built primarily of brick and stone constructed for Wedron Silica Company of Illinois; one
as was the 1500 mile (2,400 km) long Great Wall of was 25 ft (7.6 m) in diameter, and the other 16 ft (4.9
China. m) in diameter.
Reinforced masonry construction is a relatively new

application to an old material. Although structures
throughout the world have been made of masonry for
thousands of years, reinforced masonry has been
developing for only the last two centuries.
The first use of reinforced masonry is credited to

Mark Isambard Brunel in 1825. As part of the Thames
Tunnel, Brunel used 30 in. (762 mm) thick iron
reinforced brick masonry walls in the construction of a
50 ft (15 m) diameter, 75 ft (23 m) deep caisson.
With the development of Portland cement around

the year 1850, concrete and reinforced concrete were
introduced. Soon it was discovered that using Portland
cement in masonry mortars increased the strength of
masonry assemblage, thus leading to a close alliance FIGURE 6.1 Long Beach earthquake of 1933.
and identit y between masonry and concrete.
Additionally, formulas developed in the middle 1800’ s Significant impetus was added to the use of
for the design of reinforced concrete became the reinforced masonry following the 1933 Long Beach,
forerunners of the reinforced masonry design methods. California, earthquake. Numerous unreinforced masonry
buildings in Long Beach were severely damaged by the
In 1913, and later in 1919, reinforced masonry earthquake and it became evident that an improved type
beams were constructed and tested. Later in 1923, of masonry construction was required.
British Undersecretary of India, Abe Brentner, reported
Reinforcing steel in masonry has been used 2. The minimum reinforcement protection.
extensively in the West since the 1930’ s, revitalizing
the masonry industry in earthquake prone areas. 3. The proper spacing of longitudinal and
Reinforcing steel extends the characteristics of ductility, transversal reinforcement.
toughness and energy absorption that is necessary in
structures subjected to the dynamic forces of 4. Sufficient anchorage of flexural and shear
earthquakes. reinforcing bars.
Reinforced masonry performs well because the 5. Adequate lapping of the reinforcing bars.
materials; steel, masonry units, grout, and mortar, work
together as a single structural unit. The temperature 6. Sufficient stirrups, metal plates, spirals, and
coefficient for steel, mortar, grout and the masonry units ties in order to provide confinement.
are very similar. This similarity of thermal coefficients
allows the different component materials to act together 7. Adequate grout coverage of the reinforcing steel.
through normal temperature ranges. Disruptive stresses
are not created at the interface between the steel and
the grout which would allow effective force transfer.
6.2 TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT
Structures subjected to severe lateral dynamic 6.2.1 REINFORCING BARS
loads, such as earthquakes, must be capable of
providing the necessary strength or energy absorbing For reinforced masonry construction, deformed bars
capacity and ductility to withstand these forces. range in size from #3 (3/8 in. [9.5 mm] diameter) to a
Reinforcing steel serves to resist the shear and tensile maximum size of #11 (13/8 in. [34.9 mm] diameter) as
forces generated by the dynamic loads. It can also required by 2005 MSJC Code, Section 1.13.2.1. The
provide sufficient ductility to the masonry structure so Strength Design Provisions of 2005 MSJC Code Section
that the structure can sustain load reversals beyond 3.3.3.1 limits the maximum size of reinforcement to a
the capability of plain, unreinforced masonry. #9 bar. This reinforcing steel must conform to ASTM A
615, A 706, A 767, A 775 or A 996 which specify the
In order for the reinforcing steel to provide adequate physical characteristics of the reinforcing steel.
ductility and strength, the reinforcing steel must be
designed and placed properly to provide a continuous ASTM A 615 and A 996 list the requirements for
load path throughout the structure. The designer must reinforcing steel manufactured from billet, rail and axle
pay special attention to reinforcing steel details to steel respectively. ASTM A 707, A 767 and A 775 are
ensure continuity. The following items must be provided: generally not applicable since they cover low alloy, zinc-
coated and epoxy-coated reinforcing steel which are
1. The proper size and amount of reinforcement seldom used in masonry construction.
which complies with the limited minimum and
maximum percentages of reinforcement and
other code requirements.
Table 6.1 Reinforcing Steel Bar Designations, Sizes and Weight (ASTM A 615 Chart)
2
Inch-Pound Bar Nominal Dimensions
Nominal Weight
Size Diameter Cross Sectional Area
1 lb./ft. (kg/m) 2 2
Designation (mm) in. (mm) in (mm )
#3 (10) 0.376 (.560) 0.375 (9.5) 0.11 (71)
#4 (13) 0.668 (.994) 0.500 (12.7) 0.20 (129)
#5 (16) 1.043 (1.552) 0.625 (15.9) 0.31 (199)
#6 (19) 1.502 (2.235) 0.750 (19.1) 0.44 (284)
#7 (22) 2.044 (3.042) 0.875 (22.2) 0.60 (387)
#8 (25) 2.670 (3.973) 1.000 (25.4) 0.79 (510)
#9 (29) 3.400 (5.060) 1.128 (28.7) 1.00 (645)
#10 (32) 4.303 (6.404) 1.270 (32.3) 1.27 (819)
#11 (36) 5.313 (7.907) 1.410 (35.8) 1.56 (1006)
1
Bar numbers are based on the number of eighths of an inch included in the nominal diameter of the bars (bar numbers
approximate the number of millimeters of the nominal diameter of the bar).
2
The nominal dimensions of a deformed bar are equivalent to those of a plain round bar having the same weight (mass) per
foot (meter) as the deformed bar.
REINFORCING STEEL 57
Reinforcing steel may be either Grade 40, with a 1st—Producing Mill (usually an initial)
minimum yield strength of 40,000 psi (276 MPa) or
2nd—Bar Size Number (#3 through #18/#10 thru
Grade 60 minimum with a minimum yield strength of
#55)
60,000 psi (414 MPa). Grade 60 steel is furnished in
all sizes, while Grade 40 steel bars are normally 3rd—Type of steel (Type A for Axle, W for Low Alloy,
available in #3, #4, #5 and #6 sizes. If Grade 40 steel S for Billet, R for Rail.)
is required, special note must be made to ensure
4th—Grade of reinforcement; for Grade 60 steel
delivery. A designer should verify that the grades and
(grade is shown as a marked 60 or One (1) grade mark
sizes of reinforcement are available in the geographic
line (Figure 6.2). The grade mark line is smaller and
area of a given project.
between the two main longitudinal ribs which are on
opposite sides of all U.S. made bars. For grade 75
The identification marks are shown in Figures 6.2
steel, there are two grade mark lines.
and 6.3 and described in descending order:
Main ribs Main ribs
H
Initial of H H
Initial of H
producing mill producing mill
Bar size 11 Bar size 36

11 #11 36 #36
Type of steel S Type of steel S

(Billet) (Billet)
S S
Grade mark 60 Grade mark 4
Grade line (One line only) Grade line (One line only)
Grade 60 (English) Grade 420 (Metric)
FIGURE 6.2 Reinforcement Identification –Grade 60 Steel.
Main rib Main rib
H Initial of H Initial of
producing mill producing mill
6 Bar size #6 19 Bar size #19
S Type of steel S Type of steel

(Billet) (Billet)
Grade 40 (English) Grade 300 (Metric)
FIGURE 6.3 Reinforcement Identification –Grade 40 Steel.

FIGURE 6.4 Heavily reinforced masonry wall. FIGURE 6.7 Column reinforcement.
FIGURE 6.5 Typical wall reinforcement. FIGURE 6.8 Corner reinforcement.
6.2.2 JOINT REINFORCEMENT

High strength steel wire fabricated in ladder or truss
type configurations placed in the bed joints to reinforce
the wall in the horizontal direction is called joint
reinforcement.
The most common uses of joint reinforcement are:

1. To control shrinkage cracking in masonry walls.
2. To provide part or all of the minimum steel
required.
3. To function as designed reinforcement that
resists forces in the masonry, such as tension
and shear.
4. To act as a continuous tie system for veneer
and cavity walls.
FIGURE 6.6 Pilaster reinforcement.
Joint reinforcement must meet the requirements of
ASTM A 951, Standard Specification for Masonry Joint
Reinforcement. In addition to wire material conforming
to ASTM A 82, Standard Specification for Steel Wire,
Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement, longitudinal wires
must be deformed.
Since truss-type and ladder type joint reinforcement

equally satisfy the code requirements, the designer
should not be concerned which type is used. When
vertical reinforcement is combined with horizontal joint
reinforcement, ladder type joint reinforcement is far more
practical since the perpendicular cross wires will not
interfere with the vertical reinforcement when the joint
reinforcement is properly placed.
FIGURE 6.12 Truss type joint reinforcement

spaced at 16 in. (406 mm) on center in a concrete
masonry wall.
FIGURE 6.9 Ladder type joint reinforcement.
FIGURE 6.10 Truss type joint reinforcement. FIGURE 6.13 Truss type joint reinforcement
tying brick veneer face to concrete masonry wall.
FIGURE 6.11 Ladder type joint reinforcement

spaced at 16 in. (406 mm) on center, vertically, in FIGURE 6.14 Ladder type joint reinforcing
a concrete masonry wall. tying brick veneer face to concrete masonry wall.
FIGURE 6.15 Ladder type joint reinforcement tying two wythes of a brick wall together.
Glass block
Masonry mortar
Joint reinforcement
FIGURE 6.16 Joint reinforcement in glass block wall.

CHAPTER
7
VENEER
directly from the veneer into the structural backup.

7.1 GENERAL Structural masonry, by contrast, can be designed to
carry both vertical and lateral (horizontal) loads.
2006 Random House Webster’ s Unabridged
Dictionary, © 2006 provides eight definitions for the word Since veneer is not intended to resist lateral loads,
veneer. Three of these definitions are particularly the masonry veneer is relatively thin compared to the
appropriate to the presentation of masonry veneer: structural wall.
“3. Building Trades. a facing of a certain material Yet the veneer still provides both the beauty and
applied to a different one or to a type of construction durability of masonry. Additionally, the veneer also
not ordinarily associated with it, as a facing of brick increases the fire resistance, noise resistance and water
applied to a frame house.” resistance over a non-veneered wall.
“6. to face or cover (an object) with a material that The use of v eneer is by no means a new
is more desirable as a surface material than the basic development. In fact, limestone veneer covered some
material of the object” of the pyramids in Egypt and pieces of it can still be
seen at the top of the Great Pyramid, Cheops.
“8. to give a superficially valuable or pleasing
appearance to.”
Similarly, the 2006 International Building Code

defines veneer in Section 1402.1 as follows:
“
VENEER - A facing attached to a wall for the
purpose of providing ornamentation, protection or
insulation, but not counted as adding strength to the
wall.”
Masonry veneer is a system which uses clay brick,

concrete masonry, stone or terra cotta to adorn, en-
close and protect a building. The primary difference
between masonry veneer and structural masonry is that
veneer is designed to carry only its own vertical weight.
The lateral loading, due to wind, seismic or other
lateral loads, is carried by a system behind the veneer
–a backup system. Lateral loads are transferred
FIGURE 7.1 Egyptian Pyramid located in Giza
constructed around 2,500 B.C.
Additionally, architects have historically chosen

masonry veneer to adorn churches, cathedrals and
7.3 FLASHING
monuments for beauty, economy and durability.
Flashing materials, such as sheet metals, asphalt-
As noted, masonry veneer facing consists of clay impregnated membranes and vinyl membranes, prevent
brick, concrete masonry units, stone and terra cotta. water from penetrating into the building interior by
Other material considerations related to masonry veneer directing water toward the exterior face of the veneer.
include anchoring and support systems, flashing, weep
holes and expansion joints. Historically most flashings were made from 10 to
20 ounce per square foot (3.05 to 6.11 kg/m2) copper or
lead sheeting. These materials perform quite well but
7.2 SHELF ANGLES their use has steadily decreased due to the initial cost
and the potential for staining and galvanic corrosion.
Corrosion resistant shelf angles are provided to Advantages of such materials include availability in a
support only the weight of the veneer. Thus, a backup variety of preformed shapes, the ease which they may
system (Section 7.5) is still required to support the be worked with and record of performance.
veneer for lateral loads.
Sheet metal flashing of aluminum, galvanized steel
Shelf angles are also used to support the weight of and stainless steel are also used, although only stain-
veneer above window and door openings. less steel flashings are recommended. Aluminum
flashings should be used with extreme caution since
Shelf angles are typically installed at each floor the wet and alkali environment of mortar can corrode
level of multistory buildings in high seismic exposure aluminum. Similarly, some galvanized flashings can
so that the vertical loads on the veneer are not excessive corrode in fresh mortar and the galvanized coating may
and so the structural frame can move slightly without crack during bending and handling.
damaging the masonry veneer. A 1/4 in. to 1/2 in. (6.4 to
12.7 mm) compressible pad or space is placed directly Stainless steel sheet metal flashing provide an
beneath the shelf angle allows for minor movements. excellent corrosion resistant water barrier. Stainless
This accommodates shrinkage of concrete and wood steel is workable, yet capable of resisting rough handling
frame buildings, as well as long term brick expansion. at the job-site. It does not stain and is available in
several gauges and finishes. When stainless steel
sheet metal flashing is used, it should be at least 0.01
in. (0.25 mm) thick and should meet the requirements
of ASTM A 167, Type 304.
W eatherproof
membrane
W eatherproof Sheathing board

membrane
Sheathing board
Mortar net
Concrete
masonry unit
Flashing
Brick veneer
Flashing
Non-combustible
veneer support
FIGURE 7.2 Masonry flashing material.

VENEER 63
Asphalt impregnated membrane flashing, also called These wicks should be installed so that at least 6
bituminous fabrics or building felt, is increasingly used in. (152 mm) of each wick rope penetrates into the cavity.
as a flashing material since it is more economical than This provides a large surface area for water to be
sheet metal f lashing and is easy to install. absorbed into the wick despite the possibility of a few
Unfortunately, asphalt impregnated flashing is less mortar droppings.
durable than sheet metal flashing and can tear during
installation. In time, cotton wick ropes rot, ideally leaving clear
drainage holes. Nylon and hemp are also available for
Accordingly, asphalt systems are seldom used as use as weep hole material.
the sole flashing material and instead are typically used
in combination with other flashing materials. In such a Another type of weep hole is formed with 3/16 to 3/8
system, 2 layers of asphalt impregnated sheets such in. (4.8 to 9.5 mm) diameter oiled rope or tube which is
as 30 lb. (13.6 kg) felt are installed over the structural installed in the head joints of the veneer. After
backup so that all seams overlap at least 6 in. (152 construction of the veneer is complete, the ropes or
mm) and the 2 layers are offset by half the sheet width. tubes are removed to form clear weep openings.
These layers overlap more resistant flashing at shelf
angles and supports.
W eatherproof
Plastic and rubber-like flashings can perform well membrane
when properly designed and installed with care. They
are resilient, durable and resistant to corrosion.
There are many plastic flashing materials available.

Always consult with a reputable manufacturer and obtain Mortar
test reports on the ultra-violet light resistance and disturbing
durability of the proposed plastic flashing materials. material
Sheathing board
Additionally, to ensure satisfactory performance, use
plastic flashing materials from 20 to 40 mils thick (0.5
to 1.0 mm). The designer should also be aware that
low permeability membranes may allow condensation
when applied to the entire structural backup. Use a
non-permeable, not low permeable, membrane.
Brick veneer
Weep holes
7.4 WEEP HOLES Non-combustible
Flashing veneer support
One quarter or 3/8 in. (6.4 or 9.5 mm) inside diameter
plastic tubes can be used as weep holes. These tubes
are installed in the head joints at a slight slope to drain
freely. The plastic tubes are less noticeable than open
head joints, but may have a problem of clogging. Mortar
droppings and other debris can lodge at the entrance
of the tube, thus rendering the tubes ineffective. To
prevent clogging, some contractors place a few inches
of pea gravel or a special mortar screen in the cavity
between the veneer and the back up. Also, the plastic
tubes may be removed when the section of veneer is
complete. The void made by the plastic tube will allow
free passage of water to the building exterior.
Cotton, hemp and nylon wick ropes about 1/4 in. to

3
/8 in. (6.4 to 9.5 mm) in diameter have been used to
drain moisture from cavity and veneer walls. Water in
the cavity is absorbed by the material and wicked to
the exterior where it evaporates. This can be a very
slow process, therefore the wick ropes should be placed
approximately 16 in. (406 mm) on center.
FIGURE 7.3 Weep hole devices.

Square ties and horizontal joint reinforcement are

7.5 CONNECTORS the most common wall ties and are used in conjunction
with structural masonry backup.
When securing the veneer to the backup system,
shelf anchor or foundation, numerous types of Structural masonry
connectors are used in masonry construction and the backup
type utilized depends on the particular application, local Horizontal joint
practice, requirements and availability. reinforcement
There are three main categories of connectors and

since industry terminology is often ambiguous,
definitions are given: Airspace
Wall ties: Used to tie two wythes (widths) of

masonry together, as would be the case with cavity
walls. Wall ties are commonly manufactured from
wire formed into either a square tie or joint Brick veneer
reinforcement as shown in Figure 7.4.
Anchors: Used to secure veneer masonry to a Structural masonry

backup
supporting structure such as a stud backup wall or
Horizontal joint
a structural steel column. An anchor may be a
reinforcement
flat-type metal fabrication used to attach to the
selected backup system. Anchors may also be Airspace
wire fabricated. Samples of anchors are shown in
Figure 7.5.
Fasteners: Used to connect an appliance such as

a sign or fixture to masonry.
Only wall ties and anchors are directly related to

anchored veneer construction. Fasteners should be Brick veneer
installed in strict accordance with local codes and the
manufacturer’ s instructions.
Structural masonry
backup
7.5.1 WALL TIES
Horizontal joint
Wall ties are used to connect two wythes of masonry reinforcement
together and are designed and sized based on
prescriptive standards. The ties are sized and spaced
to provide adequate capacity in resisting applied loads.
Airspace
In no case should the tie be substandard to the
most stringent minimum requirement that applies.
The 2006 IBC Code Section 1405 provides tie

requirements based on the type and application of Brick veneer
masonry v eneer. Additional veneer tie detail
requirements are contained in 2005 MSJC Code,
Chapter 6.
FIGURE 7.4 Typical wall tie systems.
The veneer system must also permit differential
movement between the veneer and the backup. Additionally, wall ties must be protected to resist
corrosion as stated in both the MSJC Code and MSJC
Specification.
VENEER 65
Wall ties, sheet metal anchors, steel plates and 7.5.2 ANCHORS
bars, and inserts exposed to earth or weather, or
exposed to a mean relative humidity exceeding 75 There are different types of anchors available and
percent shall be stainless steel or protected from when properly designed and fabricated, work efficiently.
corrosion by hot-dip galvanized coating or epoxy Unless there are specific design requirements that
coating. Wall ties, anchors, and inserts shall be mill dictate the type of anchor required, latitude should be
galvanized, hot-dip galvanized, or stainless steel for all exercised in the selection of the anchor.
other cases.
Manufacturers are helpful in providing selection
assistance and product data to ensure that the anchor
will provide a quality connection.
FIGURE 7.5 Typical seismic veneer anchors. FIGURE 7.6 Typical non-seismic ties.
New Zealand, which is an active seismic region, As shown in Figure 7.7, this tie is excellent for
uses a significant amount of masonry veneer. An transferring the lateral loads to the backup system while
effective and popular brick anchor in that region is the allowing for relative movement in the horizontal and
La Palle’ flexible tie connection. vertical directions with the backup system.
FIGURE 7.7 La Palle’flexible veneer anchor (New Zealand).

CHAPTER
8
MORTAR AND GROUT
7. It seals irregularities of the masonry unit and

8.1 MORTAR provides a weather-tight wall which prevents
penetration of wind and water through the wall.
Mortar is a basic component of masonry. Some
claim that mortar holds the units apart while others 8. It can provide color and contrast to the wall.
claim it holds the masonry units together. It actually
does both. 9. It provides an architectural expression by using
various types of joints.
Historically, mortar has been made from many
different materials. Some ancient mortar mixtures were
plain mud or clay, earth with ashes, ox blood and earth, 8.1.1 TYPES OF MORTAR
and sand with lime.
The requirements for mortar are provided in ASTM
In its most general terms, mortar is a plastic mixture C 270, Standard Specification for Mortar for Unit
of materials used to bind masonry units into a structural Masonry.
mass.
The historic designation of mortar types recognized
Modern mortar consists of cementitious materials five types of mortar which were designated as M, S, N,
and well-graded sand with sufficient fines to create a O and K. The types are identified by every other letter
plastic mixture that will bind masonry units together. of the two word phrase “ MaSoN wOrK” . Type K is no
In addition to binding the masonry units, mortar is also longer referenced in ASTM C 270. While type “ O”is
used for the following purposes: referenced in the ASTM Standards, it is used
infrequently. Thus there are three mortar types that
1. It is a bedding or seating material for the are commonly specified and used; Types M, S and N.
masonry unit.
8.1.1.1 SELECTION OF MORTAR T YPES
2. It allows the masonry unit to be leveled and The performance of masonry is influenced by various
properly placed. mortar properties such as workability, water retentivity,
bond strength, durability, and compressive strength.
3. It bonds the units together. Selection of the proper mortar type provides the optimum
properties for the intended use. Tables 8.1 and 8.2 are
4. It provides compressive strength. guides for the selection of mortar type. Selection of
mortar type should also consider all applicable building
5. It provides shear strength. codes and engineering practice standards. With mortar,
stronger is not better. ‘
Softer’mortar will increase bond,
6. It allows some movement and elasticity therefore, mortar with less cement will provide the better
between units. system. Types N and O, however are not permitted for
use in higher seismic lateral load resisting systems.
Table 8.1 Mortar Types-Classes of In accordance with the MSJC Code, Type M or S
Construction mortar must be used for the lateral load resisting system
Mortar Type Construction Suitability in Seismic Design Categories D and E. This
Designation requirement provides additional strength and bond in
M Masonry subjected to high compressive structures located in high seismic risk areas.
loads, severe frost action, or high
lateral loads from earth pressures, 8.1.1.2 SPECIFYING MORTAR
hurricane winds, or earthquakes.
Structures below or against grade such
Field mortar should always be specified by type
as retaining walls.
based on proportion specif ications. Property
S Structures requiring high flexural bond specifications are intended for laboratory prepared
strength and subject to compressive mortar.
and lateral loads.
N General use in above grade masonry. 8.1.1.2.1 PROPERTY SPECIFICATIONS

Residential basement construction,
interior walls and partitions, masonry Property specifications are those in which the
veneer and non-structural masonry
partitions. acceptability of the mortar is based on the properties
of the ingredients, or materials, and the properties
O Non-loadbearing walls and partitions. (water retention, air content, and compressive strength)
Solid load bearing masonry with an
of samples of the mortar mixed and tested in the
actual compressive strength not
exceeding 100 psi (690 kPa) not laboratory.
subject to weathering.
Property specifications are used for research so
that the physical characteristics of a mortar can be
determined and reproduced in subsequent tests. Mortar
Table 8.2 Guide for the Selection of Masonry that is to be mixed and used at the jobsite should never
1,4
Mortars be specified by property specifications.
4,5
Building Mortar Type
Location The property requirements for mortar are given in
Segment Table 8.3.
Rec. Alt.
Exterior, Load-bearing wall N S or M Table 8.3 M ortar Properties a

2 Avg. Compressive b Water
above Non-load bearing O N or S Strength at 28 days Reten-
Air
grade wall Mortar Type Content
Min. (psi) tion Min.
Max (%)
Parapet wall N S (%)
M 2500 (17.2) 75 12
3 3 Cem ent S 1800 (12.4) 75 12
Exterior, Foundation wall, S M or N Lim e N 750 (5.2) 75 14
c
at or retaining wall, O 350 (2.4) 75 14

c
below manholes, M 2500 (17.2) 75 12

grade sewers, Mortar S 1800 (12.4) 75 12
c
Cem ent N 750 (5.2) 75 14
pavements, walks O 350 (2.4) 75 14
c
and patios M 2500 (17.2) 75 18

Masonry S 1800 (12.4) 75 18
Interior Load bearing wall N S or M Cem ent N 750 (5.2) 75 20 d
Non bearing O N O 350 (2.4) 75 20 d
partitions For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 pound per square inch = 6.895 kPa.
a
This aggregate ratio (measured in damp, loose condition) shall
1
This table does not provide for many specialized mortar uses, not be less than 21/4 and not more than 3 times the sum of the
such as chimney, reinforced masonry, and acid resistant separate volumes of cementitious materials.
mortars. b
Average of three 2-inch cubes of laboratory-prepared mortar,
2
Type O mortar is recommended for use where the masonry is in accordance with ASTM C 270.
unlikely to be frozen when saturated or unlikely to be subjected c
W hen structural reinforcement is incorporated in cement-lime
to high winds or other significant lateral loads. Type N or S or mortar cement mortars, the maximum air content shall not
mortar should be used in other cases. exceed 12 percent.
3
Masonry exposed to weather in a nominal horizontal surface d
W hen structural reinforcement is incorporated in masonry
is extremely vulnerable to weathering. Mortar f or s uc h cement mortar, the maximum air content shall not exceed 18
masonry should be selected with due caution.
4
percent.
Based on ASTM C 270, Table X1.1. Rec. = Recommended, Alt.
= Alternative.
5
Types N and O mortar are not permitted in the lateral load
resisting system in Seismic Design Categories D and E.
MORTAR AND GROUT 69
Table 8.4 is a comparison of the equivalent strength
between cylinders and cube specimens for three types P
of mortar.
1
Table 8.4 Compressive Strength of Mortar
Mortar 2" dia. x 4" high 2" (50.8 mm)
Type (50.8 x 102 mm) Cube Specimen
Cylinder psi (MPa)
Lateral Lateral
Specimen psi compression compression
(MPa)
M 2100 (14.5) 2500 (17.2)
S 1500 (10.3) 1800 (12.4)
N 625 (4.3) 750 (5.2)
1 P P
Lesser periods of time for testing may be used provided the
relation between early tested strength and the 28 day strength 2 2
of the mortar is established.
The field strength of mortar should be used only as

FIGURE 8.1 Bond Shear Strength of masonry
a quality control test, rather than a quantification unit and mortar.
evaluation. The in-place mortar strength can be much
higher than the test values. The aspect ratio (h/t) of a A lack of bond at the interface of mortar and
mortar joint, typically 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) high to 11/4 in. masonry unit may permit moisture penetration through
(31.8 mm) wide is so small that a compressive failure hairline cracks. The use of lime in the mortar increases
mechanism in the mortar joint is difficult. Additionally, bond bet ween mortar and the masonry unit.
the masonry units above and below the mortar joint, as Workmanship can also affect bond strength, and the
well as the grout, confine the mortar so that the in- time lapse between spreading mortar and placing the
place mortar strength is much higher than the strengths masonry unit should be kept to a minimum since the
of the test specimens. bond of the mortar will be reduced by a long delay in
placing the units.
Since the in-place mortar strength exceeds the
cube and cylinder test strengths, mortar will perform 8.1.1.2.2 PROPORTION SPECIFICATIONS
well even when tests on mortar are less than the
specified strength of the mortar specimens. Additionally, Proportion specifications limit the amount of the
because the in-place strength is quite high, mortar constituent parts by volume. Water content, however,
compression is adequate even when the compressive may be adjusted by the mason to provide proper
strength of the entire masonry assemblage, f’m
, is higher workability under various field conditions. When the
than the cylinder and cube strengths. This concept is proportions of ingredients are not specified, the
easily understood considering that a type O mortar with proportions by mortar type must be used as given in
a property compressive strength of 1,800 psi (12,400 2006 IBC Table 2103.8(1).
kPa) can be used to construct prism assemblages with
a compressive strength of 3,000 psi (20,700 kPa). Mortars other than those approved in Table 8.5
may be used when laboratory or field tests demonstrate
In addition to compressive strength requirements, that the mortar, when combined with the masonry units,
the bond shear strength may be investigated, where will achieve the specified compressive strength of the
wind or seismic lateral forces must be considered. masonry assemblage, f’ .
m
1
Table 8.5 Mortar Proportions for Unit Masonry
Proportion by Volume (cementitious materials)
Portland Mortar Cement Masonry Cement Aggregate Ratio
Hydrated Measured in Damp
Mortar Type Cement or
Lime or Lime Loose Conditions
Blended
M S N M S N Putty
Cement
1
M 1 - - - - - - /4
1 1
Cement- S 1 - - - - - - over /4 to /2
1 1
lime N 1 - - - - - - over /2 to 1 /4
1 1
O 1 - - - - - - over 1 /4 to 2 /2
1
M 1 - - 1 - - - - Not less than 2 /4 and
M - 1 - - - - - - not more than 3 times
1
Mortar S /2 - - 1 - - - - the sum of the separate
cement S - - 1 - - - - - volumes of cementitious
N - - - 1 - - - - materials
O - - - 1 - - - -
M 1 - - - - - 1 -
M - - - - 1 - - -
1
Masonry S /2 - - - - - 1 -
cement S - - - - - 1 - -
N - - - - - - 1 -
O - - - - - - 1 -
1
2006 IBC Table 2103.8(1)
The most common Portland cement-lime mortar 8.1.2.1 CEMENTS

proportions by volume are in Table 8.6 below.
Three types of cement are permitted to be used in
Table 8.6 Common Portland Cement-Lime mortar; Portland cement, masonry cement and mortar
Mortar Mixes cement. Mortar cement has been developed as ASTM
Type M mortar: 1 part Portland cement C 1329, Standard Specification for Mortar Cement and
1
/4 part lime
may be used in high seismic applications.
1
3 /2 parts sand 8.1.2.1.1 PORTLAND CEMENT
Type S mortar: 1 part Portland cement
1
/2 part lime The basic cementitious ingredient in mortar is
1
4 /2 parts sand Portland cement. This material must meet the
requirements of ASTM C 150 Standard Specification
Type N mortar: 1 part Portland cement
for Portland Cement. In mortar, the type of Portland
1 part lime cement is limited to Type I, II or III. The use of air-
6 parts sand entraining Portland cement (Type IA, IIA or IIIA) is not
Type O mortar: 1 part Portland cement recommended for masonry mortar because air
2 parts lime entrainment can reduce the bond between mortar and
the masonry units.
9 parts sand
Portland cement is the primary adhesive material
8.1.2 MORTAR MATERIALS and based on the water/cement ratio can produce high
strength mortars. Hydrated lime is used in conjunction
The principal mortar ingredients are cement, lime, with the Portland cement to provide the desired strength,
sand and water each making a unique contribution to a bond, workability and board life (board life is defined as
mortar’ s performance. Cement contributes durability, the time during which mortar is still plastic and
high early strength and high compressive strength to workable).
mortar. Lime contributes to workability, water retentivity
and elasticity. Both contribute to bond strength. Sand 8.1.2.1.2 MASONRY CEMENTS
acts as a filler and contributes to the strength. Water
is the ingredient which creates a plastic, workable Masonry cement is a proprietary blend of Portland
mortar and is required for the hydration of the cement. cement and plasticizers such as ground inert fillers and
MORTAR AND GROUT 71
other additives for workability. Masonry cement must Lime in mortar provides cementitious properties to
meet the requirements of ASTM C 91 Standard the mortar and is not considered to be an admixture.
Specification for Masonry Cement and is available for Used in mortar it:
Types M, S and N mortar.
1. Improves the plasticity or workability of the
The use of masonry cement for mortar is not mortar.
permitted in lateral load-resisting masonry in Seismic
Design Categories D and E. 2. Improves the water tightness of the wall.
Masonry cements can be proprietary with specific 3. Improves the water retentivity or board life of
ingredients not disclosed, therefore, the MSJC Code the mortar.
imposes the seismic restriction.
8.1.2.3 MORTAR SAND
8.1.2.1.3 MORTAR CEMENTS
For masonry mortar, sand aggregate is required to
Mortar cement is also a Portland cement based conform to ASTM C 144, Standard Specification for
material which meets the requirements of ASTM C 1329, Aggregate for Masonry Mortar.
Standard Specification for Mortar Cement. Mortar
cement may be used for mortar in all Seismic Design Sand used in preparing mortar can be natural or
Categories. manufactured. Manufactured sand is obtained by
crushing stone, gravel or air-cooled blast-furnace slag.
Unlike masonry cement, mortar cement was It is characterized by sharp and angular particles
developed specifically for use in seismic application, producing mortars with workability properties different
therefore, the lateral load-restriction does not apply. than mortars made with natural sand which generally
Manufacturers of this material were deliberate in have round, smooth particles.
developing a cement that would satisfy the requirements
of structural engineers and building officials. Sand gradation is most often specified or defined
by referring to a standard sieve analysis. For mortar,
8.1.2.2 HYDRATED LIME sand is graded within the limits given in Table 8.7.
Hydrated lime is manufactured from calcining Table 8.7 Sand for Masonry Mortar
1
limestone (calcium carbonate with the water of Percent Passing

crystallization, CaCO3H2O). The high heat generated Sieve
Natural Sand Manufactured
in the kiln drives off the water of crystallization, H2O, Size
Sand
and the carbon dioxide, CO2, resulting in quicklime, No. 4 100 100
CaO. No. 8 95 to 100 95 to 100
No.16 70 to 100 70 to 100
The quicklime can then be slaked by placing it in No. 30 40 to 75 40 to 75
water thus making hydrated lime, lime putty or slaked No. 50 10 to 35 20 to 40
lime Ca(OH)2. The hydrated lime can then be dried No.100 2 to 15 10 to 25
and ground, producing a white pulverized hydrated lime No. 200 0 to 5 0 to 10
which is sacked and used in mortar. 1
Based on ASTM C 144, Section 4.
Hydrated lime can be used without delay making it Sand should be free of injurious amounts of
more convenient to use than quicklime. deleterious substances and organic impurities. ASTM
C 144 provides guidelines on determining if an aggregate
Hydrated lime must conform to ASTM C 207, has excessive impurities.
Standard Specification for Hydrated Lime for Masonry
Purposes, and is available in Types S, SA, N and NA. Concrete sand should not be used in mortar since
Types S and N hydrated limes contain no air entraining the maximum grain size is too large. Additionally, the
admixtures. Types NA and SA limes provide more fine particles which are needed in masonry sand have
entrained air in the mortar than allowed by ASTM and often been washed out of concrete sand thus creating
therefore may not be used. Additionally, unhydrated harsh, coarse sand unsuitable for mortar. Mortar sand
oxides are not controlled in Type N or NA limes thus needs at least 5% fines which pass the No. 200 sieve
making only Type S hydrated lime suitable for masonry to aid plasticity, workability and water retention of mortar.
mortar.
Mortar sand, like all mortar ingredients, should be Mixing time of the mortar should be long enough
stored in a level, dry, clean place. Ideally, it should be for a uniform, even color to be obtained and should be
located near the mixer so it can be measured and added the same length of time for every mortar batch.
with minimum handling and can be kept from Additionally the mixing sequence should be the same
contamination by harmful substances. for each batch. MSJC Specification requires that mortar
be mixed between 3 and 5 minutes.
8.1.2.4 WATER
Retempering of colored mortar should be kept to a
Water must be clean and free of deleterious amounts minimum to reduce the variations in color of the mortar.
of acids, alkalies or organic materials. Water containing For best results, colored mortar should not be
soluble salts such as potassium and sodium sulfates retempered.
should be avoided since these salts can contribute to
efflorescence. Finally, the source, manufacturer and amount of
each ingredient should remain the same for all colored
8.1.2.5 ADMIXTURES mortar on a project in an effort to obtain uniform color
throughout. Prepackaged mineral color additives that
can be added to the mix based on full sacks of Portland
There are numerous admixtures which may be
cement will minimize mortar color variation.
added to mortar to affect its properties. One of these,
called a retarding set admixture, delays the set and
stiffening of mortar. The set may be delayed for 36 8.1.3 MIXING
hours or more if desired.
8.1.3.1 MEASUREMENT OF MORTAR MATERIALS
There are also admixtures used to replace lime.
These may be an air entraining chemical or pulverized The method of measuring materials for mortar must
fire clay or bentonite clay to provide workability. Care be such that the specified proportions of the mortar
should be taken with these admixtures since the bond materials are controlled and accurately maintained. A
between the mortar and the masonry units may be reasonable method to control the mortar proportions is
affected. to use full sacks of cement per batch and to use
measuring boxes for the proper amounts of lime and
The use of any admixtures should be accepted by sand. Dry preblended mixes are also available.
the architect or engineer and must also be acceptable
to the building official. 8.1.3.2 JOB SITE MORTAR MIX
8.1.2.6 COLOR Mortar mixing is best accomplished in a paddle

type mixer. About one-half of the water and one quarter
Mortar colors are normally mineral oxides or carbon of the sand are put into the operating mixer first, then
black. Iron oxide is used for red, yellow, and brown the cement, lime, color (if any), and the remaining water
colors; chromium oxide for green, and cobalt oxide for and sand. All materials should mix for three to five
blue colors. Commercially prepared colors for mortars minutes in a mechanical mixer with the amount of water
also offer a wide variety of colors and shades. required to provide the desired workability. Small
amounts of mortar can be hand mixed. Dry mixes for
The amount of color additive depends on the color mortar which are blended in a factory should be mixed
and intensity desired. Typically, the amount of color at the job site in a mechanical mixer until workable,
additive ranges from 0.5% to 7.0% for the mineral oxides but not more than 5 minutes.
with a maximum of 2% for carbon black. These
percentages are based on the weight of cement content Figure 8.2 shows a paddle mixer with a stationary
and the maximum percentages are far greater than the drum. The blades rotate through the mortar materials
amounts of color additives usually required. for thorough mixing.
MSJC Specification limits the amount of color,

based on percentage by weight of cement, to 10%
mineral oxide pigment and 2% carbon black pigment
for Portland cement-lime mortars and 5% mineral oxide
pigment and 1% carbon black pigment for masonry
cement and mortar cement mortar.
MORTAR AND GROUT 73
Table 8.8 Property Specification
3
Requirements
1
Average
Compressive Water Air
Mortar 2
Strength at 28 Retention Content,
Type
days, Min. psi Min. % Max. %
(MPa), Cubes
RM 2500 (17.2) 75 18
RS 1800 (12.4) 75 18
RN 750 (5.2) 75 18
RO 350 (2.4) 75 18
FIGURE 8.2 Plaster or paddle mortar mixer. 1
Twenty-eight days old from date of casting. The strength
values as shown are the standard values. Intermediate
A drum or barrel mixer, shown in Figure 8.3, rotates values may be s pecified in ac cordanc e with projec t
the drum in which the materials are placed. The requirements .
2
When structural reinforcement is incorporated in mortar, the
materials are carried to the top of the rotation and then
maximum air content shall be 12%, or bond strength test
drop down to achieve mixing. This type of mixer is used data shall be provided to justify higher air content.
for jobsite mixed grout. 3
Based on ASTM C 1142, Table l.
8.1.3.4 PRE-BLENDED MORTAR
Mortar can also be factory pre-blended and stored

at the jobsite in sacks or silos. Some silo systems
introduce water to the dry mortar mix in an auger screw
at the base of the silo, while other silo systems
discharge the dry mortar mix directly into a conventional
mixer.
Pre-blended dry mortar is also available in sacks,

FIGURE 8.3 Drum or barrel concrete mixer. which may be beneficial in keeping project debris at a
minimum. This packaging method can be especially
8.1.3.3 EXTENDED LIFE MORTAR useful in limited working areas, such as parking
garages.
ASTM C 1142, Standard Specification for Extended
Life Mortar for Unit Masonry provides the requirements W hen f actory blended mortar is used,
for this material. Extended life mortar consists of manufacturers certification of the type of mortar is
cementitious materials, aggregate, water and an recommended.
admixture for set control which are measured and mixed
at a central location using weight-or-volume-control
equipment. This mortar is delivered to a construction
site and is usable for a period in excess of 21/2 hours.
There are four types of extended life mortar, RM,

RS, RN, and RO (Table 8.8). These types of mortars
can be manufactured with one of the four mortar
formulations: Portland cement, Portland cement-lime,
masonry cement, or masonry cement with Portland
cements.
Extended life mortar is selected by type and the

length of workable time required. The consistency based
on the mason’ s use should be specified. Otherwise
the extended life mortar is required to have a cone
penetration consistency of 55 + 5 mm as measured by
ASTM C 780, Standard Test Method for Preconstruction
and Construction Evaluation of Mortars for Plain and
Reinforced Unit Masonry.
FIGURE 8.4 Silo mixing system.
8.1.3.5 RETEMPERING
Mortar may be retempered with water when needed

to maintain workability. This should be done on wet
mortar boards by forming a basin or hollow in the mortar,
adding water, and then reworking the mortar into the
water. Splashing water over the top of the mortar is not a. Concave Joint –It is the most common joint used.
permissible. The tooling works mortar tight into the joint,
compressing the mortar producing a weather joint.
Harsh mortar that has begun to stiffen or harden The joint emphasizes the masonry unit pattern and
due to hydration should be thrown out. MSJC conceals small irregularities in laying the unit.
Specification requires mortar to be used within two-and-
one-half hours after the initial water has been added to
the dry ingredients at the job site. Retempering color
mortar should be avoided to limit color variations.
8.1.4 TYPES OF MORTAR JOINTS
Figure 8.5 provides basic terms for mortar joints.

b. “V”Joint - Tooling works the mortar tight and
The finished bed and head joints are cut, trowelled, or
provides a weather joint. However the “ notch”of
tooled.
the “V”can be a point of discontinuity and cracks
may develop which allow water migration. This joint
emphasizes the masonry unit pattern and conceals
small irregularities in laying, while providing a line
in center of mortar joint.
Head joint
Collar joint
c. Weather Joint – The primary purpose is to

emphasize horizontal joints. This type of joint is a
marginaly acceptable weather-type joint. The
reason for this is the top ledge of the joint acts as
a drip ledge. If the joint is not properly tooled, the
surface tension of water will allow water to pool at
the drip ledge and the water can migrate back into
the mortar.
Bed joint
FIGURE 8.5 Basic terms for mortar joints.
Shown in Figure 8.6 are nine examples of commonly

used mortar joints. Each joint provides a different
architectural appearance to the wall. Since some joints d. Flush Joint –This joint is used where the wall is
provide poor weather resistance, care must be taken in to be plastered. Special care is required to make
the selection of the proper type of mortar joint. Joints the joint weatherproof. Mortar joint must be
with ledges such as weather, squeezed, raked and compressed to assure intimate contact with the
struck joints perform poorly in exterior applications and masonry unit. Not recommended for exposed
may allow moisture penetration. Tooled joints are exterior use.
recommended for exterior applications since tooling
compacts the mortar tightly preventing moisture
penetration.
FIGURE 8.6 Mortar joint types.
MORTAR AND GROUT 75
8.2 GROUT
Grout is a mixture of Portland cement, aggregates
and water mixed to fluid consistency so that it will have
a slump of 8 to 11 in. (203 to 279 mm). The MSJC
Specification states that grout slump of 11 in. (279 mm)
e. Squeezed Joint - Provides for a rustic, high is permissible. Grout is placed in the cores or cells of
texture appearance. Satisfactory indoors and hollow masonry units or between the wythes of solid
exterior fences. Not recommended for exterior units to bind the reinforcing steel and the masonry into
building walls, for no weather resistance is created a structural system.
because the mortar is not compressed back into
the joint. Also the top ledge allows for pooling of
the water.
f. Beaded Joint - Special effect, poor exterior

weather joint due to exposed ledge and not
recommended.
FIGURE 8.7 Grouting a concrete masonry wall.

Additionally, grout provides:
g. Raked Joint - Strongly emphasizes the joints.
Poor weather joint and not recommended if exposed
1. More cross-sectional area allowing a grouted
to weather unless tooled at bottom of mortar joint.
wall to support greater vertical and lateral shear
Pooling of water can occur at the top ledge (surface
forces than a non-grouted wall.
tension properties of water) and the bottom ledge.
2. Added sound transmission resistance thus
reducing the sound passing through the wall.
3. Increased fire resistance and improved fire rating
of the wall.
4. Improved energy storage capabilities of a wall.
5. Greater weight thus improving the overturning
h. Struck Joint - Use to emphasize the horizontal resistance of retaining walls.
joi nts. Poor weat her joint, theref ore not
recommended as water will penetrate on lower
ledge. Requirements for grout are given in ASTM C 476,
Standard Specification for Grout for Masonry.
8.2.1 TYPES OF GROUT
The ASTM C 476 defines two types of grout for

masonry construction: fine grout and coarse grout. As
i. Grapevine Joint - Shows a horizontal indentation. their names imply, these two types of grouts differ
Same limitations as flush joint. primarily in the maximum allowable size of aggregates.
The fineness or coarseness of the grout is selected
based on the size of grout space and the height of the
FIGURE 8.6 Mortar joint types (Continued). grout pour. Table 8.9, Grout Proportions by Volume
covers the requirements for the mixture of the grout
type.
8.2.1.1 FINE GROUT and the top of the grout, with the cone removed, is the
slump. Both types of grout, fine and coarse, must
Fine grout is used where the grout space is small, contain enough water to provide a slump of 8 to 11
narrow or too congested with reinforcing steel. When inches (203 to 279 mm).
fine grout is used, there must be a clearance of 1/4 in.
(6.4 mm) or more between the reinforcing steel and the
masonry unit. 4”
The normal proportions by volume for fine grout are

as follows:
8 “to 11”Slump
1 part Portland cement
12”Cone
21/2 to 3 parts sand
Water for a slump of 8 to 11 in. (203 to 279 mm)
8.2.1.2 COARSE GROUT
Coarse grout may be used where the grout space 8”

for 2 wythe masonry is at least 11/2 in. (38.1 mm) in
width horizontally, or where the minimum block cell
dimension is 11/2 x 3 in. (38.1 x 76.2 mm).
FIGURE 8.8 Slump cone and slump of grout.
Although approved aggregates for grout (sand and
pea gravel) are limited to a maximum size of 3/8 in. (9.5 Excess water in the grout is immediately absorbed
mm), a coarse grout using 3/4 in. (19.1 mm) aggregate by the masonry units, reducing the apparently high
may be used if the grout space is significantly wide (8 water/cement ratio to the proper levels. Thus the
in. [203 mm] or more horizontally). Larger size masonry units should be dry prior to grouting. Once
aggregates take up more volume, thus requiring less the masonry units have absorbed the water from the
cement for an equivalent strength mix that uses smaller grout, the moist masonry assists in curing the grout.
aggregates. One should also be aware that when
pumping grout with 3/4 in. (19.1 mm) aggregate, a The use of admixtures can change the initial water/
concrete pump is required. cement ratios and affect the final water/cement ratios,
due to the absorption of the masonry units. The designer
When coarse grout is made with pea gravel, there should carefully consider the use of admixtures in grout,
must be a minimum clearance of 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) particularly water reducing admixtures since the
between the reinforcing steel and the masonry unit. hydration process is dependent on the water/cement
ratio. Water reducing admixtures may be preferred for
The typical proportions by volume for coarse grout integral water repellent systems since the excess water
are as follows: does not migrate into the units as with conventional
masonry.
1 part Portland cement
21/4 to 3 parts sand 8.2.1.4 SELF-CONSOLIDATING GROUT
1 to 2 parts pea gravel
A new product is currently under development –
Water for a slump of 8 to 11 in. (203 to 279 mm)
Self-Consolidating Grout. Self-consolidating grout has
properties that can eliminate the need to mechanically
8.2.1.3 SLUMP
vibrate the grout, creating a savings in time, labor, and
equipment. Also self-consolidating grout may allow
Fluidity is measured by a slump cone test. The
higher lifts during the grout pour. The efficiency of not
test consists of a 12" cone with openings on both ends.
consolidating and reconsolidating grout without
The grout sample is taken from the middle of a transit
compromising structural integrity makes masonry more
mixed load, not the initial 10% discharge and not the
economical. The fluidity of self-consolidating grout relies
last 10% discharge. The cone is placed on flat
on plasticizing admixtures, but must be stable. This
horizontal surface (Figure. 8.8). The cone is filled with
material is not measured in slump, but in spread as
grout, by placing the grout in the top of the cone and
depicted in Figure 8.9.
“rodding” to consolidate. The cone is then lifted straight
up, and the grout is free to flow to its final resting state.
The difference in height between the top of the cone
MORTAR AND GROUT 77
1
Table 8.9 Grout Proportions by Volume
Parts by Aggregate Measured in a
Parts by
Volume of Damp, Loose Condition
Volume of
Portland
Type Hydrated
Cement or
Lime or Fine Coarse
Blended
Lime Putty
Cement
1
2 /4 to 3 times
the sum of the
Fine 1
1 0 to /10 volumes of the
Grout
cementitious
materials
1 to 2 times
21/4 to 3 times
the sum of
the sum of the
Coarse 1 the volumes
1 0 to /10 volumes of the
Grout of the
cementitious
cementitious
materials
materials
FIGURE 8.9 Self-consolidating grout spread. 1
IBC Table 2103.12
8.2.2 PROPORTIONS Table 8.10 Grading Requirements

Sieve Amounts finer than Each Laboratory Sieve (Square
Grout ingredient proportions are commonly selected Size Openings), Percent by Weight
from Table 8.9, Grout Proportions by Volume. Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate
Proportions of the grout ingredients may also be Size No. Size No. Size No. Size No.
1 2 8 89
determined by laboratory testing, design mix or from Natural Manu-
field experience if a satisfactory history of the grout’
s factured
performance is available. Note that any grout ½-in. - - - 100 100
3
performance history must be based on grout, mortar /8-in. 100 - - 85 to 100 90 to 100
No. 4 95 to 100 100 100 10 to 30 20 to 55
and masonry units, which are similar to those intended
No. 8 80 to 100 95 to 100 95 to 100 0 to 10 5 to 30
for use on the new project. No. 16 50 to 85 70 to 100 70 to 100 0 to 5 0 to 10
No. 30 25 to 60 40 to 75 40 to 75 - 0 to 5
Historic results should be determined in accordance No. 50 10 to 30 10 to 35 20 to 40 - -
with ASTM C 1314, Standard Test Method for No. 100 2 to 10 2 to 15 10 to 25 - -
No. 200 0 to 5 0 to 5 0 to 10 - -
Compressive Strength of Masonry Prisms or ASTM C 1
ASTM C 404. Table 1.
476, Standard Specification for Grout for Masonry. The
use of 70% sand and 30% pea gravel requires six sacks
mixing process to achieve a high slump of 8 to 11 in.
of Portland cement per cubic yard and results in a
(203 to 279 mm). Dry grout mixes which are blended
pumpable grout that provides the minimum strength of
at a factory should be mixed at the job site in
2,000 psi (13,800 kPa) required by ASTM C 476. Grout
accordance with manufacturers instructions or a
must have adequate strength so that the masonry
minimum of 5 minutes if there are no instructions.
exceeds the design strength values and for sufficient
bonding to the reinforcing steel and the masonry units.
8.2.2.3 GROUT ADMIXTURES
Without adequate bonding, stresses cannot be properly
transferred between the various materials. Adequate
Admixtures are materials other than water, cement
strength is also needed to assure the embedded anchor
and aggregate which are added to the grout, either before
bolts will perform adequately.
or during mixing, in order to improve the properties of
the fresh or hardened grout.
8.2.2.1 AGGREGATES
The four most common types of grout admixtures are:
Aggregates for grout must meet the requirements
of ASTM C 404, Standard Specification for Aggregates
1. Shrinkage Compensating Admixtures - Used
for Masonry Grout. Grading of the aggregate should
to counteract the loss of water and the shrinkage
comply with Table 8.10, Grading Requirements.
of the cement by creating expansive gases in the
grout.
8.2.2.2 MIXING GROUT
Grout prepared at the job site should be mixed for

at least 5 minutes in order to assure thorough blending
of all ingredients. Enough water must be used in the
2. Plasticizer Admixtures - Used to obtain the high The required minimum compressive strength of
slump required for grout without the use of excess 2,000 psi (13,800 kPa) is needed in order to achieve
water. By adding a plasticizer to a 4 in. (102 mm) adequate bond between the grout, the reinforcing steel
slump grout mix, an 8 to 11 in. (203 to 279 mm) and the masonry unit. This minimum value is
slump can be achieved. satisfactory for masonry construction in which the
specified design strength, f’
m
, equals 1,500 psi (10,300
3. Cement Replacement Admixtures - Used to kPa), and the masonry unit has a compressive strength
decrease the amount of cement in grout without of 1900 psi (13,100 kPa). The compressive strength of
adversely affecting the compressive and bond the grout in concrete masonry construction should be
strengths of the grout. Types C and F fly ash are 1.25 to 1.33 times the design strength of the masonry
by far the most common cement replacement assemblage, f’ m
.
admixtures. Typically, 15 to 20% of the Portland
cement by weight is replaced with fly ash as long IBC Section 2105.2.2.1.1(3) states that grout used
as the strength characteristics are maintained. in clay masonry conform to the proportion requirements
of ASTM C 476, Table 1, or meet the minimum design
strength requirements (f’ m
), but in no case shall the
4. Accelerator Admixtures - Used in cold weather strength of grout be less than 2,000 psi (13.8 MPa)
construction to reduce the time that the wall must
be protected from freezing. Accelerators decrease If grout tests are required, the following schedule is
the setting time of grout and speed up its strength suggested.
gain. Accelerators also increase the heat of
hydration preventing the grout from freezing under 1. At the start of grouting operations, take one test
most circumstances. per day for the first three days. The tests should
consist of three specimens which are made as
Careful consideration must be given prior to the outlined in Section 8.2.2.5 and in accordance with
use of all admixtures since an admixture may adversely ASTM C 1019, Standard Test Method for Sampling
affect certain grout properties while improving the and Testing Grout.
intended properties. Admixtures containing chloride
salts and antifreeze liquids may not be used despite 2. After the initial three tests, specimens for
the apparent benefits, since chlorides cause corrosion continuing quality control should be taken at least
of the reinforcing steel. Admixtures can significantly once each week. Additionally, specimens should
reduce the compressive and bond strengths of the grout. be taken more frequently for every 25 cubic yards
(19 m3) of grout, or for every 2,500 square feet
Similarly, care should be taken when using two or (232 m2) of wall, whichever comes first.
more admixtures in a grout mix since the combination
of admixtures can produce unexpected results. Under 8.2.2.5 T ESTING GROUT STRENGTH
all circumstances, information regarding laboratory and
field performance of an admixture should be obtained In order to determine the compressive strength of
from the manufacturer prior to use in a grout. The MSJC grout, specimens are made that will represent the cured
Specification contains the same intent, but is somewhat grout in the wall. The specimen is made in a mold
more general, requiring that admixtures must be consisting of masonry units identical to those being
acceptable. used in construction and at the same moisture condition
as those units being laid. The units are arranged to
Admixtures that rely on air entrainment are a code form a space approximately 3 to 4 in. (76.2 to 102 mm)
concern. ASTM C 476 refers to ASTM C 260 for square and twice as high as it is wide (Figures 8.10
conformance of air entraining admixtures, whereas, and 8.11).
historically, the UBC stated that tests must be
conducted for mortar and grout compliance for the To prevent the grout from bonding to the masonry
admixtures. units, the space is lined with permeable paper or a
porous separator which allows any excess water to be
8.2.2.4 GROUT STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS absorbed into the units. A paper towel does an excellent
job.
ASTM 476 requires that the minimum grout
compressive strength shall be 2,000 psi (13,800 kPa) The representative samples of grout are placed in
at 28 days. molds which will remain undisturbed for 48 hours (ASTM
C 1019, Section 6.1). The grout samples are placed in
molds, in two layers, puddled and kept damp and
MORTAR AND GROUT 79
Though lifts may not exceed 5 feet (1.5 m) in height,
Line units with an
a grout pour may consist of several lifts. For example,
absorbent material if the wall is built 20 feet (6.1 m) high, the total grout
Tape pour could be the entire 20 feet (6.1 m). For this
situation, the contractor could place the grout in 4 lifts
of 5 feet (1.5 m) each.
8.2.2.6.2 LOW LIFT AND HIGH LIFT GROUTING
Although the terms low lift and high lift grouting

were deleted from Codes in recent years, the terms are
still commonly used when referring to grouting methods.
Grout test
specimen
Wooden block Low lift grouting may be used when the height of a
grout pour is 5 feet (1.5 m) or less. High lift grouting
may be used only when cleanout holes are provided at
FIGURE 8.10 Typical arrangement for making
the bottom of the grout pour. The height of the masonry
a grout specimen for block. wall prior to grouting may exceed 5 feet (1.5 m).
Line units with 8.2.2.6.3 LOW LIFT GROUTING PROCEDURE

an absorbent
material
When the low lift grouting procedure is used,
masonry walls may be built to a height of 5 feet (1.5
m). Because of this limited pour height, which allows
for easy inspection of the walls, cleanout openings are
not required.
For multi-wythe grouted walls, the wythes must be

tied together with wire ties or joint reinforcement (Figure
8.12). The wire tying of the wythes prevents the wythes
Grout
test specimen
from bulging or blowing out, during the grouting
Wooden block
procedure. The MSJC Specification gives a requirement
for wall ties.
FIGURE 8.11 Typical arrangement for making
a grout specimen for brick. Minimum number of
Wire size wall ties required
W1.7 (MW 11) One per 2.67 ft2 (0.25 m2)
undisturbed. Between 24 and 48 hours the molds
W2.8 (MW 18) One per 4.50 ft2 (0.42 m2)
should be removed (ASTM C 1019, Section 10.1) and
the samples are to be transported to the lab within 8
hours after mold removal.
t
8.2.2.6 METHODS OF GROUTING WALLS

4”
There are several methods of constructing and
grouting masonry walls that will result in strong,
homogeneous and satisfactory walls. The method t - 2”
selected is influenced by the type of masonry, the area
and length of wall, the equipment available and the
experience of the contractor.
8.2.2.6.1 GROUT POUR AND LIFT
The total height of masonry to be grouted prior to FIGURE 8.12 Ties for two wythe walls.
the erection of additional masonry is called a grout pour.
Grout is placed in increments called lifts. A grout lift is
the height of grout placed in a single continuous
operation.
The maximum horizontal spacing between ties is height must be consolidated by means of a mechanical
36 in. (914 mm) and the maximum vertical spacing is vibrator. The grout must also be reconsolidated after
24 in. (610 mm). Additional ties are provided around the excess water is absorbed by the units to close any
opening larger than 16 in. (406 mm) in either dimension. voids due to the water lost.
The ties are placed within 12 in. (305 mm) of the opening
and have a maximum spacing of 36 in. (914 mm). Horizontal construction joints should be formed
between grout pours by stopping the grout pour 11/2 in.
(38.1 mm) below the top of the masonry. Where bond
beams occur, the joints may be reduced to 1/2 in. (12.7
mm) deep to allow sufficient grout above the horizontal
reinforcing steel.
After lower section is grouted,
At the top of the wall, the grout should be placed

flush with the masonry units.
constructed and grouted
next 5’of wall may be
8.2.2.6.4 HIGH LIFT GROUTING PROCEDURE
Grouting after a wall is constructed to its full height

is often quite economical. This method allows the
mason to continually lay masonry units without waiting
for the walls to be grouted. High lift grouting procedures
11/2”minimum key must be used when grout pours exceed 5 feet (1.5 m).
recommended ( 1/ 2” Currently the maximum pour height the Building Codes
min. where bond
beams occur)
allow is 24 feet (7.3 m).
Cleanout openings must be provided in walls which

are to be grouted using the high lift method. The MSJC
Specification requires cleanouts at the bottom course
grout pour is 5’
of masonry for each grout pour so that the cells or

Max. height of
Consolidated and reconsolidate

the grout after allowing the ex- cavities that are to be grouted can be cleaned and
cess water to be absorbed by inspected prior to grouting. In partially grouted masonry,
the masonry units
this is usually means the vertical cells containing
reinforcement. However, in solid grouted walls,
cleanouts must be provided at no more than 32 in. (813
mm) on center, even if the reinforcing steel is spaced
Cleanouts not at greater intervals (Figure 8.14). For partially grouted
required since
grout pour height
walls the maximum spacing of cleanouts must not
is 5’or less exceed 48 in. (1,219 mm) on center.
Cleanout holes must be of sufficient size which the

MSJC Specification defines as at least 3 in. (76.2 mm)
in any dimension direction. A common practice is to
FIGURE 8.13 Low lift grouting-cleanouts not
remove an entire CMU face shell, or leave out an entire
required. brick unit to satisfy the cleanout requirements. The
face shell or unit can then be replaced before grouting
Hollow unit masonry does not require ties since with minimal evidence of the cleanout.
the cross-webs and end shells support the face shells
and resist bulging and blowouts. For solid grouted masonry walls, inverted bond
beam units will maximize grout contact with the
Grout may not be placed until all the masonry units, foundation and also make cleaning out the bottom of
ties, reinforcing steel and embedded anchor bolts are cells easier.
in place to the top of the grout pour. Once these items
are in place, the wall may be partially or fully grouted. Alternately, cleanouts may be omitted for grout
For grout pours 12 in. (305 mm) high or less, the grout pours in excess of 5 feet (1.5 m) if a grout demonstration
may be consolidated by puddling with a stick such as panel is provided and results are satisfactory to the
a 1 in. x 2 in. (25.4 mm x 50.8 mm) piece of wood. designer and acceptable to the building official.
However, grout pours in excess of 12 in. (305 mm) in
MORTAR AND GROUT 81
Section AA
1”
1”
5’ maximum
Grout in 5’ lifts to top of pour.
Wall tie #9 wire spaced:
Horizontally - 24” o.c. max.
Vertically for
Cleanout opening running bond - 16” o.c.
at all vertical
reinforcing bars. Vertically for stack
5’ maximum
bond - 12” o.c.
A A
32” maximum spacing of cleanout
openings for solid grouted walls; 48”
maximum for partially grouted walls. Cleanout opening.
Seal prior to grouting
but after inspection.
FIGURE 8.14 Maximum spacing of cleanout
holes.
Provide vertical Reconsolidate the grout after the ex-
grout dam every cess water has been absorbed into
Two wythe masonry walls must be tied together 30’ maximum the masonry units.
with wire ties or joint reinforcement to prevent blowouts
and bulging.
Grout lifts must be mechanically consolidated.

FIGURE 8.16 High lift method of grouting 2
Before the grout loses plasticity, the grout should be wythe walls, with cleanout openings.
reconsolidated to close any voids due to water loss.
An unrestricted double-wythe masonry wall will
allow grout to flow horizontally along the cavity and
If grout pour
excessive flow may cause materials to segregate.
is 5’ - 0” or Control barriers restrict the flow as depicted in Figure
less then it 8.17. These barriers, typically spaced at 30 feet (9.1
5’ max.
can be placed m), are constructed by laying masonry units in the grout
in one lift
space for the full height of the wall.
Stop grout pour (not
grout lift) 11/2 below At the bottom of the wall the footing may be covered
top of masonry units
with a layer of loose sand to prevent mortar droppings
5’ max.
from sticking to the foundations. The mortar droppings

and sand are then removed from the grout space by
blowing out, washing out, or cleaning out by hand.
Consolidate and
reconsolidate Once the bottom of the grout space has been
the grout after cleaned and inspected the cleanout holes are sealed
the excess with a masonry unit, a face shell, or a form board which
5’ max.
water has been

absorbed into is then braced to resist the pressure of the poured grout.
the masonry
units
Cleanout opening.
Seal prior to grouting
but after inspection
FIGURE 8.15 High lift grouting block wall.

Long Flow Lines FIGURE 8.18 Consolidating grout in a concrete

masonry wall.
8.2.3 12 FOOT GROUT LIFTS
Under specif ic conditions the 2005 MSJC

Specification allows for grout lifts not exceeding 12 feet
8 inches (3.86 m). These higher lifts may be used
when all of the following conditions are met:
• the masonry has cured for a minimum of four

hours;
30’max.
• the group slump is maintained between 10 and
11 inches (254 and 279 mm); and
Controlled Placement of Grout with Barriers • no intermediate reinforced bond beams are
placed between the top and the bottom of the
pour height.
FIGURE 8.17 Grout barriers.
8.2.2.7 CONSOLIDATION
Grout must be consolidated just like concrete.

Consolidation eliminates voids and causes grout to flow
around the reinforcement and into small openings or
voids.
Consolidation may be performed using a puddle

stick if the lifts are not higher than 12 in. (305 mm).
Lifts greater than 12 in. (305 mm) high, however, must
be consolidated by mechanical vibrators. As there is
only a small volume of grout to be consolidated in a
cell or grout space, the mechanical vibrator need only
be used for a few seconds in any location. Excessive
vibration increases the possibility of blowing out face
shells or dislodging masonry units.
The need for mechanical vibration to consolidate or

to re-consolidate grout does not apply to self-consoli-
dating grout.
Engineering Building Unit 2
UC Riverside, California
Physical Science Building
UC Riverside, California
Neuroscience Research Bldg.
UCLA, Los Angeles, California
Cupertino Civic Center
Cupertino, California
Redlands East Valley H.S.
Redlands, California
Performing Arts Center
Cal State, Fullerton, California
Congregation Ner Tamid
R. Palos Verdes, California
New Gym-Diablo View M.S.
Clayton, California
Pacifica High School
Oxnard, California
Stanford U. Auxiliary Library III
Livermore, California
Digital Media Center
Santa Ana, California
New Gym-Kennedy H.S.
Granada Hills, California
Orange County Fire Authority
Irvine, California
Getty Center Museum
Los Angeles, California
Community Center and Sports
Laguna Hills, California
Center for Wine, Food & Arts
Napa, California
SECTION 2 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
CHAPTER
9
BRICK MASONRY
CONSTRUCTION
In chapter one, clay brick, as a material, was 9.1.1 BRICK MASONRY BOND PATTERNS
presented. In this chapter, brick design and construction
will be given in detail. Such topics will include the Bond patterns such as English or Flemish, or
importance of the brick pattern, types of loading, variations of these, may be used to create patterns in
empirical design, environmental design and structural the face of a wall. Pattern refers to the change or varied
design. Detailing issues will also be addressed. As arrangement of brick, texture or color used in the face.
mentioned in the preface of this book, the material is Using the same structural bond, it may be possible to
for the non-engineering disciplines of the building secure several patterns. Also, patterns may be
industry. However, basic knowledge of the issues and produced by the method of handling the mortar joint or
terminology of the engineer is assumed. There are by projecting or recessing certain units from the plane
many books and other publications available that give of the wall, thus creating a distinctive wall texture that
an in-depth discussion of the engineering of brick. A is not solely dependent upon the texture of the individual
significant amount of information in this chapter is brick.
derived from the Brick Industry Association’ s Technical
Notes. The designer is encouraged to use the most Five essential structural bonds are typically used
current information by using the sources available in to create typical patterns: Running Bond, Common or
the Reference Section. American Bond, Flemish Bond, English Bond, and
Stack Bond. With variations of the color and texture of
the brick and of the joint types and color, an unlimited
9.1 AESTHETIC DESIGN number of patterns can be developed through the use
of these bonds.
Brick masonry and shaped stones are possibly the
oldest manufactured building materials. They are also,
Running Bond - The running bond consists of all
when used well, two of the most beautiful and enduring
stretcher units with units overlapping in adjacent courses
building elements. Brick, for example, is a building
and is the simplest of the basic bond patterns. Running
material of bewildering flexibility, and is used to solve
bond is further identified by the length of overlap, such
an infinite number of design problems. When brick is
as half bond or third bond. The running bond is utilized
used with imagination and care, with good design and
extensively in cavity wall construction and veneered
with attention to color and texture, it can create a
walls of brick, and often in facing tile walls where the
structure that is both aesthetically appealing and
bonding may be achieved by extra width stretcher tile.
functional.
Because of the importance of the running bond
The most visual and important characteristics of
pattern to structural integrity, the MSJC Code formally
brick and brickwork are how it will be assembled and
defines a running bond pattern as:
the pattern the layout creates, or the bond pattern. The
bond pattern gives a statement to the architectural
“The placement of masonry units such that the
quality, but it is extremely important to the structural
head joints in successive courses are horizontally
quality.
offset at least one-quarter the unit length.”
All other bond patterns are treated as “

stack bond”
. Flemish Bond Each brick course in this bond
consists of headers and stretchers laid alternately. A
1
header is flanked on both sides, above and below, by
/2 unit length
stretchers. Where the headers are not used for the
structural bonding, the headers may be obtained by
using half brick called “
clipped”or “
snap”headers.
Flemish bond may be varied by increasing the

number of stretchers between headers in each course.
A“ garden wall”bond is known when there are three
stretchers alternating with a header. When there are
two stretchers between headers, it is known as “
double
stretcher garden wall”bond. Also, garden wall bond
1
/2 Running Bond may be laid with four or even five stretchers between
1
the headers.
/3 unit length
Dutch Corner English Corner

1
/3 Running Bond
FIGURE 9.1 Running bonds.
Common or American Bond - This bond is a

variation of running bond with a course of full length
headers at regular intervals. The headers provide
structural bonding, as well as pattern. Typically, header Common Bond
courses appear at every fifth, sixth or seventh course.
FIGURE 9.3 Flemish bonds.
First course bonding patterns are important to the
layout of the wall. A three-quarter length brick may be Patterns that may be obtained by varying brick color
required at the corner to maintain the bond on both are illustrated in Figures 9.4 and 9.5.
walls.
6TH Course Headers
FIGURE 9.2 Common or American bond.
FIGURE 9.4 Double stretcher garden wall bond

with units in diagonal lines.
BRICK MASONRY CONSTRUCTION 85
English Corner Dutch Corner
FIGURE 9.7 English cross or Dutch bond.
FIGURE 9.5 Garden wall bond with units in Stack Bond This is a weak bond, typically used
dovetail fashion. for decorative effect on veneers. All vertical joints are
aligned, and steel joint reinforcement must be installed.
English Bond This pattern is made f rom Since all vertical joints are aligned there is no overlapping
alternating courses of headers and stretchers on each of units. Normally this pattern is bonded to the backing
course. The headers are centered on the stretchers with rigid metal ties, but when 8 in. (203 mm) boundary
and the joints between the stretchers in all the courses units are available, they may be used. In stack bond
are lined up vertically. Snap headers are used in dimensionally accurate masonry units must be used if
courses which are not structural bonding courses. the vertical alignment of the head joints is to be
maintained.
English Corner Dutch Corner
FIGURE 9.8 Stack bond.

FIGURE 9.6 English bond.
Wall Texture Another contemporary modification
English Cross or Dutch Bond This is a variation of the traditional bond has been used by projecting and
on the English bond, the only difference being that the recessing units, or by omitting units to form perforated
vertical joints between the stretchers in alternate courses walls or screens.
do not line up vertically. These joints center on the
stretchers as shown in Figure 9.7. 9.1.2 MODULAR BRICK MASONRY
There are two methods used in starting the corners Several years ago, the ultimate objective of the
in Flemish and English bonds. The “ Dutch Corner” uses construction industry was the development of a system
a three-quarter brick closure, and the “English Corner” of construction in which all materials, components,
uses a 2 in. (51 mm) or quarter brick closure, and is products and equipment fit together simply and easily
called a “
Queen Closure” . The 2 in. (51 mm) closure with minimum alterations required at the jobsite.
should always be placed 4 in. (102 mm) from the corner.
Today, a large percentage of brick is produced in
modular sizes consistent wit h est ablished
manufacturing policies.
As design requirements change, new sizes may 9.1.2.2 COORDINATION OF MASONRY UNITS
be added and less popular sizes discontinued. Also,
Figure 9.10 shows the way in which the coordination
not all manufacturers produce all the typical sizes.
of different modular masonry units can be achieved.
Therefore, the designer should consult current
manufacturer or regional catalogs for available sizes in
The exterior face brick are shown with 3/8 in. (9.5
any locality before proceeding with a design.
mm) joints and are backed up with units, such as
structural clay tile designed for use with 1/2 in. (12.7
9.1.2.1 DIMENSIONS OF MODULAR UNITS
mm) joints. The inside facing of ceramic glazed units
As illustrated in Figure 9.9, the dimensions of are laid in 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) joints. As indicated in the
modular units are “ nominal”and are equal to the enlargements, the full coordination between units is
specified dimension (i) plus the thickness of the mortar apparent. The thickness of the vertical joints between
joint (j) with which the unit is designed to be laid. The the different types of units is the average of the joint
specified length of a unit, for example, whose nominal thickness used with each unit.
length is 12 in. (305 mm) is 111/2 in. (292 mm) if the
units were designed to be installed with 1/2 in. (12.7
mm) mortar joints, or 115/8 in. (295 mm) for 3/8 in. (9.5 12”
mm) mortar joints. /4” 1/8”
1
/8”
/4”1/4”
3
/8”
/2”
/4”
1
1
/8”
1
Thickness = T
1
Nominal Wall
Thickness = t
Actual Wall
Cavity 1
/2 j
/16”
3 1
/4”
7
/16”
/4”1/4”
/16”
w
/2”
/8”
/16”
3
1
/2 j
1
Plan
3
3
1
1 1 1
j i /2 j /2 j w /2 j
Cavity
H h
3
/16”wall ties
j Wall Sections
L 16”o.c. vertically
W
36”o.c. horizontally
Elevation Section
Capital letters indicate nominal dimensions.

FIGURE 9.10 Coordination of modular unit.
Lower case letters indicate actual dimensions. 9.1.2.3 INITIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
A 4 in. (102 mm) modular grid should be established
FIGURE 9.9 Modular unit dimensions. as a reference system for the three dimensional
elements of plan and structure, but no part of the plan
Face brick are normally laid with either 3/8 in. (9.5 should be forced to fall on the grid, nor should any
mm) or 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) thick mortar joints, however dimension be forced into multiples of 4 in. (102 mm).
some products, such as ceramic glazed brick or Economics can be realized in construction costs
structural clay facing tile, are designed for 1/4 in. (6.4 through the use of modular dimensions, thus minimizing
mm) thick mortar joints. field cutting brick units.
The standard dimensions of a single unit may vary 9.1.2.4 GRID LOCATIONS OF MASONRY WALLS
from the specified dimensions by no more than the
permissible tolerances for variation in dimensions Figure 9.11 shows grid locations of mortar joints in
included in the applicable ASTM Standard. walls constructed with various modular units when the
walls are centered between grid lines.
All grid lines coincide with horizontal mortar joints

for the 2 in. (50.8 mm) and 4 in. (102 mm) nominal
heights, thus providing 4 in. (102 mm) flexibility.
Grid lines coincide with horizontal joints every 8 in.
(203 mm) with 22/3 in. (67.7 mm) high units (as well as
8 in. (203 mm) high units). A course of 4 in. (102 mm)
high supplementary units (or a rowlock header course)
may be required to complete even coursing for the given
wall height when 4 in. (102 mm) flexibility is required.
The fact that alternate grid lines coincide with the

mortar joints when the 22/3 in. (67.7 mm) high brick is
used provides a simple rule for determining the location
of a grid line with respect to the masonry at any point
above or below a given reference grid line. Any grid line
8”stretcher 3 courses = 8”1/2 bond
which is an even multiple of 4 in. (102 mm) from the
4”multiple corner to opening reference line will have the same relative position with
respect to the masonry coursing, while any grid line
that is an odd multiple of 4 in. (102 mm) will have the
alternate position. This rule greatly simplifies the
checking of course heights, particularly for lintels, where
it is usually desirable that the head of the opening
coincides with a horizontal mortar joint.
Typically, a symmetrical grid location for walls is

preferred to an unsymmetrical position. The correct
symmetrical location, which is centered between grid
lines or centered on a grid line, will often be influenced
by the length of the masonry units to be used.
12”multiple corner to opening For masonry units whose nominal lengths are 8 or
16 in. (203 or 406 mm), vertical joints will occur on grid
lines when 4 and 8 in. (102 and 203 mm) thick walls
are centered between grid lines, and they will occur at
mid-grid points when these walls are centered on grid
lines.
When laid in one-third bond, the above conditions

are also true for 12 in. (305 mm) nominal length units.
Vertical joints in alternate courses will occur on grid
lines and be centered between grid lines when these
units are laid in center (1/2) bond.
9.1.3 BRICK MASONRY DIMENSIONING
12”multiple corner to opening
Brick detailing has become simplified with the
advent of modular dimensioned construction. This
method requires the designer to create details on the
basis of length and width of brick. Using dimensions of
multiples of full brick length will reduce the number of
cut brick required when locating corners, returns and
openings. Full brick and half brick in alternate courses
around a recessed window opening is shown in Figure
9.12. Cut brick would have to be placed in all courses
as shown in Figure 9.12, if the dimension to the window
was not a whole number of brick lengths. Uniform
mortar head joints are maintained in alternate courses.
12”multiple corner to opening This becomes more critical with shorter horizontal
dimensions.
FIGURE 9.11 Grid locations.
By arranging different colors of brick other effects

can be accomplished. Color can be used to draw
attention and give direction. One example is the use of
color bands around entances. Color can also be used
to create simple patterns or complex murals.
The light reflectance of the masonry is influenced

by color. To reflect light, the exposed surface of the
units may be glazed or smooth skinned. Deeply
textured or sand faced units absorb light, creating richer
colors.
Proper Dimensioning 9.1.5 TEXTURE

In masonry, texture can reach new or can surpass
most limits. Modifying the brick unit, the mortar joint
and the combination of both makes it feasible to
accomplish thousands of textural effects. For example,
large uniform glazed units laid in stack bond with thin
flush mortar joints can produce sleek surfaces. An
irregularly sized, rough unit laid with thick, raked joints
in a non-uniform bond pattern achieves a highly coarse
texture.
The brick units can have great textural diversity.

Smooth glossy surfaces are produced by glazed units.
Extruded die skins create smooth velvet surfaces. Sand
finish, deep grooves, scratches or wire cuts may be
Improper Dimensioning applied to coarse textures. Several manufacturers
tumble unfired brick down inclines to increase texture.
FIGURE 9.12 Dimensioning layouts. Limited only by the imagination of the designer, special
shapes have long been used to give added interest to a
9.1.4 COLOR facade’ s texture.
Traditionally, brick masonry was made of natural Textural flexibility is given by mortar joints.
earth colored brick and either white or gray mortar. Although, only the concave, V-shaped, and weathered
Revisions to the manufacturing process and suitable joints are recommended for exterior use due to moisture
pigments now provide an almost limitless color pallet concerns, it is surprising how the use of these joints
from which a designer may choose. will modify the appearance of a wall. Since moisture
penetration is not a consideration in interior masonry,
Variation of colors can be accomplished by more dramatic joint profiles, such as raked or extruded
changing the color of the units or mortar. To create joints, can be used to create interesting textures and
different effects, mortar color can be used to contrast shadows. The size of the joint, of course, provides
or blend with the brick . Greater contrast between mortar many additional possibilities.
and brick enhances the separation of the units, creating
a more ornate surface which appears to contain more The combination of brick and mortar creates many
texture. As the viewing distance increases color variation textures, which is further expanded with imaginative
changes. Small patterns are lost and larger ones bond patterns and by projecting and recessing brick
dominate as the area is viewed from farther away. units. Brick masonry is renowned for the textural effects
created with corbels, racking and dentils. When
Varying hues of the same color may be thoughtful attention to texture is given, the facade of
accomplished due to the materials and manufacturing the building can easily be altered from ultra-modern to
methods for brick. The bricks, when laid, create a rustic.
variegated pattern of color which cannot be achieved
with any other building material. Brick which appear
to have little variation in color can be used when a
uniform color is desired.
9.1.6 SCALE For larger projects, rational design typically result in a
material cost savings over empirical design .
The most important architectural aspect of a building
is the scale. The dimension of the building naturally A rational or engineering design of structures
has the greatest influence on scale, but architectural considers the presence of loads, the interaction of
features and materials are important factors. Features elements and the amount of material present to resist
such as long slender colonnades, for example, make those loads. Basic assumptions concerning perfor-
even the most modest size building appear large. mance of materials are made. A significant amount of
masonry is designed based on the following three
The scale of a building is perceived, but controllable. principles:
Based on comparative affirmation it is a judgment of
size by the observer. Studies show that two identical 1. Normalize force (stress) and normalized
objects have a different perception under different deflection (strain) are directly related to each
lighting conditions. The object with brighter lighting will other by a proportion (Hooke’ s Law),
appear larger. Also, given two equal length lines, one
horizontal and one vertical, the vertical line appears 2. Cross-sections which are straight and form a
longer. Furthermore, highly ornate areas reduce scale, plane, before loading, remain straight and form
whereas plain areas increase scale. Comparative a plane after loading (no warping), and
objects must be present to give scale since size is
relative. 3. Masonry (bri ck, m ortar, grout, and
reinf orcement) works t ogether as one
Brick is the human-scale building element by homogeneous system.
tradition. Perhaps this is one of the reasons brick
masonry is so popular, as it gives a human scale to 9.2.1 LOADS
structures. The combination of darker colors and
horizontal lines reduces the scale of a building. To Imposed loads govern the sizes of structural
create flat, stretching ranch homes, Frank Lloyd Wright members. Building codes and standards traditionally
made extensive use of long, thin brick. The comparison prescribe the value and combinations of loads.
of the relatively small size of individual units to the large Structures and members must be designed to resist
building elements can give the elements an exaggerated the most unfavorable effect of load placement and
large scale. Architects can make use of smaller brick combination. Vertical loads are either dead loads or
units and mortar joints that can be used to mislead the live loads; common horizontal loads are wind,
viewer. The use of oversized units modify the learned hydrostatic and seismic loads.
comparison of scale and makes the element appear
smaller. 9.2.1.1 DEAD LOADS
Dead loads are long term stationary forces which
9.2 DESIGN LOADS include the self-weight of the structure and the weight
of permanent equipment and machinery, such as; walls,
All structures must be designed to support their roofs, stairways, partitions and fixed HVAC or service
own weight along with any superimposed forces, such equipment. Dead loads are computed from known
as the dead loads from other materials, live loads, wind material weights and their respective sizes. Additionally,
pressures, seismic forces and earth pressures. These the 1997 Uniform Building Code Section 1606.2 required
vertical and lateral loads may be of short duration such a uniformly distributed dead load of 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2)
as those from wind or earthquake, or they may be of where wall partitions are to be used. However, the 2006
longer duration such as the dead loads of machinery International Building Code, Section 1607.5, now
and equipment. Proper design must consider all classifies this 15 psf wall partition loading as a live
possible applied forces along with the interaction of these load. This double classification is brought on by the
forces on the structure. nature of the wall partition load. If the partitions are
present, they are usually in place for a long time and
Empirical or rational methods can be used in the the partitions are positively attached to the structure,
design of brick masonry structures. The successful thus becoming a part of the dead load mass for seismic
performance of previously constructed buildings are forces and long term creep (deflections). However, if
determined by empirical methods and are often used the partitions are not present, then the dead load is not
on smaller projects. Based on engineering principles, present to help hold the building down during wind and
rational methods are developed from the analysis of seismic events (i.e. resist over-turning) and the partition
test results, interaction of members and load distribution. loading should be considered as live loading. The caveat
in the code should not be followed blindly and a designer 9.2.1.5 HYDROSTATIC LOADS
should be given leeway to exercise judgment. In either
case, dead load vs. live load, both require uniformly Loads due to confined liquids or soils in contact
distributed dead load of 15 pounds per square foot (0.74 with the member are hydrostatic loads. The most
kN/m2) when partitions are used and the minimum common example of a hydrostatic load imposed on
specified live load is less than 80 psf. ASCE 7-05 also masonry would be liquid saturated soil behind a retaining
requires a minimum design dead load of 15 pounds per wall.
square foot (0.74 kN/m2) for framed partitions using 2 x
4 wood studs, plastered two sides. 9.2.1.6 MATERIAL PROPERTY LOADS
Due to changes in temperature and moisture
9.2.1.2 LIVE LOADS
content construction materials expand and contract.
Live loads are short duration forces which are Stresses are developed in the material if these
variable in magnitude and location. Examples of live movements are restrained. Differential (very small)
load items include people, furniture, rain and snow. movement between adjacent materials causes stress.
The behavior of each material and the interaction of
The 2006 IBC, Chapter 16, addresses these live materials must be examined to consider these
loadings. Table 1607.1 of the IBC is a comprehensive additional stresses.
live load list based on the use and occupancy of the
structure.
9.3 LOAD DISTRIBUTION
9.2.1.3 WIND LOADS Wind loads and external lateral forces on a wall
Wind loads exert a pressure and a suction on the are horizontal loads which transmit the forces to
exposed building surfaces and are particularly important horizontal and vertical supports. Vertical loads exert a
in high-rise construction. Factors such as height of force that is transmitted through the floors, columns,
the structure, gust factors, exposure, wind speeds and beams or walls and ultimately into the ground.
importance designation of the structure are included in
the design for wind loads. Wind forces overturning of Due to non-uniform loading, the effect of torsion or
the structure must also be considered. twisting of the structure must be taken into account.
All loads are transmitted through the foundation and
9.2.1.4 SEISMIC (EARTHQUAKE) LOADS into the ground in one way or another.
The IBC has replaced the familiar ‘ Seismic Zones’

with Seismic Design Categories. In previous codes,
seismic zones were given a relative rating of Zone 0
(least seismic activity and wind governs minimum lateral
design) thru Zone 4 (most seismic activity that governs
minimum lateral design). This relative scale gave the
non-engineering professional an immediate and relative
understanding of the possibility of seismic activity over
the life of a structure. It also gave the non-engineering
professional a “ feel”for whether wind or seismic loading
would govern the minimum design. Today, the IBC uses
contour maps of percentage of “ g”. The percent “ g”
contours vary from 0 to 200. This high gradation blurs
the areas (zones) between low and high seismic loading.
The contour map is new and it will take many years for
the building industry to become familiar and comfortable
with equating a percentage “ g” to a feel if wind or seismic
governs the design.
In areas of significant earthquake activity seismic

forces are of importance. During an earthquake, all
structural members are subjected to dynamic forces
caused by the resulting ground motions. Many factors
such as site geology, building shape, structural system
and mass, should be included in the design for FIGURE 9.13 Load distribution.
earthquake loads.
Some factors in which forces are distributed to the
Compressive force
individual members include configuration, connection
of structural elements, the flexural resistance and
rigidity of the wall in both the vertical and horizontal
direction and the fixity or restraint at the supports. Brick
A rule of thumb is symmetry and center-line to Mortar

center-line connection of structural members thereby
giving structural efficiency to a building. Brick
9.4 MASONRY STRESSES

Compressive force
There are two primary design methods which must
be considered, empirical and rational design
techniques. Stresses develop in the masonry element FIGURE 9.14 Tensile stresses developed from
as it resists the applied loads. The primary stresses compressive forces.
are shear and normal. Shear stresses are caused by
forces that are parallel to a surface. Normal stresses member) occurs when the slenderness ratio increases
are caused by forces perpendicular to a surface. Normal and reaches the Euler buckling phase. Slenderness
stresses are described by their direction and by “ how effects may be estimated from the ratio of the height to
they were created” . Normal stresses are compressive, the thickness or radius of gyration of the assemblage.
tensile (caused by direct pulling), or tensile (caused by
bending or flexure). Therefore, the primary types of 9.4.2 FLEXURAL TENSION STRESSES
stresses can be further described as compressive,
tensile or flexural tensile and shear stresses. For each Vertical loads which are not applied at the center
of these stresses there is a corresponding strength of the member, called eccentric loads, or out-of-plane
property of masonry: compressive strength, flexural loads, will cause the assemblage to bend. One side of
bond strength and shear strength. Each of these the wall can be in tension with the opposite side in
strengths is influenced by the properties of materials compression during bending.
and the configurations of the assemblages.
Load
9.4.1 COMPRESSIVE STRESS
Tension
Masonry is the assemblage of masonry units,
mortar and grout. The strength of a completed masonry
wall is based on all three of these working together.
Compression
Although the compressive strength of an individual brick

Tension
may be very high, this strength alone does not dictate

the compressive strength of the assemblage. The
strength of the mortar and the grout must also be
considered. Since these three items must be
Lateral force
assembled, how well they are assembled directly affects
the strength. The quality of workmanship, construction Compression
detailing and the component dimensions are also
influencing factors. FIGURE 9.15 Flexural tensile stress (Out-of-
plane load).
Mortar is put into tension or compression when an
axial load is applied to the assemblage. The bond 9.4.3 SHEAR STRESSES
between the mortar and the brick transfers the
movement to the brick. This develops tensile stresses In brick structures, there are two types of shear.
in the brick, which can cause vertical cracking.
Shear stress is one type that results from sliding
When masonry fails in this manner, it gives the action with the force parallel to the resisting area. Figure
highest value of strength. There can be compression 9.16 shows that in the case of a brick shear wall the
failure at a lower value and this occurs when buckling load is in the plane of the wall and the wall resists this
is the failure. Buckling (the bending of a compression force parallel to its bed joints.
9.5 EMPIRICAL DESIGN

Empirical Design is contained in Section 2109 of
the 2006 IBC. This section also references 2005 MSJC
Code, Chapter 5.
V Empirical design is based on experience and what

has worked in the past. Empirical design is a very
quick design method, however, it is not necessarily
the most efficient method. The majority of the
requirements for empirical design are based on
limitations to wall dimensions. Several basic designs
are included, but only vertical loads are considered in
determining stresses.
FIGURE 9.16 Sliding action shear stress.
9.5.1 ALLOWABLE STRESSES
When bending is present, the second type of shear If the vertical loading in the masonry is due to vertical
stress occurs. As shown in Figure 9.17 in a cantilever dead loads plus live loads (excluding wind or seismic
beam made of several sheets of material with a force loads), then the empirical design values can be used
applied to the end of a beam, the sheets move relative to design the masonry. The actual compression
to each other. stresses in the masonry are determined by dividing the
design load by the gross cross-sectional area. These
actual stresses must not exceed the permitted
compressive stress for the weakest combination of the
units and mortar in the masonry assemblage. 2005
MSJC Code Chapter 5 lists the permitted compression
stresses for masonry assemblages.
9.5.2 MINIMUM THICKNESS

The empirical design method has requirements for
the minimum thickness of masonry. The minimum
thickness requirement varies depending on the type of
masonry construction. For example, bearing walls of
one-story buildings must have a minimum thickness of
FIGURE 9.17 Bending action shear stress. 6 in. (152 mm). Bearing walls for buildings more than
one story require a minimum thickness of 8 in. (203
No slippage planes would occur if this same beam mm). Parapet and shear walls must be at least 8 in.
were made of a single material, and a shear stress (203 mm) thick and their height shall not exceed 3 times
would develop in the material as depicted in Figure 9.18. the thickness.
This type of shear stress is assumed in brick beams,
columns and walls which are subjected to bending. 9.5.3 LATERAL SUPPORT
Lateral support requirements for walls are given in
Chapter 5 of the 2005 MSJC Code. Walls must be
laterally supported in either the horizontal or vertical
direction. The lateral support shall occur at intervals
based on the wall length to thickness ratio or the wall
height to thickness ratio. Fully grouted bearing walls
are limited to a h/t ratio of 20, where all other types of
bearing walls are limited to a h/t ratio of 18. Non-bearing
exterior walls have a maximum h/t ratio of 18 and non-
bearing interior walls have a maximum h/t ratio of 36.
Lateral support can be provided by cross walls,
pilasters, buttresses or structural frame members when
the limiting distance is measured horizontally. When
FIGURE 9.18 Bending shear stress. the limiting distance is measured vertically, lateral
support can be provided by floors and roofs acting as 9.6.2 SOURCES OF MOISTURE
diaphragms or structural frame members. When
calculating thickness for these ratios the thickness of Moisture is present in various forms such as rain,
the wall is the total wall thickness for solid walls and snow, condensation, ground water, and humidity.
the thickness of only the loaded width for cavity walls.
Rain - Depending on climate, topography and
building features, the exposure to which a masonry wall
9.5.4 LATERAL STABILITY
will be subjected is variable. Wind driven rain is also a
Chapter 5 of the 2005 MSJC Code addresses lateral concern since the wind can blow water into cracks or
stability of shear walls and roofs. Masonry walls must holes.
be provided parallel to the direction of the lateral force if
the structure depends on masonry walls for lateral Condensation - This is usually due to moisture
stability. The lowest cumulative length of shear walls originating inside the building, whereas most sources
provided in each direction is 0.4 times the long dimension of moisture are external. The interior air is humidified
of the building. In the cumulative length, openings are by moisture released from cooking, bathing, washing
not included. The minimum length of shear wall and other operations employing water or steam and
elements should be the story height. moisture released by exhalation and perspiration of the
occupants. Gained interior moisture content increases
9.5.5 BOND AND ANCHORAGE interior vapor pressure above exterior vapor pressure.
This increased pressure drives the interior moist air
Multi-wythe walls empirically designed must be outward from the building through any vapor-porous
bonded with masonry headers, metal wall ties or joint materials that comprise the walls.
reinforcement. Depending upon one another for lateral
support, masonry elements that intersect must be Condensation will occur when vapor comes in
anchored or bonded at locations where they meet or contact with wall materials at temperatures below the
are connected by overlapping masonry units, steel dew point of moist air. Vapor barriers should be placed
connectors or joint reinforcement. Anchorage of to stop moist air from reaching places in a wall
masonry to floors, roofs and adjoining structural framing sufficiently cool to cause condensation. The vapor
is required. barrier must be located on the warm side of the wall
insulation.
9.6 CLAY BRICK DESIGN FOR
Ground Water - Rain and other sources, such as
MOISTURE AND MOVEMENT moisture behind retaining walls, can wick upward into
the masonry unless adequate moisture penetrating
Many of the problems in masonry walls are due to barriers are present.
water penetration. If a wall has water in it, freezing and
thawing may cause cracking, spalling and Humidity - The typical environment contains a
disintegration. Water in masonry can cause certain amount of moisture which affects the moisture
efflorescence to appear on exterior surfaces, metals to content in a brick masonry wall.
corrode and interior finishes to deteriorate.
9.6.3 SELECTION OF WALL TYPE
Water, in the forms of rain and snow, contacts Under various exposures, no single wall type can
building materials, wetting them. The materials can also be expected to perform equally. Regardless of the
draw moisture from water vapor present in the air. Water quality of the materials or the degree of workmanship,
penetration must be controlled since water cannot be a heavy wind-driven rain will penetrate a single wythe of
completely eliminated. brickwork. Therefore, the wall system must control
the moisture once it penetrates the exterior wythe. The
9.6.1 MOISTURE RESISTANCE drainage wall and the barrier wall are two basic wall
The successful performance of a masonry wall systems used for this purpose. Drainage wall systems
requires limiting the amount of water penetration and have the highest resistance to rain penetration.
controlling any water that enters the wall system. The
four important key factors for water resistance of a
masonry wall are: design, materials, construction and
maintenance. To produce a satisfactorily performing
wall, attention to all four factors is necessary.
9.6.4 WATER PENETRATION RESISTANCE 9.6.5 FLASHING
Quality materials used in the construction process Flashing is a thin impervious membrane, installed
will improve water penetration resistance in brick at specific locations in a masonry wall system. Water
masonry. When water passes through a brick wall, it that penetrates the exterior wythe gravitates to the base
also passes through voids and separations or cracks of the wall panel and flashing collects the water and
between the brick units and the mortar. Under normal directs the moisture to the exterior through weep holes.
conditions and exposures, large amounts of water do Flashing is essential in providing water drainage in
not pass directly through the brick and mortar. Highly barrier wall systems.
absorbent clay masonry units will absorb water but do
not contribute to the flow of water through the wall. 2005 MSJC Code, Chapter 6, requires flashing and
all construction documents should specify the type of
The extent of bond between the brick and the mortar flashing and show its exact location. In brick masonry
is a key item in resistance to rain penetration in properly walls various types of flashing materials may be used.
built brick masonry. Extent of bond is defined as the Typically, flashing materials are formed from sheet
area of contact between the interface of the brick and metals, bituminous membranes or plastics. Flashing
the mortar surfaces. On the other hand, bond strength directly affects how a masonry wall performs and the
is a measure of the adhesion between the masonry selection is largely determined by cost and suitability.
unit and mortar. High bond strength between brick and To avoid leaking in the brick masonry walls, superior
mortar may not necessarily result in an extent of bond quality materials should be selected since replacement
that would provide high resistance to rain penetration. in the event of failure will be expensive.
Higher extent of bond results in increased water
penetration resistance of brick masonry. Extent of bond Many types of materials are available for flashing,
between the clay masonry unit and mortar selected however, not all materials are recommended. The
can be increased by: following is a list of flashing materials with various
recommendations.
1. Using Portland cement-lime mortar.
Copper is an excellent flashing material,
2. The cement content of the mortar should be in durable and available in special, pre-formed shapes.
the range of 1:1/4 to 1:1, cement-lime. Typical copper flashing is made from 10 to 20 oz.
sheet copper.
3. Mix ing m ortar f or compatibil ity with
workmanship. This means using maximum Plastic flashings are durable, resilient
amounts of water and retempering as materials, which are highly resistant to corrosion.
necessary. The ability to retemper is based on Performance records of the material should be
many f actors including the ambient air evaluated and where possible, test data to ensure
temperature.
satisfactory performance because the chemical
compositions of plastics vary widely. Typical
4. Applying pressure when laying brick units.
thickness of plastic flashing is 20 mil. to 60 mil.
5. The Initial Rate of Absorption (IRA) of the clay Stainless steel is an excellent flashing
masonry unit when laid should be less than material. It is impervious to moisture and resists
30g/min/30 in.2. For high absorption units, this chemicals well. The minimum thickness should
may be obtained by prewetting the units. be at least 0.01 in. (0.25 mm).
Effectiveness of bond between the mortar and clay Combination flashings, such as metal foil,
masonry unit may be reduced by: glass fiber reinforcement, copper and plastic, were
developed to utilize different materials to produce a
1. Increasing the mortar air content beyond 12%. moderately priced flashing with good properties.
For the various flashings available, manufacturers’
2. Low (< 60%) water retentively of the mortar. literature should be consulted.
3. Smooth (die skin) texture of the bed surface. Asp halt-impregnated felt is not
recommended as a material to be used for flashing
4. Using brick with heavily sanded bed surfaces. in masonry construction. During installation, it can
be easily damaged and in many cases, turns brittle
and can degrade with time.
Aluminum should not be used as a flashing Flashing at tops of walls limits the amount of
material in brick masonry construction. The caustic moisture entering the wall. Flashing at the base of a
alkalis present in mortar will attack aluminum. wall diverts moisture to the outside of the wall. To divert
the water to the exterior, continuous flashing must be
Lead is susceptible to corrosion in mortar. Lead
placed above grade at the base of walls. Base flashing
should not be used as a flashing material in brick
prevents water from rising up into the wall system due
masonry.
to capillary action. When the designer has determined
the elevation for placing base flashing in the wall
The location of flashing is as important as the
according to plans, care should be taken so flashing is
material. Moisture that enters a wall gradually travels
not installed below grade.
downward. Proper design requires flashing at shelf
angles, heads of openings, window sills, spandrels,
Flashing should be placed under all sills and turned
wall bases, projections, tops of walls, recesses, and
up at the ends to form dams. Special flashing
roofs. The locations noted above are either tops,
considerations may be required for soffits and deep
bottoms or horizontal interruptions of walls.
reveals.
Wall ties
Flashing
Sealant
Weep holes
Metal anchor
15° min.
Flashing turned up Concrete or
beyond end of sill stone sill
1 in. (25 mm) min.
Flashing
Weep holes
Wall ties
Flashing
Sealant
Weep holes
Wood or
15° min.
steel frame
Weep holes
1 in. (25 mm) min.
Flashing
Wall ties FIGURE 9.20 Sill flashing details.
Flashing
Flashing should be installed at the top of all
openings. The flashing should be placed directly on
Weep holes top of the lintels and turned up at the ends to form
dams.
FIGURE 9.19 Base flashing details.

Coping
1 in. min.
W aterproof
sheathing Ties Elastic
Grout sealant
Steel stud
Flashing
back-up
1 in. min. Brick veneer

Reinforcing
air space
steel Metal ties
Flashing
Flashing
Rigid
Steel angle insulation 2 in. min. air
Weep holes space
Sealant
Open head joint Dovetail tie

Insulation @ 4’o.c. for air
circulation
FIGURE 9.21 Shelf angle at concrete support,

steel stud back-up.
FIGURE 9.23 Concrete cap flashing detail.
In frame buildings, continuous flashing is necessary
at shelf angles supporting brick masonry. The tops of all walls and parapets should have a
sloped cap or coping. Flashing must be placed beneath
the coping when masonry units, stone or concrete are
Variation from used. When metal coping is used, it should extend 4
specified position Alternate
in plan position of in. (102 mm) onto the face of the masonry. Metal
Adjustable
flashing with copings do not require flashing beneath.
weep holes
anchor
shifted
upward one Rowlock coping with dowel
brick rod and anchor pin
Weep holes @
24”o.c. Flashing and counterflashing
Shims Roofing
Sealant Sheathing
Face of Purlin anchor
beam or Sealant
slab back-up
Clear for
vertical
movement or Joist hanger
provide
Ledger with anchor bolts as required
compressible
for vertical and horizontal forces
material
Bond beam or chord reinforced
as required for lateral loads
FIGURE 9.22 Shelf angle anchored to beam
or slab. FIGURE 9.24 Masonry cap flashing detail.
Projections and recesses provide a surface to Roof penetrations must be designed and installed
collect water. They should be sloped away from the with great care to avoid moisture penetration. Flashing
wall to drain and have flashing as close to the sloped design depends upon the type of roofing used.
surface as possible. Counterflashing should extend through the outside
wythe and overlap the roof flashing a minimum of 4 in.
(102 mm).
Metal cap
All flashing should extend beyond the face of the
wall to form a drip. To ensure that any collected water
completely exits the wall system, flashing must extend
Roof membrane
through the wall. Flashing, which ends behind the
Roofing exterior face of the wall may allow water to re-enter the
Sheathing wall around and under the flashing.
Joist anchor to wall a positive
connection
Flashing around corners should be continuous. The
pieces of flashing, to achieve this continuity, may need
to be cut, lapped 6 in. (152 mm) and sealed to conform
to the shape of the structure. Flashing should be sealed
Joist hanger
when it is necessary to cut, puncture or interrupt the
Ledger with anchor bolts as required flashing.
for vertical and horizontal forces
Bond beam or chord reinforced as A layer of gravel a few inches deep or material
required for lateral loads
specifically designed to catch mortar droppings on top
of flashing in the cavity will aid in preventing mortar
FIGURE 9.25 Metal coping detail. droppings from falling directly upon the flashing and
clogging the weep holes. Rounded gravel about 3/8 in.
There are other considerations regarding installation (9.5 mm) in size will avoid blocking the weep holes and
of flashing which the designer must address in addition puncturing the flashing. A bed of mortar conforming to
to specific location information. the curve of the flashing should be placed under the
flashing for extra support of the gravel bed.
Typically, flashing is not available in one long,
continuous sheet. Therefore, pieces should be lapped
at least 6 in. (152 mm) and the laps sealed with mastic
or an adhesive compatible with the flashing material.
As shown in Figure 9.26, where the flashing is not

continuous, such as over and under openings in the Flashing
wall, the ends of the flashing should be extended
beyond the jamb lines on both sides and should be Gravel
turned up into the head joint at each end to form a
dam. Weep holes
End dam Mortar bed
FIGURE 9.27 Drainage detail using gravel.
Gravel should not be placed on top of flashing which

covers bolted shelf angles without a supporting mortar
bed as the weight of the gravel on the flashing may
cause tearing or puncturing at the bolt head.
FIGURE 9.26 End dam detail. Flashing influences the force necessary to cause
sliding of masonry on its support. For masonry on
In order to direct moisture to the building exterior, concrete, the static friction coefficient is approximately
flashing must be higher on the inside of the wall than 0.59 for in-plane loads and 0.86 for out-of-plane loads.
the outside. The inside edge should be fixed to the When plastic flashing is used, these values are reduced
backing or embedded in a reglet in concrete or the by approximately 15%. Paper-backed copper flashing
mortar joint of the interior masonry wythe. The change lowers the coefficient of static friction to 0.43 in-plane
in height of the flashing should be at least 8 in. (203 and out-of-plane to 0.45. Masonry on steel gives a
mm).
static friction coefficient of 0.58 in-plane and out-of-plane moisture which may lead to spalling of the brick through
loads. Plastic flashing increases this coefficient by successive freeze-thaw cycles or surface efflorescence.
approximately 18% while paper-backed copper flashing When moisture tries to move through the coating,
reduces this coefficient by approximately 27%. clouding or whitening of the coating may occur. The
water vapor permeance of the coating must be close to
9.6.6 WEEP HOLES that of the brickwork for proper performance.
Weep holes must be provided immediately above There is no recognized standard set of tests to
the flashing in order to properly drain water collected evaluate coating suitability for exterior brick masonry.
on the flashing. Weep holes can be formed by open ASTM E 514, Standard Test Method for Water
head joints, a removable rope or rod, a wick or drainage Penetration and Leakage Through Masonry, can be
tube. The least dimension of weep holes should be 1/4 used to compare the effectiveness of a water repellent
in. (6.4 mm), although 2005 MSJC Code permits weep coating by testing uncoated and coated walls.
holes as small as 3/16 in. (4.8 mm). Weep holes should
be spaced no further apart than 24 in. (610 mm) on Clear water repellents will not eliminate water
center horizontally even though 2005 MSJC Code allows penetration in all cases and other factors must be
weep holes to be spaced up to 33 in. (838 mm) apart. considered, such as:
The maximum spacing should be reduced to 16 in. (406
mm) where a wick material is used as the weep hole. 1. The majority of cracks or incompletely filled
joints cannot be closed by coatings.
9.6.7 VENTS
Two benefits provided by air vents in the exterior 2. Coatings will not completely stop staining and
wythe of a drainage wall are: air flow across the backside efflorescence or may cover efflorescence
of the brick wythe which aids in the evaporation of sufficiently to prevent its removal.
moisture and the equalized pressure in the cavity which
reduces water sucked into the cavity. 3. On areas already coated, successiv e
applications of water repellent coatings may
W hen the exterior wythe is coated with an not be possible.
impermeable surface such as glazed brick, air vents
are essential. A careful and thorough inspection should be made
of the areas involved prior to considering any application
The vents should be placed at the top and bottom to masonry walls. This inspection should determine
of cavities. Vents spacing should not exceed 24 in. the condition and suitability of caps and copings,
(610 mm) on center horizontally. At the base of the flashing, weep holes, caulking or sealant joints, mortar
cavity, non-wicked weep holes may serve as vents. joint conditions and general execution of details.
Frequently this type of examination will identify the
source of the problem and prevent further consideration
9.6.8 COATINGS of water repellent coatings and their associated risks.
Clear exterior masonry wall coatings, which reduce
the amount of water entering the wall, fall into several 9.6.9 EFFLORESCENCE
broad material groups: silicones, silanes, siloxanes,
gum waxes, acrylics, resins, rosins, paraffins, oils, Efflorescence is a white, powdery deposit of water-
polymers and various combinations. Typically, these soluble salts left on the surface of masonry as the water
materials are available in two types of solutions: water- evaporates. The principal issue of efflorescence is the
based solutions and solv ent-based solutions. objectionable appearance on the brick surface. Even
Environmental considerations severely limit the use of though an efflorescence problem is complex, it is not
solvent-based solutions. difficult to remove and usually is not harmful to the brick
masonry.
Coatings resist water differently and they are often
grouped together. The broadest groups of coatings are Efflorescence occurs when water-soluble salts in
those which form a protective skin and those which solution are present somewhere in the wall and are
change the angle of contact of water from suction to brought to the surface of the masonry and deposited
repellency. Generally, the second group, made up of there by evaporation. The salt solution may migrate to
penetrating materials such as silanes and siloxanes, the surface of the wall between the mortar and units,
gives better performance with fewer problems than film through the mortar, or the masonry units.
forming coatings. The film forming coatings may trap
There are certain conditions which must exist in stone, precast concrete, or other similar material.
order for efflorescence to occur. These materials may contribute to efflorescence
on the face of adjacent brickwork.
Mortar and Grout - Mortar and grout can contribute

to efflorescence. The use of mortar and grout in
masonry construction provide sufficient water to
allow soluble salts to go into solution. The materials
of mortar and grout, aggregates, cement and lime
must be individually evaluated as sources of
efflorescence salts.
Cement - Sodium, calcium and potassium are the
water-soluble alkalis common in cement. Alkalis
existing in Portland cement vary. Low alkali cement
may be specified to reduce efflorescence potential.
The sulfate content of the cement may be as
FIGURE 9.28 Efflorescence. significant as the alkali content in contributing to
efflorescence.
• Soluble salts must be present within or in contact Brick - Soluble salts may exist within the brick
with the masonry assembly. due to the composition of the raw materials and
the high temperatures associated with the brick
• There also must be a source of water in contact manufacturing process. If sulfates are present in
with the salts for a sufficient length of time to permit the raw materials, additives, such as barium
the salts to dissolve. carbonate, are used to immobilize and render the
sulfates insoluble.
• There must be migration of salt solutions to the
surface in an environment which allows evaporation. The potential for brick units to effloresce may be
assessed by the efflorescence test described in
The salt crystals can form within the bodies of the ASTM C 67, Standard Test Methods for Sampling
units under certain circumstances. The pressure may and Testing Brick and Structural Clay Tile. ASTM
cause cracking and distress to the masonry when this Standards C 216, C 652, C 902 and C 1088 require
occurs. These conditions can occur when high vapor that the ASTM C 67 rating for efflorescence be ‘
not
resistant coatings are used. effloresced’
.
The most common salts found in efflorescence are Hydrated Lime - Lime does not generally
sulf ate and carbonate compounds of sodium, contribute to efflorescence. However, a cleaning
potassium, calcium, magnesium and aluminum. solution containing hydrochloric acid can react with
Common sources of soluble salts include mortar, rain- lime to produce soluble calcium chloride which can
water, ground water, concrete masonry, concrete, brick migrate to the surface.
or other sources, or from chemical reactions of these
materials. It is often erroneously assumed to be the Sand - Sands with soluble alkali sulfates will cause
fault of the brick since efflorescence appears on the efflorescence unless the sulfates are removed. This
face of the brick. A detailed description of some of the contamination may include: sea water, soil runoff,
most common sources of the salts is given below. plant life and decomposed organic compounds.
Sands commonly available and used in mortar
Backing - Masonry materials used as backing or should be cleaned and washed.
inner wythes of masonry walls may contain large
quantities of soluble salts. If sufficient water is There are other outside sources of soluble salts
present to dissolve the salts and pathways are that may contribute to efflorescence in addition to the
provided for the solution to reach the exterior surface masonry materials. Various types of sources are
these units may contribute to efflorescence on the admixtures, calcium chloride used as an accelerator,
face of the wall. Condensation within the inner ground water and fertilizers. Chemically reacting with
wythe is a common source of water. masonry ingredients, cleaning materials or acid rain
may cause efflorescence.
Trim - Building trim, such as caps, coping, sills,
lintels, or keystones can be natural stone, cast
If masonry could be constructed to contain no This deflection may result in movement of the supporting
water-soluble salts, or if no water penetrated the member. This movement can cause additional stresses
masonry, efflorescence could not occur. The practical to develop in the masonry that the supporting member
approach to the elimination of efflorescence is to reduce is carrying. In order to limit the movement of the
all contributing factors. supporting member, footings, beams and lintels
supporting brick masonry should be limited to a
9.6.10 MOVEMENT maximum deflection of span length divided by 600 or
0.3 in. (7.6 mm), whichever is less. Rotation of the
Every material used in the construction of a building support must also be considered.
is in a constant state of motion. Building materials
expand and contract due to the changes in temperature. Improper detailing of brick masonry can cause a
Several materials move with changes in moisture non-bearing wall to become a bearing wall (carry vertical
content. All materials change dimension due to stress; load), possibly causing cracking or collapse. When
some materials tend to flow when subjected to brick masonry is built tight to the underside of a beam
sustained loads. Building elements are subject to load- or floor, the brick masonry will not allow the beam or
induced def lections. T hese mov em ents are floor above to deflect. Since the beam or floor cannot
theoretically reversible for unrestrained conditions. It deflect, it transfers load directly to the brick masonry.
is necessary to consider the effects of potential Thus the brick masonry now has a beam or a floor
differential movements of the various materials, since bearing on top of it. Detailing of an opening of deflection
different materials are used in today’
s building structures. gap between the underside of a beam or floor and the
top of non-bearing brick masonry can be critical.
9.6.10.1 T HERMAL MOVEMENT
Thermal movements of clay masonry units and other 9.6.10.5 DIFFERENTIAL MOVEMENT
building materials can be estimated from the thermal Historically, brick buildings were constructed using
coefficient of expansion determined by laboratory tests. thick, massive walls in the structure. These massive
The 2005 MSJC Code lists the thermal expansion walls, under heavy loading, could resist differential
coefficient, kt, for clay masonry as 4 x 10-6 in./in./ºF movement with little distress. Many buildings
(7.2 x 10-6 mm/mm/ºC).
Joint free of all material Stop longitudinal
9.6.10.2 MOISTURE MOVEMENT except for backer rod wire at all brick
and sealant expansion joints
Many building materials, metal excluded, expand
with increases in moisture absorption and contract with
moisture dissipation. These movements are reversible
for several building materials, with others they are not. Brick expansion joint Exterior face of
Due to moisture absorption, fired clay masonry products 4”brick veneer
expand slowly and this expansion is not reversible by
drying at atmospheric temperatures. The 2005 MSJC Expansion Joint
Code lists the moisture expansion coefficient, ke, of
clay masonry as 3 x 10-4 in./in. (3 x 10-4 mm/mm).
Alternate position of
flashing with weep holes
9.6.10.3 CREEP shifted upward one brick
Clay brick masonry undergoes a long term

shortening when subjected to sustained axial load. Long Weep holes 24”o.c. max.
or leave out head joint
term is measured in years or decades. This event is mortar
known as creep. According to the 2005 MSJC Code
the creep coefficient, kc, of clay masonry is 0.7 x 10-7
Sealant
per psi (0.1 x 10-4 per MPa). Movement caused by
sustained loads is calculated by the coefficient of creep Sealant back-up
multiplied by the load-induced stress times the length
of the element.
9.6.10.4 DEFLECTION
Members supporting brick masonry undergo

movement due to their physical properties and loads. Expansion Joint Under Support Angle
FIGURE 9.29 Movement joint detail.

constructed today are veneer walls with a steel or Although this is effective for horizontal joints,
concrete frame as the structure. The different properties vertical expansion joints are not as discrete since they
between the frame and the enclosure walls create typically break the running bond pattern of the masonry.
greater differential movement. The exterior brick wythe Many experienced architects agree that sealant which
is often thermally isolated from the interior by insulation matches the color of the brick provides better
creating more thermal movement. Movement joints must camouflage.
be installed to accommodate these differential
movements. Expansion joints and control joints are Recently, it has become increasingly popular to
two different types of movement joints used in masonry. take a different approach to expansion joints. Expansion
joints are now commonly being accented by contrasting
9.6.10.6 EXPANSION JOINTS color or a reveal and are used as part of the decorative
design of the building. Of course, this design approach
Expansion joints are used to accommodate brick
warrants close attention to the placement of the
masonry into segments to permit large temperature and
expansion joints.
moisture movements. The expansion joints are open
joints filled with a highly compressible material. A backer
The placement of the expansion joints relative to
rod and elastic sealant are used to prevent moisture
building elements, such as columns, windows and
penetration. This type of joint allows space for clay
corners, can affect the balance of a building’ s facade.
masonry’ s movement which is principally expansion.
Placement of horizontal expansion joints is rather limited
since they can only be placed under a working shelf
9.6.10.7 EXPANSION JOINT PLACEMENT
angle. Placing vertical expansion joints, however, does
Expansion joints are both a structural consideration allow some freedom although maximum calculated
and an aesthetic one. Variables such as sealant color spacing requirements must still be met. When hidden
and location should be largely inf luenced by expansion joints are desired, they may be placed at
architectural design. Available expansion joint colors internal corners or the jambs of windows and doors.
are as limitless as the colors of brick and mortar. On the other hand, symmetry may be considered a
Expansion joint placement is flexible as long as higher priority, especially when expansion joints are of
minimum calculated spacing requirements are met. a contrasting color of the masonry.
Often, in an attempt to disguise expansion joints, 9.6.10.8 LOCATION OF EXPANSION JOINTS

designers specify the color of the sealant in the
There are no suggestions on the positioning and
expansion joint to match the color of the mortar.
spacing of expansion joints that can be applicable to
all structures. Every building should be analyzed to
determine the potential movements and provisions
should be made to relieve excessive stress which might
be expected from such movement. Typical spacing of
expansion joints is 15 ft to 20 ft (4.6 m to 6.1 m) apart.
Spacing of expansion joints in a solid wall without
openings should not exceed 25 ft (7.6 m).
Factors such as restraint, shrinkage and plastic

flow of mortar, temperature at time of installation,
compressibility of expansion joint materials, age of
masonry and variations in workmanship will reduce the
actual movement. The majority of expansion joint
materials are typically 25% to 50% compressible. The
size of the expansion joints will depend on joint spacing
and the performance of the sealant. The actual joint
dimension must be twice the anticipated movement if
the expansion material can only move 50%.
The geometry of the structure affects the placement

of vertical expansion joints. Several typical locations of
vertical expansion joints include spacing at 25 ft (7.6
m) in long runs of walls, at or near offsets and at
intersecting walls and corners.
FIGURE 9.30 Expansion joint.

Concrete masonry walls not only experience

expansion due to changes in temperature and moisture,
but also experience shrinkage due to initial drying first,
therefore, control joints act in both contraction and
expansion. Due to shrinkage in concrete and concrete
masonry, control joints create locations of weakness
that controls the location of cracks. Control joints are
placed in concrete masonry and are typically vertical.
Similar to expansion joints, they may be open, but may
also be partially filled with a non-compressible material.
The shrinkage of concrete masonry causes the

masonry to “ pull apart”during shrinkage, therefore
control joints may be used to control the location of the
cracks. The expansion nature of clay masonry has
opposite effect and control joints for cracking are not
FIGURE 9.31 Vertical expansion joint layout required, however, brick masonry needs room to expand
and expansion joints are necessary. The distinction
example.
between an expansion joint and a control joint is
apparent when this is considered.
Typically, expansion joints can be placed on a
symmetrical basis with respect to openings and
elevations, at the jambs of openings or at building grids 9.7 HEAT TRANSFER
such as column lines. Toothed expansion joints, joints
that follow natural vertical and horizontal mortar lines, A large amount of the country’ s fuel is used for
are difficult to install and may not permit proper heating buildings. The major concern of the nation is
functioning of the sealant. the energy conservation and fuel consumption. Using
solar heating systems helps to decrease this
The location of horizontal expansion joints must consumption of non-renewable energy sources. Solar
be directly under intermediate supports, such as shelf energy is not always utilized. Through the use of thermal
angles, which are attached to the main structure. The storage materials, such as brick and by thoughtful
shelf angles are a natural interruption of the masonry placement of windows, buildings can incorporate
and thus a logical place for an expansion joint. Movement passive solar design.
between the veneer and the structural frame, including
seismic and wind, occurs at the shelf angles. The Active and passive solar energy systems are two
vertical growth of the masonry beneath the shelf angle types that may be used to heat buildings. Active solar
is permitted by the expansion joint. Horizontal heating systems require mechanical equipment for
expansion joints must be placed between the top of operation. The use of mechanical equipment is not
brick walls where structural elements are located above. necessary in passive solar heating systems. The heat
flow in passive solar heating solar systems is
9.6.10.9 CONTROL JOINTS accomplished by natural means. Passive solar systems
collect energy from the sun and store this thermal
One additional consideration is the distinction energy in massive materials which make up the
between control joints and expansion joints. Control structure. Brick masonry is an ideal material for use
joints are placed in concrete or concrete masonry walls, in passive solar applications since it has a very high
along with suitable joint reinforcement or bond beam capacity to store heat.
reinforcement, to control shrinkage cracking by
reducing restraint and accommodating wall movement Buildings using passive solar energy can have a
due to initial drying and long term shrinkage. Shrinkage conventional appearance without a higher initial cost.
due to drying is not found in clay masonry construction. The only required variations in the Northern Hemisphere
This becomes obvious when one considers the clay are: additional south-facing wall glazing, reduced glazing
units are manufactured by a firing process which drives on the east, west and north walls, sufficient overhangs
off all moisture. Brick masonry expands while concrete or shading devices to prevent overheating in the summer
masonry shrinks. As a result, control joints are not and interior brick masonry for thermal storage. Floors,
necessary in brick masonry walls. Expansion joints accent walls and fireplaces are common uses of interior
are placed to accommodate the movement of masonry brick masonry for passive solar systems.
brick walls due to change in temperature and moisture.
Conduction, convection and radiation are the three lieu of an engineered wall system there are two
ways heat energy may be transferred from one place to calibrated values used to asses the thermal movement
another. Conduction occurs when two materials are in (heat transfer) through a wall R-Value and U-Value.
contact with each other. For example, conduction
occurs by replacing hands on a cool surface. When 9.7.1 R-VALUE
hands are removed, the surface is warmer. When heat
energy from one material is transferred to another R-values are for a single specific material (e.g.
material through a gas such as air, convection occurs. insulation) used in an assembly. R-values are found
A convective loop is formed when air is heated by a using a testing apparatus with a separate chamber on
warmer surface of an air space and rises until it transfers either side of the material to be tested. To produce a
heat to a cooler surface and begins to fall. steady heat flow through the material, the chambers
have set, non-changing, climatic conditions. Variables
Heat transferred through radiation travels in the form including temperature, moisture content of air and
of waves which always travel in straight lines. The sun surrounding materials, wind speed and radiation are all
heats the earth by radiation of heat through waves. This held constant.
is why shadowed areas, created by objects obstructing
the wave’ s straight path, are cooler than sunny areas. 9.7.2 U-VALUE
Table 9.1 Heat Transmission Coefficients of U-values may be used to give a single value to the
Building Materialsa wall assembly, as opposed to a single material of the
wall assembly. The U-value of a given material or wall
Materials Description Resistance (R) assembly is the rate of heat flow through a unit area of
Per Inch For that material assembly. It is expressed in BTU’ s per
Thickness Thickness hour per degree of temperature differential for the total
Listed heat flow through a square foot of a given assembly,
Masonry Units including surface films, or, as more commonly stated,
Face brick 0.11 air to air.
Common brick 0.20
b
Hollow brick The lower the U-value, the higher the insulating
4 in. (62.9% solid) 0.19 0.74 value. The U-value is applied to total combination of
6 in. (67.3% solid) 0.15 0.93 materials for the complete element. For example, a
8 in. (61.2% solid) 0.14 1.06 brick wall may be constructed with exterior faces of
10 in. (60.9% solid) 0.12 1.20 brick and the interior may be grout or insulating fill.
c
Hollow brick vermiculite fill This entire combination would have a single U-value.
4 in. (62.9% solid) 0.27 1.10
6 in. (67.3% solid) 0.25 1.52
8 in. (61.2% solid) 0.24 1.92
10 in. (60.9% solid) 0.24 2.38
a
From ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, except as noted.
(Partial)
b
Calculated data based upon hollow brick (25% to 40% cored) of
one manufacturer. Based upon coring given.
c
R figures based upon coring and density of supplier using parallel
path method. Vermiculite fill in cores.
One rule always applies in heat transmission; heat

is always transferred from a warmer object to a cooler
object. W hen two objects become the same
temperature and equilibrium is reached, heat cannot
be transferred.
Using standard test methods, heat transfer of wall

assemblages can be found by testing a given wall
assembly. Unfortunately, there are too many materials
and combinations to practically test all types of wall
assemblages. As a result a representative analysis FIGURE 9.32 Insulation configurations of wall
model is used to predict the heat transfer of a wall. In sections.
The U-value is calculated by taking the reciprocal sound insulator although it is not a good sound barrier.
of the sum of the thermal resistance of each of the Common face brick reflect about 95% of incidental
assemblage’ s materials. The U-value analysis model sound.
assumes a steady state of heat flow and therefore is
not accurate in predicting actual energy loss. Since
actual climatic conditions are dynamic, the model must
9.8.1 DECIBELS
be modified to produce more accurate results.
The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit used to
describe the ratio of the signal level. The decibel is the
9.7.3 THERMAL MASS smallest change in sound energy the human ear can
Thermal mass is demonstrated by the use of adobe perceive. Based on a logarithmic scale, the
brick masonry in hot desert regions. Adobe brick measurement of sound by decibels develops a ratio
masonry has a low R-value and therefore would not be between two sounds. A 1 dB increase corresponds to
a candidate for use in the hot desert because it does an increase of 26% in sound intensity. Thus, 2 dB is
not insulate well. While this is true, the adobe brick 26% greater in intensity than 1 dB and 40 dB is 26%
has high thermal mass. This means it takes a lot of greater than 39 dB.
energy to change the temperature of the adobe masonry
from one side (sunny and hot outside) to the other (shady The reduction of sound or noise through a wall
and cool inside). During the evening, the hot brick gives assemblage is measured as a decrease in decibels.
heat back to the cool night air. The next morning the Judged by a typical human, a 6 dB reduction is
sun has to start all over again in trying to change the equivalent to a 30 to 50% noise reduction. High pitched
temperature of the adobe brick from one side to the sounds are associated with high frequencies and low
other. frequencies with low pitched sounds. In the air, high
frequency sounds attenuate, or die out, much faster
The high mass of brick has a slower thermal than low frequency sounds.
response when compared to lightweight materials such
as vinyl or wood siding. The difference in thermal 9.8.2 TRANSMISSION LOSS
response will have a significant effect on the wall’ s
performance under changing conditions. Massive The energy loss as sound travels from one side of
materials will perform better than the U-value model a partition to another is known as transmission loss. A
predictions. Lightweight materials will come closer to partition does not have the same transmission loss for
the U-value model prediction. The ASHRAE’ s Handbook all frequencies of sound. When the transmission loss
of Fundamentals explains the modifications to the heat for all frequencies is known, a partition’s performance
loss and heat gain equations for dynamic performance can be fully described. To easily compare partitions, a
of walls. The ability of massive materials to absorb single number rating system is necessary. A simple
and hold heat and the time necessary to transfer heat average of transmission losses at different frequencies
are reflected in these modifications. The amount of is not a good indicator of a partition’
s performance as a
heat held is directly proportional to the weight of the sound barrier. A high transmission loss at one frequency
material. will cancel a low transmission loss at another frequency
with a simple average. The result is a partition with a
good average transmission loss but which does not
9.8 ACOUSTICS perform acceptably at certain sound frequencies.
Sound waves are vibrations which spreads sound

9.8.3 SOUND TRANSMISSION CLASS
energy through a medium, such as air. Absorption,
reflection and damping are three ways on which sound The Sound Transmission Class (STC) is commonly
energy, or perceived loudness, can be reduced from used as an accepted single number rating system which
one side of a solid wall to another. Absorptive materials is not a simple average. The STC rating system is
are porous and cause the sound waves to collide within based on a standard contour. This STC contour
the pores. The sound energy is reduced through the represents equal perceived loudness at eleven different
numerous collisions. Reflective materials are very hard frequencies. This STC contour is compared to a
and act as a shield to divert sound waves. Damping partition’
s contour obtained by plotting the measured
materials are very heavy and sound waves which do transmission loss at the same eleven frequencies. The
not have enough energy to set the heavy material into measured transmission loss at a frequency of 500
motion cannot be transferred. cycles per second on the STC contour is termed the
STC rating when the partition’ s contour is fitted to the
Brick is very effective at reflecting and damping STC contour.
sound waves. Brick masonry is considered an excellent
Masonry bonded walls are based on variations of
9.9 BRICK APPLICATIONS the location of stretchers and headers. The English
bond consists of alternating courses of headers and
9.9.1 STRUCTURAL BRICKWORK–WALL TYPES stretchers. The Flemish bond is laid with alternating
headers and stretchers in alternate courses lining
The type of wall best suited for a particular building
up vertically. The stretchers laid with the length of
depends on a number of factors. These include:
the wall develop longitudinal strength, while the
headers, laid across the width of the wall, bond the
 The use of the building, such as for human
wall transversely.
occupancy or for storage of materials;
The 2005 MSJC Code requires at least 4% of the
 Climatic conditions, such as temperature range
wall surface to be composed of headers when used
or moisture conditions; and
to connect two or more wythes. Headers connecting
adjacent wythes must be embedded a minimum of 3
 Structural load considerations, such as live
in. (76 mm) in each wythe. W alls bonded with
load, wind load and seismic forces.
headers are assumed to act compositely.
A brick wall depends on the design and construction
to determine its resistance to certain factors. Wall
structural performance is based on classification as a
composite or non-composite wall. The components of
a wall may be attached to each other using masonry
headers, metal ties alone or metal ties with a mortar or
grout filled collar joint. A separate classification is based
on how the masonry wall resists water penetration.
When considering environmental resistance alone, a
masonry wall is either a drainage or barrier wall. In a
drainage wall, any water that penetrates the wall is
channeled (drained) toward the exterior. For a barrier
wall, measures are taken to prevent water from entering
the wall.
9.9.1.1 COMPOSITE/NON-COMPOSITE WALL Masonry Bonded Hollow Wall

(Composite Wall)
A composite structural wall, when resisting a load,
acts as a single structural element. A rigid connection
between the components is necessary for this sharing
of load. The rigid connection between wythes in a multi-
wythe wall can be achieved either with masonry headers
or metal ties combined with a filled collar joint. Stresses
are transferred between the connected wythes, when
composite action occurs and shear stresses developed
between the wythes can be resisted.
A non-composite wall always has an air space

separating a wythe of brick masonry from other
components. Metal ties are used to connect the
Cavity Wall Grouted Wall
components. When a resisting load is applied to the
(Non-composite W all) (Composite Wall)
wall, the wythes act independently. Out-of-plane loads
are distributed to the wythes in relation to the relative
flexural rigidity of the wythes. In-plane loads are resisted
by the individually loaded wythe.
FIGURE 9.33 Attachment between compo-
nents.
9.9.1.2 ATTACHMENT OF COMPONENTS
Masonry bonding, metal ties or the adhesion of

mortar or grout and metal ties are used to attach the
masonry wythes to other wythes or backing systems.
Wall ties provide a connection between the masonry Metal ties should be corrosion resistant and must
wythe and the backing and transfer loads perpendicular be made of steel. Corrosion resistant ties may be
to the wall surface from the masonry wythe to the stainless steel or hot-dipped galvanized.
backing. A tie system must:
The combination of mortar and grout with metal
 be securely embedded in the masonry bed ties in a collar joint bond two wythes of masonry
joints of wythes and attached to the backing, developing composite action. Collar joints filled with
grout have higher allowable shear stresses than collar
 have sufficient stiffness to transfer loads,
joints filled with mortar. The collar joint must be
 have a limited amount of mechanical play, completely filled in order to achieve assumed structural
 be corrosion-resistant and strengths. Grout or mortar filled collar joints must be
accompanied by metal ties.
 be easily installed.
9.9.1.3 BARRIER AND DRAINAGE WALLS
All metal ties fall into one of five categories, even
though there are many different types of metal ties: A barrier wall system requires a full collar joint
directly behind the exterior masonry wythe. Moisture
 corrugated metal ties, tries to migrate toward the interior wythes when a wind-
 unit wire ties (rectangular ties), driven rain penetrates a barrier wall’ s exterior wythe of
brick masonry. The joint is intended to act as a barrier
 adjustable unit wire ties, and inhibit inward movement when this migrating water
 standard joint reinforcement, and reaches the filled collar joint. Figure 9.35 shows how
water ideally flows back out of the wall system. The
 adjustable joint reinforcement.
key item to be an effective barrier is that the collar joint
must be completely filled with grout or mortar. Flashing
Adjustable ties are used to allow in-plane differential and weep holes are recommended but not required in
movement and to adjust for unaligned coursing. Joint a barrier wall system. Detailed and constructed barrier
reinforcement is a combination of reinforcement to wall systems, when properly designed, are rated good
restrict in-plane stress and a tie to transmit load. with respect to water penetration resistance.
Drips or kinks in metal ties, which were originally Single-wythe masonry walls can be considered a
intended to impede moisture flow across the tie in special case. The masonry wythe, in single-wythe walls,
drainage walls, are not recommended. Drips do not is usually much thicker than a nominal 4 in. (102 mm)
inhibit moisture migration, but significantly reduce the thick exterior brick wythe, and, as a result, the added
stiffness of the ties and the ability to transfer load. thickness helps to prevent water from penetrating to
the interior of the wall system. Drainage wall systems
are more effective in preventing water penetration than
single-wythe walls or multi-wythe barrier wall systems,
but with careful detailing and quality construction
practices, single and multi-wythe walls can perform well.
Solid or hollow units are used in the design of single-
wythe brick masonry construction.
Corrugated Tie Rectangular Tie Adjustable Tie To prevent water from entering the structure, a
drainage wall system relies on an air space behind the
exterior wythe, along with flashing and weep holes. The
drainage wall assumes that water from a wind-driven
rain may penetrate the exterior wythe of brick. When it
does, the moisture migrates inward to the cavity or air
space. Then it gravitates or flows down the back face
of the outer brick wythe, is collected on the flashing,
and is directed out of the wall system through the weep
holes. Properly detailed and constructed drainage wall
Adjustable Joint Joint Reinforcement systems are rated excellent with respect to water
Reinforcement penetration resistance.
FIGURE 9.34 Metal ties.

There is also a seismic advantage to a drainage Solid masonry walls are fully grouted for single wythe
wall system used in a veneer application. The veneer walls and act compositely for multi-wythe walls. All
should transmit only lateral loads to the backing through solid masonry walls are barrier wall systems. Multi-
the tie system. During seismic activity, the drainage wythe, metal tied, solid masonry walls provide better
wall veneer system has room to slightly move out-of- moisture resistance than masonry bonded or single
plane, laterally, with little or no damage. The barrier wythe walls since the masonry unit which extends from
wall system also moves, however, the incurred damage the outside to the inside may act as a moisture bridge
is significantly greater since it cannot move relative to between the exterior and the interior of the building.
the backup system.
Solid masonry walls may be constructed with steel
reinforcement included for added structural performance.
In the construction of single wythe reinforced grouted
brick masonry walls, hollow brick units are used. The
brick wythe is laid with the cells aligned to produce
continuous vertical cells. All cells with reinforcement
must be filled with grout. Multi-wythe reinforced brick
masonry walls consist of two or more masonry wythes
with reinforcing steel in a fully grouted collar joint. Figure
9.36 shows the wythes tied together using metal ties.
Grout
Drainage Wall
Reinforcing
steel
Barrier Wall
F IGURE 9.36 Reinforced grouted brick
masonry.
FIGURE 9.35 Barrier and drainage walls.
The masonry and steel work together for optimum

9.9.1.4 SOLID MASONRY WALLS structural efficiency since reinforcing steel has a high
Solid masonry walls may be constructed with one resistance to tension and masonry has a high resistance
or more wythes of masonry. If a solid masonry wall to compression.
has more than one wythe of thickness, then it is a
composite wall. A solid multi-wythe wall must have a 9.9.1.5 SINGLE-WYTHE BEARING WALLS
full collar joint of either mortar or grout between masonry A renewed interest in alternative building systems
wythes. Solid units or hollow units with the cores solidly for residential housing is due to the increasing cost of
grouted may be used in the construction of solid wood framing members. One alternative is the use of
masonry walls. Multi-wythe solid masonry walls may light-gauge steel framing. Another is the use of single
be masonry bonded or metal tied with a collar joint wythe brick bearing walls. The use of brick masonry
filled with mortar or grout. as the load-carrying element of a structure provides
several benefits over alternate systems. Using brick
as both the building’ s exterior skin and the structure

IRC SECTION R606
capitalizes on brick masonry’ s strength and other
GENERAL MASONRY CONSTRUCTION
inherent values. Brick gives a home permanence and
beauty. Due to fire resistance characteristics, brick
R606.2 Thickness of masonry. The nominal thickness
homes have lower maintenance costs and often lower
of masonry walls shall conform to the requirements of
insurance rates. Brick homes are more energy efficient
Sections R606.2.1 through R606.2.4.
than comparably insulated vinyl-sided or wood-sided
homes by virtue of thermal mass properties. All of these
R606.2.1 Minimum thickness. The minimum
reasons give brick homes a higher resale value.
thickness of masonry bearing walls more than one
story high shall be 8 inches (203 mm). Solid masonry
Counter to a veneer system, where structural
walls of one-story dwelling and garages shall not be
backing system (wood stud, steel stud, or separate
less than 6 inches (152 mm) in thickness when not
masonry wall) is required, the brick masonry, in a single
greater than 9 feet (2743 mm) in height, provided that
wythe brick bearing wall system, serves as both the
when gable construction is used, an additional 6 feet
structural system and the exterior facing. The interior
(1829 mm) is permitted to the peak of the gable.
walls and space of the single wythe wall easily
Masonry walls shall be laterally supported in either
incorporates the wall, floor, and roof materials of
the horizontal or vertical direction at intervals as
traditional wood framed homes. Additionally, attractive
required by Section R606.9.
features such as brick masonry fireplaces and special
brick details can be readily incorporated into a brick
R606.2.2 Rubble stone masonry wall. The minimum
masonry single wythe bearing wall system.
thickness of rough, random or coursed rubble stone
masonry walls shall be 16 inches (406 mm).
The same as other types of wall systems, single
wythe brick load-bearing walls should include the same
R606.2.3 Change in thickness. Where walls of
design considerations. The minimum thermal
masonry of hollow units or masonry bonded hollow
performance requirements and the necessary fire
walls are decreased in thickness, a course of solid
resistance of the wall system are beneficial. The
masonry shall be constructed between the wall below
designer must also consider resistance to moisture
and the thinner wall above, or special units or
penetration and detailing of interior finishes since a brick
construction shall be used to transmit the loads from
bearing wall system forms the building envelope.
face shells or wythes above to those below.
The sizes of the building’s structural members are
R606.2.4 Parapet walls. Unreinforced solid masonry
dictated by model building codes and associated
parapet walls shall not be less than 8 inches (203 mm)
structural loads. According to model building codes,
thick and their height shall not exceed four times
empirical and rational are two methods of design. For
their thickness. Unreinforced hollow unit masonry
load-bearing masonry, the minimum wall thickness and
parapet walls shall be not less than 8 inches (203 mm)
maximum wall height or number of stories allowed for
thick and their height shall not exceed three times
empirical design are contained in the International
their thickness. Masonry parapet walls in areas
Building Code.
subject to wind loads of 30 pounds per square foot
(1.44 kPa) located in Seismic Design Category D0, D1,
Typically, the limitations of empirical design are not
or D2, or on townhouses in Seismic Design Category
applicable to buildings which have been rationally
C shall be reinforced in accordance with Section
designed. However, even a rational design will include
R606.12.
some prescriptive detailing requirements. Brick
masonry walls should be designed in accordance with
the IBC and related standards, the MSJC Code and
When rationally designed, load-bearing brick
MSJC Specification. Alternately, residential masonry
masonry houses may be built with walls less than 6 in.
walls may be designed and constructed in accordance
(152 mm) in nominal thickness. Vertical steel reinforcing
with the International Residential Code (IRC). The
bars and horizontal reinforcing bars or wires are generally
following is an excerpt of the 2006 IRC regarding
required in these walls. Vertical steel reinforcing bars
residential masonry construction.
are used to resist lateral loads and horizontally reinforced
bond beams are used to attach floor and roof members.
In areas or categories of high seismicity, additional
reinforcement is required.
The properties of the materials necessary to meet In any exterior wall system water penetration is a
the structural requirements of the design must be primary concern. In single wythe construction,
specified by the designer of the brick bearing walls. resistance to water penetration of the brick masonry
One material property of the brick masonry is the wythe is important. Full mortar joints and good extent
compressive strength of the assembly, f’m
. Mortar and of bond between units and mortar can help reduce water
grout type or properties shall be identified. If used, penetration.
type, size and grade of reinforcement, shall also be
specified. A single brick masonry wythe may not prevent water
penetration entirely. Wherever possible, provide a
The requirements to ensure acceptable thermal drainage cavity with flashing and weep holes. A
performance of the building envelope are contained in bituminous, damp-proof coating should be applied to
model building codes. When addressing heat gain and the inside face of the brick bearing wall prior to
loss, insulation may be required. Residential frame installation of the insulation and finishes when a drainage
wall systems differ from the type and installation of cavity is not used. Material compatibility of the coating
insulation in a single wythe brick bearing wall system. with adjacent materials should be considered. The use
Batt insulation is generally placed between the wood of a clear water repellent coating on the exterior face
studs in all wood frame residential structures. For brick wall built with quality workmanship and proper details
bearing wall homes, rigid board insulation is often may be appropriate with this type of wall in areas exposed
placed on the interior face of the brick wythe and has to large amounts of rainfall or severe wind-driven rain.
the advantage of easy installation and provides high
insulation values. Installation of the insulation board in In a load-bearing brick home, the installation of
the interior of the brick wythe is coordinated with the plumbing, heating and electrical systems will vary from
interior finish materials and with the flashing and placement in conventional frame construction. There
drainage system used to control water penetration. is no cavity between studs for the placement of piping
Square or shaped furring strips, mechanical fasteners or conduit, and it may be inappropriate to place piping
and adhesives are some options for attaching rigid or conduit within the brick wythe. Alternately, piping or
insulation. Alternately, insulation may be placed in the conduit for the plumbing, heating and electrical can be
cells of hollow brick units, however, this application is installed between furring strips on the interior face of
limited to large hollow units commonly used in the brick bearing wall, in the floor or ceiling, or in the
commercial brick bearing wall buildings. In addition, interior frame walls. The location of interior systems
such installation is generally not as effective as a will influence the type of foundation. With slab-on-grade
continuous layer of insulation placed on the inside face construction, the easiest way to route the mechanical
of the single wythe wall due to the discontinuity of the systems is through the ceiling space. In brick homes
insulation at the webs of the units. Insulation cannot with basement or crawl space foundations, it is possible
be placed in grouted cells. to locate mechanical systems between floor joists.
One concern in homes is air leakage through the 9.9.1.5.1 MATERIALS FOR SINGLE-WYTHE BEARING
building envelope. In brick homes there will be some WALLS
leakage through weep holes and at the top of the The selection of masonry materials for a single-
brickwork even though the brick wall provides an effective wythe brick bearing wall system should consider
air barrier. To prevent air leakage, building paper or structural, energy and other performance requirements,
sheet membrane materials are commonly installed over as well as aesthetic appeal.
exterior sheathing materials in wood frame construction
but these materials are not appropriate for direct Solid or hollow brick in single wythe bearing wall
application on brick bearing walls. Alternate approaches structures may be used. Since the bricks will be
to further limit air leakage are the use of either foil- exposed on the exterior face, solid units should meet
faced rigid board insulation or so-called “ air-tight the requirements of ASTM C 216 Standard Specification
drywall” . These approaches rely on the air penetration for Facing Brick. Hollow units should meet the
resistance of the paper or other films on the insulation requirements of ASTM C 652 Standard Specification
or gypsum board. The joints between the sheets of for Hollow Brick. Structural and model building code
insulation or gypsum board must be sealed or taped to requirements, aesthetics, availability and cost will
achieve an impenetrable air barrier. Additionally, joints determine the minimum unit compressive strength, type
between different materials and joints around door and and sizes of units used.
window frames should also be sealed.
There are many brick sizes manufactured today. Also, the maximum bar size should not exceed
Solid units are commonly manufactured in nominal the nominal thickness of the wall in inches to ensure
widths of 3, 4, and 6 in. (76, 102 and 152 mm). Hollow proper development of the reinforcement. For example,
units, which are less than 75% solid, are manufactured a maximum reinforcing bar size of No. 8 (M #19) is
in nominal widths of 4, 5, 6 and 8 in. (102, 127, 152, recommended for nominal 8 in. (203 mm) walls.
and 203 mm). Nominal 5 and 6 in. (127 and 152 mm)
wide hollow brick are the most common units used to Steel reinforcing bars must conform to ASTM
construct reinforced brick bearing wall homes. Standard A 615, A 706, A 767, A 775 or A 996 depending
upon the type of bar used. Joint reinforcement, if used,
In reinforced brick bearing walls, hollow brick are should comply with ASTM A 951 and be hot-dipped
common because they hav e cells which can galvanized or made from stainless steel to reduce the
accommodate vertical reinforcement and grout. The possibility of corrosion.
applicable building code dictates the minimum size of
cells in hollow units intended to be reinforced. Larger A load-bearing brick wall often contains vertical steel
vertical bars, horizontal reinforcing bars and coarse grout reinforcement uniformly spaced along the length of the
require larger cell sizes. wall and horizontal reinforcement in bond beams.
Vertical reinforcement may also be necessary around
In the design and construction of reinforced load- openings and at building corners. Figure 9.37 shows
bearing masonry walls, uniform spacing of vertical one example of incorporating vertical reinforcing bars
reinforcement is important. The cell sizes and unit in a wall built with solid units.
length should be coordinated to provide cells which align
vertically for ease of grouting and uniform spacing of
reinforcing bars. The majority of hollow brick designed
Horizontal joint
to accommodate reinforcing bars have masonry unit reinforcement
lengths equal to twice the masonry unit width so that
cells align vertically when the masonry is laid in half
running bond.
The mortar selection depends on the strength and

water penetration resistance requirements of a brick Vertical reinforce-
bearing wall. Portland cement-lime mortars with air ment in grout
content less than 12% are recommended for their pocket
superior bond strength and resistance to water
penetration. In unreinforced load-bearing masonry, the
codes allow flexural stresses which are reduced
approximately 50% for assemblies made with masonry
cement mortars or Portland cement-lime mortars with FIGURE 9.37 Solid brick with grout pocket.
air content in excess of 12%. In addition, the IBC and
MSJC Code restrict the use of Type N mortar for lateral Brick bearing walls built with solid units may
load resisting systems in Seismic Design Categories incorporate pilasters (Figure 9.38) to provide the
D and E. Type M or S mortar may be used in load-
bearing brick masonry, although Type S is
Metal ties
recommended for use in reinforced brick bearing walls. Vertical reinforcement
Mortar should meet the proportion requirements of in grout pilaster
ASTM C 270 Standard Specification for Mortar for Unit
Masonry.
To provide resistance to lateral loads, vertical steel

reinforcement is often used in brick bearing walls. Size
and spacing of reinforcement required are a function of
design loads, unit size, compressive strength of the
masonry assemblage and cell spacing. Both the IBC
and the MSJC Code limit the size of reinforcing steel
that can be used in masonry. When designing by
Strength Design, the maximum allowable reinforcing
bar size is a #9 (M #29) bar and with Allowable Stress
Design the reinforcing bar size is limited to #11 (M #36). FIGURE 9.38 Solid brick pilaster.
confinement of vertical reinforcement. The advantage
of using pilasters in this manner is that no forms are
required. However, if located on the interior side of the Interior finish Brick bearing
wall, they may occupy a significant amount of floor wall
space. Furring anchor
Reinforcement
Furring with insulation as required
Figure 9.39 shows masonry walls constructed with
hollow units and vertically reinforced within the Finish floor Flashing
dimensions of the wall. Hollow brick bearing walls can Slab on grade
optimize the wall section by providing the necessary Vapor retarder
reinforcement within the cells of the unit. The design Weep holes
24 in. (610
and detailing of reinforcement should follow the
mm) o.c.
provisions of the governing code. Special attention, in
some cases, may be necessary to accommodate
multiple or hooked reinforcing bars within the confines
of the hollow brick cells, such as termination or splices
of vertical reinforcing bars. FIGURE 9.40 Slab-on-grade foundation.
The floor joist system may be supported directly

on the foundation wall (Figure 9.41), corbeled brickwork
Vertical reinforce- (Figure 9.42) or on a ledger joist bolted onto a bond
ment in grouted beam (Figure 9.43) if a crawl space or basement is
cell present .
Furring with
insulation
Furring anchor Brick bearing

wall
Interior finish
Reinforcement
Finish floor as required
Flashing
FIGURE 9.39 Reinforced hollow brick.
Weep holes
24 in. (610
Bond beams, which are horizontal reinforced mm) o.c.
grouted elements, are used to anchor bolts for attaching Floor joist
ledgers and plates and span wall openings. Bond
beams are formed by using special U shaped units or Intermediate
by removing part of the cross web of hollow brick. blocking
W aterproofing
Necessary anchor bolts and reinforcement are placed, below grade
and the bond beam is grouted solid. The depth of the
bond beam required will depend on the design loads for
the structure, the material properties of the masonry Foundation
and the amount of reinforcement used. wall
Poured concrete, concrete masonry or brick

masonry foundation walls are the supports for brick
bearing walls. The foundation wall may be built as
shown in Figure 9.40 if the construction incorporates a
F IGURE 9.41 Basement/crawl space
foundation.
slab on grade.
The floors above the first story may be anchored

Brick
bearing wall
to the brick bearing walls or be supported on slightly
Insulation
corbeled brickwork. Anchor bolts cast into a
Interior finish Reinforcement continuous, reinforced, grouted brick bond beam at
Finish floor as required
the floor support levels are often used in multi-story
Flashing construction. Figure 9.44 shows a continuous wood
ledger is bolted into place, and the floor joists are
Weep holes attached to the ledger with joist hangers.
24 in. (610
mm) o.c. Hat
Floor joist channel
Rigid insulation
screwed
Metal ties Vertical to “z”
Intermediate reinforcement clip
blocking as required
Interior
Waterproofing Two-piece finish
below grade flashing
insulation and Sub-
Foundation wall carried below flooring
ledger
Bond
beams as
required
F IGURE 9.42 Basement/ craw l space Floor joists
foundation corbeled support.

Anchor bolts in
bond beams
The details of support will vary depending upon the
Ledger joist
size of foundation wall and the width of the brick bearing
wall above the foundation. A minimum bearing of 3 in.
(76 mm) should be provided for floor joists which bear FIGURE 9.44 Floor connection.
on the foundation wall. Masonry waterproofing should
be provided on walls below grade. Flashing should extend a minimum of 8 in. (203
mm) above the ledger and at least 3 in. (76 mm) below
the ledger.
Insulation Brick bearing
wall The top of the bearing wall supports the roof to
Bituminous coating minimize eccentric loading. Also, the roof must be
Reinforcement
Interior finish as required anchored to the top of the brick bearing wall to resist
Base trim Flashing
Weep holes 2 x _____ wood
Floor joist 24 in. (610 plate with anchor
mm) o.c. bolts in grouted
cell
Grouted
bond beam Reinforced
grouted
bond beam
Ledger joist
Interior Finish
Hat channel
Foundation wall
Waterproofing Rigid insulation Brick bearing
below grade wall
Vertical reinforce-
ment in grouted
cell
F IGURE 9.43 Basement/ craw l space
foundation bond beam support. FIGURE 9.45 Roof connection.
lateral forces and uplift forces on the roof. Using
anchor bolts embedded in a bond beam or masonry
below, a wood plate is attached to the top of the wall.
A reinforced concrete bond beam or a reinforced and Insulation Brick wall
grouted brick bond beam may be used, as depicted in
Figure 9.45. Flashing
Interior finish
The anchor bolts, in this case, should extend a Weep holes

Steel lintel
minimum of 12 in. (305 mm) into the grouted cells in 24 in. (610
the wall below and finish with a standard hook. Figure mm) o.c.
9.46 presents one alternative for use in unreinforced Sealant
bearing walls, which is to thread anchor bolts through
the core holes of the solid units and attach the bolts to
a steel plate embedded in the masonry.
Lintel
Insulation
Interior finish
Flashing
Wood plate
Furring anchor Brick bearing
wall Brick wall
Horizontal reinforcement
Furring with Anchor bolt
insulation Sealant
with steel plate
Interior finish grouted into Jamb (Plan View)
core
Double hung
FIGURE 9.46 Roof connection. wood window
The support for masonry over openings of Sealant

windows and doors may be loose steel lintels, Limestone sill
reinforced brick masonry lintels or brick masonry
Insulation
arches. Flashing and weep holes should be provided Flashing
over the lintel when steel lintels are used as shown in
Figure 9.47. Interior finish
Above many wall openings, load-bearing brick

masonry can be self-supporting. One alternative is Sill
using horizontally reinforced brick masonry lintels. The
design of reinforced brick lintels should be in
accordance with the governing code. FIGURE 9.47 Window detail with steel lintel.
As illustrated in Figures 9.48 and 9.49,

reinforcement may be incorporated into voids in a
soldier course of brick or in a bond beam respectively.
Flashing should always be placed at the base of

Interior finish the cavity and at all interruptions in the wall, such as
Vertical
reinforcement over window and door openings. The result of flashing
as required location should be considered in the structural design.
Hat channel
Splices in flashing must be sealed and discontinuous
flashing must have end dams. Flashing should be
Rigid
insulation Grouted soldier turned up a minimum of 8 in. (203 mm) and attached
course bond with adhesive to the inside surface of the rigid board
beam insulation or outside surface of the gypsum board, or
Bituminous nailed or stapled to furring strips. The flashing should
Flashing
coating extend past or be cut flush with exterior face of the
brickwork. Through-wall flashing at the base of the
Steel lintel wall will be punctured by vertical reinforcing bars if the
Window or brick bearing wall is reinforced. Flashing should be
door frame sealed around all reinforcement with mastic at these
locations.
FIGURE 9.48 Soldier course lintel at window.
The placement of weep holes should be directly
above all flashing locations. Weep holes should be
located above grade and spaced a maximum of 24 in.
(610 mm) on center when using open head joints or
Interior finish brick vents, or 16 in. (406 mm) on center when using
Vertical
reinforcement wicks or plastic tubes. Open head joint weep holes
as required are preferred over rope wicks or tubes. To prevent
Hat channel
insects and rain from entering the wall, vents, copper
screening or stainless steel wool should be placed in
Rigid
Grouted bond open head joints. Brick vents in head joints at the
insulation
beam base and top of each story are recommended if the
brick bearing wall is treated with a clear water repellent.
Bituminous
coating Flashing
Interior finishes and the attachment of insulation
may be achieved in different ways. Attaching treated
Window or wood or plastic furring strips to wall plugs inserted into
door frame
mortar joints as shown in Figure 9.50, at the top, bottom
FIGURE 9.49 Bond beam lintel. Brick bearing wall
For long-term durability, any material in direct

contact with the brick wythe should be corrosion
resistant. With no direct contact at the brick wythe,
rigid board insulation can be adhered to the wythe, and
light-gauge (non-bearing) metal stud framing can be
attached to floor and ceiling joists. This forms a cavity
between the insulation and the interior finish which can
be flashed similar to that in brick veneer wall systems.
Wood insert
Since the insulation and finishes are installed after the
masonry is complete, a minimum 1/2 in. (12.7 mm)
cavity is adequate for this wall system. Any voids in
the mortar should be filled and to provide a clear, open
cavity, and any mortar protrusions should be removed.
FIGURE 9.50 Wall nailing insert.
and mid-height of the wall is one of the methods. The Building codes contain several provisions regarding
use of a special attachment clip is another choice. This mat erial testing, inspecti on of masonry and
clip is attached to the brick wythe at 16 in. or 24 in. workmanship to assure quality construction. To verify
(406 or 610 mm) intervals on center horizontally or compliance with applicable standards, brick units and
vertically. As shown in Figure 9.51 the leg of the clip mortar may require testing. Verification of the assembly
extends beyond the rigid board insulation, and special compressiv e strength may be determined by
channels are screwed onto the clip. The interior finish preconstruction testing of brick masonry prisms. The
is then screwed to the hat channels. prisms are constructed using the same materials that
are used on the project. The conservative unit strength
method in the MSJC Specification and IBC can also
verify the assembly compressive strength.
Brick bearing wall
Attachment clips In reinforced brick masonry, maintaining clear grout

space during construction and properly locating the
reinforcement are important. The hollow brick cells
Vertical
reinforcement
intended to receive reinforcing bars and grout should
as required be free of mortar protrusions greater than 1/2 in. (12.7
Interior mm) and excessive debris. Inserting sponges into the
finish cells to be grouted at the beginning of construction is
one method of keeping the cells of hollow brick clean.
In this method the sponges are pulled upward by a
handle, wire or string as construction progresses,
Rigid insulation leaving clean cells ready for grouting. When sponges
are not used, another method is to provide cleanout
openings at the base of the wall at all grout locations.
FIGURE 9.51 Attachment clip. The cleanouts allow the excessive mortar protrusions
to be dislodged and the debris removed at the base of
Light-gauge (non-bearing) metal stud framing is the wall. Cleanout holes are sealed prior to grouting.
another finish attachment alternative. The framing is
used to form a cavity and to apply insulation and/or Cleanout holes may be provided by omitting the
finishes in a manner similar to that in brick veneer wall face shell of a masonry unit. Prior to grouting, the face
systems. The installation of light-gauge metal framing shell is replaced. The cut piece is held in position to
is accomplished by attaching a track to the floor and resist pressure from the grout. Cleanouts are seldom
ceiling joists at the desired distance from the brick used in single wythe brick construction except with
wythe. The location of rigid board insulation should be large cell hollow brick or at pilaster locations. A
between the metal framing and brick bearing wall, or competent bricklayer possesses the skill to construct
insulation may be placed between the studs. A plane a wall without significant mortar droppings and without
surface for applying the interior gypsum board or other excessive mortar fins.
interior finish is provided by the framing. The brick bearing
walls are not supported by the framing . This allows a To resist water penetration, full head joints may be
considerable reduction in the size of the metal framing used with hollow units and full head and bed joints are
members. One and one-half inch (38.1 mm) studs are required with solid units. Flashing and weep holes and
adequate for this application. other moisture control measures should be properly
installed to control water which does penetrate the brick
The construction quality of a brick bearing wall is masonry wythe.
important for a number of reasons. The primary
structural system for the building is the masonry wall The brick masonry is the primary structural element
which must meet the minimum strength necessary for in a load-bearing wall system. The installation may
adequate performance. The expected strength of the begin as soon as the foundation is complete and
masonry may not be achiev ed without quality adequately cured. During construction, the bearing
construction. The primary barrier to water penetration walls should be braced until the floors connecting walls
in a single wythe wall is the masonry and quality and roof provide lateral support. Wen a story height is
workmanship directly affects water penetration complete, construction of the floor or roof systems
resistance of the masonry. follows, which could serve as a work platform for the
following masonry work. During the masonry Typically, one wythe of the wall is built up not more
construction, fasteners necessary for attachment of the than 16 in. (406 mm) ahead of the other wythe in order
cabinets, insulation and interior finishes may be to accommodate wall ties. Spacing of ties is not to
incorporated. The interior frame walls may be built at exceed 36 in. (914 mm) on center horizontally and 24
the same time with the exterior load-bearing brick walls in. (610 mm) on center vertically. The 2005 MSJC
once the floors have been constructed,. Specification requires at least one tie for every 41/2
square feet (0.42 m2) of wall area when W2.8 (MW
Brick bearing walls should reach sufficient strength 18) wire is used and at least one tie every 22/3 square
before any temporary or permanent loads are applied. feet (0.25 m2) of wall area when W1.7 (MW 11) wire is
Curing conditions will affect the rate of strength gain used. Joint reinforcement may also be used to tie the
of load-bearing masonry. The masonry walls, if two masonry wythes together.
sufficient moisture is maintained, should cure a
minimum of three days before supporting floor or roof
loads. The required curing periods of the reinforced
brick masonry beams are at least seven days. Poor
curing condi tions, such as exposure to cold
temperatures, may require longer curing times. The
floors and roof may be attached once the brick bearing
walls are cured. As soon as the masonry is complete,
the windows, doors, plumbing, electrical and heating
systems, insulation and interior finishes can be
installed.
9.9.1.6 DOUBLE-WYTHE GROUTED WALLS

Reinforced brick masonry has been used extensively Plan View Section View
for the construction of lintels, beams, columns, walls
and slabs and the experience gained from this type of
construction is constantly utilized to refine design FIGURE 9.52 Typical grout tie and single
procedures and construction techniques. curtain positioner in place.
Perhaps the greatest use of reinforced brick

masonry in this country during the past sixty years has The grout space between the masonry wythes
been on the West Coast where all major structures, should not be less than 21/2 in. (63.5 mm) when coarse
including residential, are required to be designed to grout is used. Smaller spaces can be used when a
resist seismic forces. For this reason, many of the fine grout is used or when there is no horizontal
reinforced masonry developments in both design and reinforcing steel. A minimum cavity of 1 in. (25.4 mm)
construction have originated in this area. is recommended for fine grouting, in contrast to 3/4 in.
(19.1 mm) collar joint of the past. Code requirements
Double wythe masonry construction is common dictate the minimum size of grout space.
for many applications, both load-bearing and non-load-
bearing and for interior and exterior walls. These 9.9.1.7 BEARING WALL T YPES
systems are frequently used as exterior walls or other
applications when exposed architectural masonry units In theory, it is possible to obtain any nominal wall
are required on one or both sides of the wall. Such thickness equal to or greater than 3 in. (76.2 mm) with
walls are constructed with full collar joints between the various sizes of brick produced. The designer
wythes of masonry. One common double wythe wall is should determine the brick sizes available in the local
the composite wall, which consists of a clay brick wythe geographic area prior to selecting a wall thickness,
and a concrete masonry wythe with a 3/4 in. (19.1 mm) since all manufacturers do not produce all of the
minimum collar joint and brick headers or wall ties. various sizes.
The collar joint is often difficult to fill with mortar but
may be filled by fine grouting. In high seismic areas,
reinforcement is a requirement and wider collar joints
are necessary to accommodate the reinforcement,
detailing (vertical reinforcement crossing horizontal
reinforcement) and minimum clearances.
Figure 9.53 shows various wall types varying in thickness from 4 in. (102 mm) to 12 in. (305 mm). These
configurations will require reinforcement in the higher seismic design categories.
1
/ 2” 2” 2”
4” 6” 3” 3” 3” 3” 3” 3”
1 2 3 4 5
4” Brick Wall 6” Brick Wall 61/2” Brick Wall 8” Brick Cavity Wall 8” Reinforced
Metal - Tied Brick Wall
8” 4” 2” 4” 4” 2” 4” 4” 2” 6” 4” 4” 4”
6 7 8 9 10
8” Brick Wall 10” Brick 10” Reinforced 12” Brick 12” Reinforced
Cavity Wall Brick Wall Cavity Wall Brick Wall
FIGURE 9.53 Bearing wall types.

9.9.1.8 REINFORCED HOLLOW MASONRY WALLS Method No. 3 (2006 IBC Section 2105.3) provides
for removing specimens, or prisms, from the constructed
In the United States, hollow brick were first
wall and testing in accordance with ASTM C 1314.
developed and marketed in the Southeast under a
Obviously, this method would be used only when
regional specification of “Jumbo Brick” . These units
compressive masonry strengths have not been
have been used in thousands of buildings since the
satisfactorily determined by Method 1 or Method 2.
1920’ s. Hollow units of this type were more nearly
brick than tile, consequently, the special specification
There is also a method recognized by the California
and wide use of hollow brick occurred. These units
Division of the State Architect which acknowledges
were made and marketed under several different
compressive test results from core samples taken from
names, for example, Dubrick, Speedbrick, Jumbo
masonry. This is especially useful when marginal
Brick, and others. They were typically 8 in. (203 mm)
results are obtained from recognized methods and
nominal in thickness and had face sizes ranging from
further limited testing for verification of compressive
nominal 21/4 by 12 in. (57.2 by 305 mm) to nominal 4
strength of masonry is desirable.
by 12 in. (102 by 305 mm).
A detailed knowledge of the material properties is
Four types of hollow brick are described by ASTM
essential when any new material is offered to the
Standard C 652. The classification by types is related
construction industry. Initial evaluation, such as with
to the appearance characteristics of the units. The
International Code Council’ s Evaluation Services, will
proper type is selected by the specifier depending on
provide the designer and Building Official verification
the project and the intended use.
that the new material complies with the intent of the
building code.
Reinforced hollow brick masonry may be designed
using the requirements of the MSJC Code. This
Hollow bricks are normally laid with only face shell
standard contains provisions for both double wythe
bedding and unreinforced hollow brick walls may show
grouted reinforced masonry and for reinforced grouted
a reduced masonry strength bearing capacity due to
hollow cell masonry. In addition, there are provisions
the reduction of the amount of bedding mortar.
for partially reinforced masonry. Reinforced masonry
is required to contain a minimum area of reinforcement, Fully bedded mortar (applied on all cross webs and
based on the cross-sectional area of the wall, with not face shells) may increase the strength bearing capacity
more than two thirds of the steel in the principal in non-grouted brick walls. This allows webs to
direction. contribute in resisting the axial, shear and bending
loads.
Masonry strength for reinforced hollow brick
masonry constructed in accordance with the IBC is Typically, if the structural capacity and proper
determined by one of three methods: material properties are provided, hollow brick can be
used where solid brick are used. Hollow bricks are
Method No. 1 (2006 IBC Section 2105.2.2.2) produced with the same outside dimensions as solid
provides a means of testing compressive prisms built brick and show no visual evidence on the face of
of similar materials, under the same conditions and in containing cores in excess of that found in solid brick.
stack bond pattern. Test prisms are constructed and
tested in accordance with ASTM C 1314 Standard Test An economic alternative to double wythe solid
Method for Compressive Strength of Masonry Prisms. construction or solid brick veneer construction is the 4
Masonry prism strength of hollow brick masonry is in. (102 mm) hollow brick.
normally determined at 28 days after prism construction
by dividing the test load by the net area of the Due to its use with reinforced brick masonry as
assemblage. wel l as the adv antages of reduced costs in
manufacturing, transportation, and installation, hollow
Method No. 2 (2006 IBC Section 2105.2.2.1.1) bricks are widely available. They can be used under
provides a means of assuming an ultimate compressive the masonry provisions in the model building codes
strengt h of masonry, based on the net area and masonry design standards.
compressive strength of hollow units and the type of
mortar used for construction. 9.9.1.9 CAVITY WALLS
A cavity wall is two wythes of masonry separated
by a space varying from 2 in. (50.8 mm) to 41/2 in. (114
mm). The space between the wythes of brick may
contain insulation for thermal efficiency.
Parapet details and movement joints are critical
2”minimum air space in any masonry system and this is particularly true with
Insulation cavity walls.
Wall tie Parapets are normally a cantilever element and

this makes parapets subject to cracking and
displacement causing a major source of moisture
penetration. The first rule is to make the parapet
structurally stable so that the parapet, including the
cap as a separate element, does not fall from the
building.
For structural stability, the parapet wall should be

dowelled into the structural roof deck with at least a
#3 bar spaced not more than 16 in. (406 mm) on center.
If the height of the parapet exceeds 3 times the
thickness, additional reinforcement will be required for
the dowels. Any expansion joints present in the wall
should continue to the top of the parapet. The cavity
should be continuous to the top of the parapet,
Weep holes excluding the cap. The cap must be positively
24”o.c. (typ.) anchored and a continuous metal cap will provide the
Flashing
optimum moisture resistance. Often, designers prefer
a precast concrete cap, which is acceptable provided
that the connection is positive and a through wall
FIGURE 9.54 Insulated cavity wall. flashing is installed immediately below the precast cap.
Roofing materials should continue up the parapet to
The wythes are made of masonry materials, such the top to minimize the possibility of water intrusion.
as solid or hollow brick, solid or hollow concrete
masonry units, or possibly concrete. When these
Metal coping
materials are combined with proper design, quality
materials and adequate workmanship, the final result Sealant
will render high performance cavity walls. 3
/16”metal ties
The history of cavity walls extends back to ancient Horizontal reinforcement

Greek and Roman structures. Evidence can be found Vertical reinforcement
in Pergamum, located in Western Turkey where a
masonry cavity stone wall can be found. 2”cavity
Counter flashing
There is evidence that the British rekindled the
Base flashing
cavity wall as historic plans in the early 1800’
s show 2
wythes of brickwork connected by brick headers. This
is a type of unreinforced cavity wall that is still
constructed. There is more evidence (circa 1821) with
published information on the benefit of cavity wall Dovetail anchor
construction as a means to keep moisture migration slot and 1/4”
flexible dovetail
from entering a building. In the second half of the 19th anchor @ 16”
century, there is evidence of the British using wrought o.c. horizontally
iron for brick ties.
The Unit ed States started designing and Soft compressible material

constructing cavity walls toward the end of the 19th
century. Evidence of this appears in professional trade
Joint reinforcement
publications around 1899, but it was not until 1937 that
the cavity wall gained widespread recognition by the
building officials. Since then, extensive testing has
been performed revealing a great deal of information FIGURE 9.55 Reinforced parapet wall.
on the properties and performance of cavity walls.
Sloped coping with drips

both sides
Dowel rod and anchor pin

Raked joint and Raked joint and sealant Raked joint and
sealant (optional) (optional) sealant (optional)
Flashing Flashing
Brick Horizontal joint
Weatherproof membrane reinforcement
Horizontal joint Concrete block Brick

reinforcement Brick
Outer Face Inner Face Outer Face
FIGURE 9.56 Parapet coping detail.
Movement joints should be considered for all

buildings. Since cavity walls are an integral and large Horizontal joint reinforcement
spanning building element, there are movement joints
associated with these walls. One requirement is that
any movement joint in the foundation should follow
through the wall. The movement joints should meet,
not be offset, as offset movement joints have been
historically problematic.
Premolded compres- Rake mortar
A movement joint may be a control joint or an sible filler and sealer back 3/4”to
expansion joint. These two different joint types exist form control
Horizontal joint
joint and
for opposite reasons. A control joint allows for material reinforcement
apply sealant
(discontinuous)
contraction, therefore a weakened joint in the plane of
the wall will maximize the probability that the crack
Plan View
will occur in that weakened joint. A control joint may
also be a joint void of any incompressible material since
the shrinkage stresses will also be relieved. On the FIGURE 9.57 Movement joints at corner.
other hand, an expansion joint must be free of any
incompressible material in order to be effective. There
may be compressible material in the expansion joint Premolded compressible
fillers and sealant Tab tie
which would allow for the wall to expand into the void
space. Control joints are placed in concrete masonry
walls whereas expansion joints are placed in clay brick
walls.
Control joints are normally spaced in concrete

masonry walls at about 25 ft (7.6 m) or a panel ratio
not exceeding 11/2 times the height. For a 10 ft (3.0 m)
high concrete masonry wall, control joints should be
spaced at 15 ft (4.6 m). The spacing of vertical Horizontal joint
expansion joints is typically 30 ft (9.1 m) maximum for reinforcement Backer rod and
walls without openings. (discontinuous) caulking between
CMU
Plan View
FIGURE 9.58 Movement joint.

/16”wall ties @16”o.c. vertically

3
Elastic joint sealant
Elastic joint sealant and Bond break material
premolded compressible filler
Shear key is not mortared

Premolded compressible filler
3
Elastic joint sealant and premolded

compressible filler
Joint reinforcement
Elastic joint sealant an premolded

compressible filler

3
Anchors @16”o.c. vertically
Elastic joint sealant and

premolded compressible filler
Metal ties @ 16”o.c. vertically
Elastic joint sealant an premolded

compressible filler
Continuous single wire
reinforcement around corners
each wythe @ 16”o.c. vertically
Plan View
FIGURE 9.59 Movement joints.
Particular requirements must meet all structures

and be detailed accordingly. Details that are acceptable
on one structure may not work on another, however, Plan View
certain details can usually be found that will increase
the performance of masonry walls by resisting
cracking, efflorescence, and water penetration.
FIGURE 9.60 Cavity wall movement joints.
Differential movements of elements supporting 9.9.1.10 MASONRY CAVITY BEARING WALLs

cavity walls must be kept to a minimum or serious
distress may result. In masonry walls, differential Cavity walls have been used primarily in one and
movement of 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) in 15 ft (4.6 m) has been two story buildings of load bearing design. Buildings
considered sufficient to cause cracking. On masonry taller than two stories may also use cavity walls. Quite
cavity walls, observations have shown that differential often, the greater demand on the loadbearing walls will
movements in the foundation of more than 1/2 in. (12.7 require reinforced grouted masonry walls.
mm) in 15 ft (4.6 m) could occur and yet the walls
remain with no cracks.
Primary reasons for the popularity of cavity walls Concrete block

include:
Drywall Horizontal joint
reinforcement
 Superior resistance to rain penetration, Drywall channel
at 16”o.c.
 Excellent thermal properties, vertically
 High resistance to sound transmission, and
 Exceptional resistance to fire.
Required bearing
The fire resistance ratings for brick cavity walls are pad
unequaled. A double wythe cavity wall using 3 in. (76.2 Continuous bond
mm) deep units will provide a 4 hour fire rating as listed beam
in 2006 IBC Table 720.1(2). This characteristic makes #3 reinforcing bar in
brick cavity walls one of the safest fire protection grout key grout core Brick
elements available. Unlike systems that depend on at reinforcement
mechanical engagement, such as fire sprinklers, the
brick cavity wall is 100% dependable in fire resistance. 1”minimum
air space
Concrete masonry provides an excellent backup

Precast concrete Polyisosyanurated
to a masonry cavity wall. The concrete masonry backup rigid board
plank
is relatively stiff and provides rigidity to the wall system. insulation
In turn, the concrete masonry backup carries a greater
share of the lateral load, providing for superior
performance of the cavity wall.
Cavity wall construction is a series of building one

story walls on top of each other. The cavity wall will
provide both the building finish and the structural
support. When properly coordinated, the building may
be constructed at a full story each week which may be
more economical than other building systems.
FIGURE 9.61 Bearing wall section.
Concrete planks may bear on masonry walls in a

The combination of floors and shear walls provide
number of ways as shown in Figure 9.62. Two of the
necessary resistance to lateral forces. This type of
three examples show the plank partially bearing on
resistance is an excellent application for buildings such
the masonry wall and the bearing surface should be
as hospitals, schools, multi-unit family housing, motels
at least 4 in. (102 mm). Plank should be set in fresh
and hotels.
mortar to accommodate any irregularities in the
concrete masonry wall. Mortar under the plank will
The design professional must be aware that detailing
also accommodate any camber that exists. Note that
requirements will vary from building to building. A
this is not a positive connection and that the lateral
superior design will generate details that may apply to
resistance is limited.
a number of different buildings and may eliminate
possible damage to the building when subjected to
A bond beam may be used for the concrete block
unusual lateral loads, such as wind and seismic.
masonry at a window head in lieu of a steel lintel. The
exterior wythe will likely be supported with a steel lintel
The concrete masonry wythe of the cavity wall may
as illustrated in Figure 9.63. For moisture protection,
support concrete plank floors as detailed in Figure 9.61.
flashing is installed above the lintel with the ends of
In this application, the walls and floors are connected
flashing extending beyond the opening and the ends
by using a #3 bar turning into both the wall and floor.
of the flashing turned up. Ideally, the window size and
Floor planks should always be installed prior to erection
spacing will be complementary with the masonry bond,
of additional masonry above the floor line. The project
thereby limiting cuts and making the system
schedule may allow for the masonry and planking to
aesthetically pleasing.
rotate back and forth a half floor at a time thereby
keeping the continuity of both trades.
Base flashing should always be designed and
properly installed. The cavity wall is intentionally
gathering moisture and allowing that moisture to
gravitate to the base. Figure 9.64 shows a properly
detailed cavity wall base which includes continuous
Brick
Flashing Continuous
1”minimum air space bond beam or
precast
Polyisosyanurated rigid board insulation
concrete lintel
Concrete block
Concrete topping Weep holes

24”o.c.
Shelf angle Sealant

Concrete plank
Bearing plate and
mortar bed as required
Continuous bond beam
(1)
FIGURE 9.63 Window head detail.
Concrete block
Concrete block filler Rigid insulation
Concrete topping Horizontal joint

(if required) reinforcement at
16”o.c. vertically
Brick
Concrete
block
Concrete plank
Flashing
Bearing plate and membrane
mortar bed as required all ends and
Continuous bond beam joints lapped
(2) and sealed
Concrete block with cores grouted Weep holes
Deformed bars or steel strap

2”minimum above grade
Concrete topping
if required
FIGURE 9.64 Base flashing.
9.9.1.11 MASONRY CAVITY WALLS WITH CONCRETE

FRAME
Concrete block filler
Concrete frame structures of mid-rise and high-
rise are natural applications for masonry cavity walls.
Continuous bond beam These structures may be designed with the concrete
(3) slabs exposed on the building exterior, that is, the slab
is supported by both wythes of the cavity wall, or may
be supported by the inner wythe only with the exterior
FIGURE 9.62 Non-bearing wall details.
wythe continuous. The advantage of a continuous
exterior wythe is that the cavity will also be continuous
flashing, weep holes at 24 in. (610 m) on center and
and less susceptible to moisture penetration to the
placement of the bottom of cavity wall at least 2 in.
interior of the building. Also, thermal bridging is
(50.8 mm) above surrounding finish grade. The raised
reduced making a more energy efficient building.
elevation of the cavity wall minimizes moisture infiltration
due to capillary action. The weep holes must be kept
Shelf angles may be required. Although the MSJC
clear during the construction and landscaping
Code does not require shelf angles for concrete backed
processes.
systems, the designer may elect to consider the
differential material properties between clay and The given illustration shows a concrete masonry
concrete and elect to isolate the brick into panels. Shelf infill system, which is tied into the concrete frame. This
angle rotation and deflection must also be considered. is accomplished with a dovetail tie system into the
concrete. There are other methods to achieve this
The design illustrated in Figure 9.65 shows the anchorage, but the anchors should be flexible enough
concrete floor supported by one wythe of the cavity to accommodate the inevitable movement, yet rigid
wall, thereby reducing thermal bridging. Modular layout enough to support the concrete masonry wall.
has also been considered allowing for full units Perimeter connections may also follow this rule, or the
immediately below the concrete slab. designer may prefer to decrease the spacing between
ties, since the spacings listed in the MSJC Code are
maximum dimensions.
Concrete Horizontal joint Properly designed hollow unit masonry walls may
block reinforcement at 16” also serve as the veneer backup system. The backup
o.c. vertically system must meet deflection criteria and be able to
support and transmit any imposed lateral loads from
Concrete
slab
the veneer.
Dovetail slot
Drywall
Brick
Flexible anchors
set into dovetail
slots
1”minimum air space
Wedge anchor Concrete block

Rigid insulation
if required back-up
Concrete frame
FIGURE 9.65 Typical wall section.
FIGURE 9.67 Ties for lateral support.

Brick
Concrete Structural steel lintels may be used at window heads
block Flashing
for support. For wide openings, the lintel may be
Taper back coordinated with the concrete floor so that the lintel
insulation may be bolted to the concrete. For openings with shorter
Wedge insert 5 x 5 x 5/16 spans, lintels may span the openings provided the
deflection limits (l/600 or 0.3 in. maximum) are not
with 3/4”bolt shelf angle
Weep holes
24”o.c. exceeded.
Precompressed Sealant
expanding foam
filler (optional)
1
/2”compres-
sible filler with
adhesive
surface
FIGURE 9.66 Shelf angle detail.

together and distribute any strain over a longer length
of wall. This can also be achieved by a closer spacing
Flashing of the horizontal joint reinforcement in both wythes at
the bottom of the wall. These procedures will contain
any vertical cracks that may begin at the bottom of the
Existing shelf angle
(zinc coated) wall.
Weep hole
In seismic design areas, this bond break may not
Sealant be acceptable for load-bearing structures.
Sealant
Flashing
FIGURE 9.68 Window head detail. Weep holes @ 24”o.c.
Grout below upper

When masonry cavity walls are utilized in hotels flashing
or multi-family housing, cavity walls may also be part
of the balcony design. In this case, a positive Flashing
attachment must be provided for the safety of the
occupants. Reinforcement to the interior wythe is an Insulation
excellent means of providing the positive attachment
and is illustrated in Figure 9.69.
Horizontal joint Reinforcing dowel

reinforcement drilled in place
16”o.c.
Weep holes to be
Coat concrete
kept clear of mortar
with asphaltic
at slab surface
material
Flashing
FIGURE 9.70 Foundation detail.
Weep hole
When the actual cause is the expansion or curling
24”o.c. of the concrete slabs bearing on the walls, thermal
strains or other movements are frequently cited for
Sealant
cracking in masonry walls. The curling of the concrete
Required shelf angle slab has been known to pick up the brick wall below.
In detailing the structure, this behavior of concrete is
often overlooked by the designer. A typical detail that
FIGURE 9.69 Balcony section. will relieve this condition is shown in Figure 9.71. In
this design, the bond is broken between the concrete
9.9.1.12 CAVITY WALL CONNECTIONS slab and the brick wall by building paper. With respect
to the wall, this allows the slab to have some freedom
A typical foundation detail is shown in Figure 9.70. of movement. Further, it permits the longitudinal
The bond, in this case, is broken between the base of thermal and moisture movements to occur without
the cavity wall and the top of the concrete beam by distress. The slab is thickened into a beam over the
flashing. In the foundation the transfer of movement interior wythe to help stiffen the slab and reduced
to the wall is reduced. Bond breaks also permit curling. Provisions must be made for insulation under
differential thermal and moisture movements without certain climatic conditions.
distress to either the brick wall or the concrete
foundation. Furthermore, by placing reinforcing bars Once again, this detail may not be seismically
and filling the cavity with grout, a bond beam or tie compatible due to lateral restraint requirements. Lateral
beam can be formed at the bottom of the wall. This restraint can be provided by clips or channels at the
will attach the inner and outer wythes of masonry top of the masonry wall.
Lubricated bearing surface

and slotted holes in bearing
seats of steel joists
Concrete slab over steel

decking and steel joists
Bond break materials
Metal ties
FIGURE 9.71 Concrete roof slab detail. Metal ties
Standard practice has been to positively anchor 2”typical cavity

the joists or steel into the masonry. Lubricating the
bearing surfaces and providing slotted holes in the
seats of the steel members can improve this design.
FIGURE 9.72 Steel joist structural floor
assembly.
A structural system using steel joists bearing on
masonry wall is shown in Figure 9.72. The building codes require joists to be anchored
to masonry walls at specified intervals in an approved
Wood floor joists must bear at least 3 in. (76 mm) way. Anchors engage 3 joists at intervals not exceeding
on the interior wythe of a cavity wall. Joists can form a 8 ft (2.4 m) where the joists are parallel to a wall. Cavity
ledge which may create a moisture bridge across the wall ties are usually required within 8 in. (203 mm) of
cavity if the ends project into the cavity. joist bearing level. The floor is considered to provide
lateral support for the walls as shown in Figure 9.73.
Solid bridging
at anchor
Lateral
support metal
anchors @ 8’o.c.
maximum
3
/16”wall ties at first Joists anchors at
course below joists every 4th joist
FIGURE 9.73 Anchored wood floor to cavity wall.

Figure 9.74 shows two of several methods to anchor Care must be taken when masonry walls are used
wood roofs to cavity walls. One method shows a means to enclose steel-frame structures. The masonry should
to anchor to both wythes of brick while the other method be anchored to the steel frame in such a manner to
anchors the roof to grouted cells of hollow units in one permit each to move relative to the other. Steel-frames
of the wythes. To provide positive anchorage, anchor are more flexible than brick walls and will undergo
bolts are grouted into the hollow cells. Anchor bolts greater deflections. The frame and enclosing wall differ
holding roof plates should extend into the masonry a in the reaction to moisture and in the magnitude of
minimum of 16 in. (406 mm), regardless of the method, thermal movement.
which is usually about six standard size brick courses.
The nut should be hand-tightened after the wood plate
is installed. 1
/4”anchor
/4”anchor
1
Wood plate
Compressible
filler
Plan Section
Dovetail
slot
/16”diameter
3
metal ties
Steel anchor bolt

with steel plate /4”anchor
1
2”typical cavity
Plan Section
F IGURE 9.75 Cavity wall anchorage at

concrete beams.
Wood plate
1
/4”anchor
Brick header course
4”hollow brick Plan Section

or CMU
Steel anchor bolt

grouted into core /16”diameter
3
metal ties
1
/4”anchor
2”typical cavity
FIGURE 9.74 Anchor of wood roof framing to Angle welded to

beam
cavity wall. Section
Plan
FIGURE 9.76 Cavity wall anchorage at steel

beam.
Anchors should be flexible, resisting tension and

compression to tie walls to the structural frame to 1
/4”anchor
provide lateral support, but not shear. This flexibility
Dovetail slot
permits differential movement between the frame and
the wall with no cracking distress. Typical methods
for anchoring masonry walls to columns and beams
with corrosion-resistant metal ties are shown in Figures
9.75 through 9.80. These anchorage methods allow
horizontal and vertical differential movements.
Compressible material
1
/4”anchor
Brick and concrete
block cavity wall
Steel angle metal
tie holder
1
/4”metal tie
Plan Section
Dovetail
slot
Brick cavity wall
1
/4”anchor /16”wall tie
3
Plan Section FIGURE 9.79 Anchorage detail.
FIGURE 9.77 Wall anchorage at concrete

columns. /4”anchor @16”o.c. vertically
1
Horizontal joint reinforcement continuous

Wall ties around corners where required
/4”anchor
1
1”minimum clearance between
columns and outer wythe
/4”anchor rod
1
Rod offset
Plan Section
3
/16”metal wire tie
/4”anchor rod
1
welded to column
Reinforced concrete column
/4”anchor
1
Plan Section
FIGURE 9.80 Concrete column and cavity wall
corner.
FIGURE 9.78 Wall anchorage to steel columns.
Stock sizes of window and door frames should be
used in cavity walls. In cavity walls, solid masonry
jambs at windows and doors should be avoided. For Flashing
steel windows, the jambs must be partially solid to Weep holes
accept most standard jamb anchors. Wood or steel Reinforced
casings must be used to adapt non-modular steel brick lintel
casement windows to modular cavity walls. Cavity wall
ties spaced at 3 ft (914 mm) or less should be placed
around all openings not more than 12 in. (305 mm) Caulking
from the opening. Head
Wall ties Flashing
Reinforced
CMU lintel
Steel angle lintels
Weep holes
Flashing Jamb
Caulking
Caulking
Head Caulking
Wall ties
Flashing
Sill
Jamb
Flashing Caulking FIGURE 9.82 Metal casement window.
Caulking
Flashing
Flashing Steel angle

Weep holes Weep holes
lintels
Caulking
Sill Head
Flashing Wall ties

FIGURE 9.81 Double hung wood window.
9.9.1.13 BRICK MASONRY RAIN SCREEN WALLS

The building envelope can be damaged by rain
Jamb
penetration through walls. Some examples of the Caulking
problems related to moisture penetration are:
efflorescence of the masonry, staining, corrosion of
metal accessories in the exterior cladding, and damage Caulking
to interior finishes. The appearance of brick masonry
wall systems can be affected by water penetration.
Several methods have been used to prevent water

Weep holes Flashing
penetration of walls with some more effective than
others. Single wythe barrier walls rely on heavy mass
to inhibit moisture penetration. Brick veneer and cavity
walls are examples of drainage walls and provide Sill
FIGURE 9.83 Commercial metal window.

excellent moisture penetration resistance. The exterior

wythe cannot be made watertight. Requirements for
interior drainage are needed for these wall systems to
successfully work as intended.
Using the rain screen principle can provide
Exterior pressure
Interior pressure
moisture penetration resistance for exterior brick walls.
Cavity pressure
This idea is to introduce air into the cavity of common
drainage type walls to provide pressure equalization Vent area
so that the cavity works in resisting wind-driven
moisture penetration.
The primary functions of the rain screen principle

include:
1. An exterior rain screen with protected

openings which allows the passage of air but
not water,
Air space
Exterior cladding Air retarder on
2. A restricted cavity behind the rain screen in interior wall
which air pressure is basically the same as
the external air pressure,
3. Insulation fixed to the outer face of the interior

FIGURE 9.84 Brick rain screen wall principle.
wall system, if provided in design and,
The major force which causes infiltration of air and
4. An interior wall or barrier which will significantly water on windward facades is the difference in air
limit the passage of air and water vapor and pressure across the exterior cladding. Penetration of
is able to withstand all required design loads, air and moisture can be through the units, mortar joints,
such as wind and earthquake forces. hairline cracks, poorly bonded surfaces and other
openings that exist or develop over the life of the
Anchored brick veneers and cavity walls are structure.
drainage wall types which provide a space for drainage
of moisture that has penetrated the exterior wythe and As shown in Figure 9.84, a rain screen wall is
are often confused with rain screen walls. The question composed of two layers of materials separated by a
frequently comes up of whether the wall system utilizes cavity.
the rain screen principle when the causes of rain
leakage problems are discussed. The cavity between The backing of an anchored brick veneer wall or
the exterior wythe and the interior wythe provides the inner wythe of a cavity wall is the interior wall or
drainage of moisture which has entered the wall. The inner layer. A pressure difference between the exterior
idea of drainage type walls has been around for many wythe and the cavity space is created when wind loads
years; however, the basic concept of the rain screen are imposed on the wall assembly. This pressure
principle is to control all forces that can drive moisture difference forces water on the surface of the exterior
through the wall system. cladding to penetrate any openings. The pressure in
the cavity increases until it equals the pressure
“Pressure equalized rain screen wall” is a term resulting from the wind load being applied. This is the
that should be used. This accentuates the difference phenomenon of pressure equalization design. The
from the common drainage type wall. The major inner layer of the wall assembly must be airtight to
difference between a rain screen wall and a drainage affect this air pressure transfer. This is accomplish by
wall is the pressure equalization in the cavity behind applying an air retarder at some location on the backing
the exterior wythe. The best way of resisting water or inner wythe. At this location, the air barrier seal
penetration is provided by a pressure equalized rain should last longer since it is not exposed to the exterior
screen wall. When resistance to water penetration is elements. Stack effect and mechanical ventilation
of major concern, means of resisting water penetration generated inside the building are effectively controlled
should be used on projects located in areas which with the interior wall airtight. As the pressure difference
receive high volumes of wind-driven rain. on the exterior cladding which drives rain into cavity is
reduced, rain penetration through the exterior cladding
should be reduced as well. The resultant wind load The first stage of the rain screen principle is the
will be imposed on the air barrier and interior wall. exterior brick wythe with rain water running down the
face of the brickwork. Capillary action is absorbed by
Exterior cladding limits the passage of water and some moisture in contact with the exterior wythe. The
wind and can also function as part of a thermal barrier. moisture will be forced into the brick work if wind pressure
The level to which the exterior cladding can be relied is applied to the face of the exterior brick wythe,
upon to serve these functions is variable and the particularly at the mortar joints or openings. Some
exterior cladding is not considered to be the only air or difficulties in obtaining a waterproof exterior wythe
moisture barrier in the wall system. include the use of dissimilar materials, the presence of
mortar joints and the variations of workmanship. Some
For moisture penetration resistance, rain screen moisture will penetrate the brick wythe and infiltrate
walls using a brick veneer or cavity wall system should into the cavity space. As a result of air flow through
be designed as a two-stage barrier. The exterior wythe vent openings and weep holes, if the cavity space is in
is the first stage and the second stage is the backing equilibrium with the exterior air pressure, the only
assembly or the inner wythe. The exterior brick wythe moisture which will reach the cavity space is due to
should be detailed and constructed to provide moisture gravity flow and capillary action. The rain screen
resistance so that the second stage is not continually principle works efficiently when water which penetrates
tested. If excess water penetrates the exterior brick the exterior brick wythe travels down the interior side
wythe, the backing system may become a single stage and is collected on flashing and discharged to the
which can lead to failure. Figure 9.85 shows a typical exterior through weep holes.
brick masonry rain screen wall.
Pressurization of the cavity and the provision for an
airtight barrier are important for the second stage to
work efficiently. The extent to which the cavity can be
pressurized will reduce the amount of moisture carried
through the exterior wythe by wind. An airtight system
will also decrease moisture penetration.
Exterior
brick wythe Moisture may pass through weep holes and vents.
Sealant Vent The air movement within the cavity can transfer
moisture to the interior wall and distribute it throughout
Full mortar bed the wall area. Air leakage can then draw this moisture
Rigid into and through the backing or inner wythe. Tests
insulation have shown that high air leakage through the backing
or inner wythe can cause moisture to climb up and
Potential extend the area of wall wetness. The backing or inner
internal Wind wythe should not permit air leakage to occur, thus vents
suction
will not have to be oversized which could permit excess
rain penetration.
Inner wythe Metal tie
The changes in temperature change the dimension
Air and vapor Air space of all building materials. Several building materials
retarders
change dimension with moisture content. When
Sealant Flashing subjected to loads, materials will deform elastically.
Some materials with cement matrices will deform
plastically (creep) when loaded. The successful
performance of the pressure equalized rain screen wall
Vent
is due to the adequate allowance for deformation of
Sealant and materials and building movements. When naturally
backer rod occurring mov ements are not recognized and
Shelf angle accommodated for in the initial design, problems can
happen. The air and vapor retarders must not be
disrupted by building movements, whether it be
material generated mov ements or the building
movement as a whole.
FIGURE 9.85 Brick rain screen wall.
To prevent the passage of water and air without the exterior cladding is the driving force causing air to
limiting differential movement, sealing of movement enter the cavity. This pressure difference decreases
joints is required. The principal resistance to the as the air enters the cavity. The flow rate is proportional
passage of water through joints in exterior elements to the pressure difference and when the air flows into
is the sealant. A backing material and/or filler is needed the cavity, the flow decreases.
for all movement joints.
As shown in Figure 9.86, the wind pressure flowing
In a brick veneer or a cavity wall system, the rain around a building creates a distribution of positive and
screen wall equlized pressure will be subject to axial negative pressures over the building exterior cladding.
and lateral loads. For the rain screen wall to perform The lateral flow of air in the cavity will occur if the cavity
as intended, imposed loads must be taken into account of the rain screen wall is continuous, horizontally or
in the design of these new wall systems. Moisture vertically. The pressure equalization will not occur if air
leakage, thermal and air retarder performance must is permitted to flow laterally in the cavity. Moisture
also be considered in other environmental loads. The penetration into the wall assembly might not be reduced
pressure equalized rain screen principle may be when this occurs.
affected by several parameters. These parameters,
which are often interrelated, include: The cavity must be compartmented to prevent lateral
airflow. The size of the compartments should
• Rate of applied wind load, be based on the pressure differences across the exterior
• Magnitude of applied wind load, cladding. The greatest pressure differences are
experienced at the corners and tops of buildings,
• Cavity volume,
consequently, the compartments located in these areas
• Stiffness of the interior wall and the exterior should be small. The compartments can be larger where
cladding, pressure differences are small, such as near the center
• Compartmentation of the cavity wall and of the exterior cladding.
• Leakage areas of the air retarder and the
exterior cladding. Recommendations by designers are that these
compartments should be no more than 4 ft (1.2 m)
In theory, no wind load should be imposed on the parallel to tops and corners of the facade for a 20 ft
exterior cladding, which is an advantage of the pressure (6.1 m) wide perimeter zone as shown in Figure 9.87.
equalized rain screen wall, however, wind is dynamic
and variable so that the pressures applied to the wall There must be a series of openings to connect each
are constantly changing. The perfect rain screen wall cavity space to the exterior of the wall system to provide
would pressure equalize immediately. A pressure pressure equalization in the rain screen wall. The
difference occurs across the exterior cladding due to a openings should be placed at the top and bottom of
time lag between the imposed wind load and the each compartment. To avoid airflow loops in the cavity,
pressure equalization in the cavity. all openings at the top and bottom should be placed at
the same height.
In buildings, pressure differences from two main
sources have been encountered. The first is frequently No specific guidelines exist for the required amount
known as a stack effect which is created by temperature of openings for each compartment. The area of openings
differences between the exterior and the interior of the depends on the airtightness of other components of
building. The wind forces that are imposed on the the cavity, such as the air retarder system and the cavity
building envelope is the second. The pressure closures. The recommendation, if completely sealed
differences across a wall system at the top and sides compartment closures are used, is a 10:1 ratio for
may be a combination of both and is not the same for cladding air leakage to air retarder leakage.
all parts of the building envelope.
The cavity closures will not form an airtight seal of
The movement of air into the cavity causes pressure the individual compartments. Therefore, the required
in the cavity to increase and match the external pressure opening area should be larger. A proportion of 25 to 40
applied when positive pressure is applied to the exterior times more air flow volume through the openings in the
cladding. Depending on the volume of the cavity is the exterior brick wythe than air leakage through the interior
volume of air required to achieve pressure equalization. wall is recommended by some studies. Consequently,
When the cavity volume increases, the vent openings the less the area of openings in the exterior cladding
in the exterior brick wythe must be increased in order required for pressure equalization of the cavity, the
to permit more rapid pressure equalization. The tighter the compartment. Testing of a mock-up wall
pressure equalization. The pressure difference across compartment may be required to obtain the airtightness
Positive pressure on windward face
Opening
Exterior brick wythe
Cavity (Partially pressurized)
Interior wall
Potential leakage of water carried by

air leaking from pressurized cavity
Internal suction
Open cavity at corner defeats rain screen
Positive pressure on windward face
Cavity blocked with closed-cell com-

pressible filler bonded to outer wythe
Openings should be kept away

from corners of buildings
Dry air leak if air leak

is sufficiently small
Internal suction
Cavity with corner blocking; rain screen functions properly
FIGURE 9.86 Moisture movement caused by wind.
20 ft. perimeter zone at

rain screen compartments
@ every 4 ft.
20 ft. perimeter zone at rain

screen compartments @ every
20 ft. perimeter zone at rain
4 ft. (typ.)
screen compartments @
every 4 ft. (typ.)
Compartments every 10
ft. to 20 ft. from center
of facade in both
directions
Compartments every 10
ft. to 20 ft. from center of
facade in both directions
FIGURE 9.87 Compartmentation of rain screen walls.

value of the interior wall construction since little

information on the range of airtightness of several field- W indow
applied air retarder components is available. The
openings in the exterior cladding should be established
to fit the recommended ratio after having evaluated the
airtightness of the interior wall. Continuous sealant
around window
9.9.1.14 VAPOR AND AIR BARRIERS Electrical boxes
and other recesses
In the building industry, there has been a great deal in interior wall must
be properly sealed Condensation
of confusion about the functions of vapor and air
retarders. Vapor retarders control transmission of water Flashing should be set
vapor through building materials. A vapor retarder always in mortar on both sides
to prevent air leakage
serves as an air retarder. The amount of air flow through
wall assemblies is limited by the air retarders. An air
retarder may or may not serve as a vapor retarder.
Polyethylene film is commonly used as a vapor retarder
but will also act to resist the passage of air. Many
types of sheathing used as air retarders allow the
passage of water vapor. This can result in a common
problem wherein the wall system may have a two-stage
setup of retarders.
Adhesive (also relied
upon as vapor retarder)
In the wall assembly of actual construction,
moisture may become trapped between the air and vapor
retarder installations if both are provided at different
locations. The duration of wetness and the amount of
moisture of certain important elements may make the FIGURE 9.88 Sources of exfiltrating air move-
wall design vulnerable to premature deterioration and ment.
distress. There is potential for corrosion of metal
accessories, deterioration of sheathing materials and sealant or air voids between the sealant and adjacent
decrease in insulation capacity within the wall system. materials must be avoided. For proper installation, seal-
ant manufacturer’ s information should be followed.
When installing retarders, most difficulties occur
at wall openings. Several materials inserted in one The exterior cladding and air retarder applied to the
area can be complicated. Subsequent trades working interior wall will deflect under applied loads. Stiffness
in the area may break or puncture vapor retarders. of these elements will influence the volume of the cav-
Openings must permit field construction tolerances ity. This situation is very complex since these deflec-
which must be accommodated by field-fitting and sealing tions also vary as the pressure differences vary.
of the retarders. Furthermore, attention to details of
the air and vapor retarders can help reduce direct heat The airtightness of the exterior cladding with respect
loss and other negative effects due to infiltration of air to that of the air retarder applied to the interior walls is
movement within the wall system. The possibilities of vital for the cavity to equalize pressure with the exterior
exfiltrating air in wall construction are shown in Figure wind pressure. The pressure differences will not change
9.88. Air can circulate through spaces between studs if the two layers have similar air leakage characteristics.
and cells of masonry units and exit a leakage path to Each layer will transmit the same volume of air.
the exterior. A separate vapor retarder is not usually
required where the components of a building assembly 9.9.1.15 T HERMAL INSULATION
can be completely sealed to prevent air leakage and
the interior finish material provides the vapor resistance The components of the wall affect thermal
needed. resistance of the assembly and contribute to the overall
R-value. Insulation provides a significant amount of
Successful joint seal performance over the life of thermal resistance for masonry wall systems. The level
the structure depends on the capacity of the material to of insulation required must be chosen by the designer
adhere to the surfaces and to deform without tearing, as part of the tot al wall design with special
delaminating or peeling under repeated cycles of consideration given to geographical location and code
expansion and contraction. The air bubbles in the requirements.
Insulation type and location have an impact on the The brick arch is an example of form following
design and installation of the air and vapor retarders. function. The artistic application lies in many forms in
Possible locations for insulation include: which it can be used to express balance, proportion,
scale and character. The structural advantage results
• In the cavity, from the fact that under uniform loading, the induced
stresses are compressive. Since brick masonry has
• In the interior wall and greater resistance to compression stresses (as opposed
to tension stresses) the most efficient structural element
• On either face of the interior wall. to span openings is often the masonry arch.
Types of insulation used in drainage type walls Terminology for masonry arches is unique, but
include rigid board insulation, fiberglass (batt) well-defined. Methods of selecting the type and
insulation or loose fill. configuration of brick masonry arches most applicable
are presented with recommended material selection
Gaps between the insulation and the floor or ceiling and construction techniques.
must be eliminated. The insulation should be
continued above the ceiling to the bottom of structural 9.9.2.1 T ERMINOLOGY
slabs, with suspended ceilings or ceilings attached to
the bottom chord of joist construction. Air retarders During centuries of use, many arch forms have been
must be continued to the floor or roof above the developed, ranging from the Jack arch through the
suspended ceilings for the pressure equalization to Circular, Elliptical and Parabolic to the Gothic arch.
occur. The insulation may separate from the backing An arch is normally classified by the curve of its intrados
wall by air infiltration pressure if the retarder is not and functions, shape or architectural style.
continued. Proper abutment of the edges of the Jack, Segmental, Semicircular and Multicentered
insulation must be considered to minimize air circulation arches are the most common types used for building
from the interior of the building. arches. Figure 9.91 illustrates some of the many
different brick masonry arch types. Semicircular arches
are often used due to the natural structural efficiency
Insulation for very long spans and bridges.
Arches have developed a unique terminology

primarily due to the variety of components and elements.
Following is a glossary of arch terminology:
Abutment - The supporting wall or pier that receives

Vapor and air the thrust of an arch.
leakage through
gaps Arch - A curved or flat compressive structural member,
spanning openings or recesses.
Suspended ceiling
Back - A concealed arch carrying the backing of a
Air retarder wall where the exterior facing is carried by a lintel.
Blind - An arch whose opening is filled with

FIGURE 9.89 Leakage above suspended masonry.
ceilings.
Bullseye - An arch whose intrados is a full circle.
9.9.2 BRICK MASONRY ARCHES
Elliptical - An arch with two centers and continually
In the late 19th century, an arch constructed about changing radii.
the year 1400 B.C., was discovered in the ruins of
Babylon. This arch, built of brick and laid with clay Fixed - Masonry arches are fixed arches by nature
mortar, is perhaps the oldest known to man. Before of their construction.
the Christian era, the Chinese, Egyptians and others
also made use of the arch. In the Middle ages (1000 Gothic - An arch with relatively large rise-to-span
A.D. - 1500 A.D.), more elaborate arches, vaults and ratio, whose sides consist of arcs of circles, the
domes with complicated forms and intersections were centers of which are at the level of the spring line.
constructed by Roman builders.
Camber - The relatively small arch rise of a Jack arch.
Centering - Temporary formwork for the support of

masonry arches or lintels during construction.
Crown - The apex of the arch’ s extrados. In

symmetrical arches, the crown is the midspan.
Depth - The dimension of the arch at the skewback

which is perpendicular to the arch axis, except that the
depth of a Jack arch is taken to be the vertical dimension
of the arch at the springing.
Extrados - The curve which bounds the upper edge of

the arch.
FIGURE 9.90 Structural brick arches.
Intrados - The curve which bounds the lower edge of
Horseshoe - An arch whose intrados is greater than the arch. The distinction between soffit and intrados is
a semicircle and less than a full circle. that the intrados is a line, while the soffit is a surface.
Jack - An arch having horizontal or nearly horizontal Keystone - Wedge-shaped unit at the center or summit
upper and lower surfaces. of an arch or vault, binding the structure actually or
symbolically.
Major - An arch with spans greater than six feet.
Typical forms are Tudor arch, Semicircular arch, Label Course - A ring of projecting brickwork that forms
Gothic arch, or Parabolic arch. the extrados of the arch.
Minor - Arch with maximum span of six feet. Typical Rise - The distance at the middle of an arch between
f orms are Jack arch, Segmental arch, or the spring line and intrados or soffit.
Multicentered arch.
Multicentered - An arch whose curve consists of Skewback - The incline surface on which the arch joins
several arcs of circles which are normally tangent the supporting wall.
at their intersections.
Skewback Angle - The angle made by the skewback
Relieving - An arch built over a lintel, flat arch, or from horizontal.
smaller arch to divert loads, thus relieving the lower
member from excessive loading. Soffit - The exposed lower surface of any overhead
component of a building such as a lintel, vault, cornice,
Segmental - An arch whose intrados is circular but or an arch or entablature.
less than a half circle.
Span - The horizontal clear dimension between
Semicircular - An arch whose intrados is a half abutments.
circle.
Spandrel - A flat vertical face in an arcade bounded by
Slanted - A flat arch which is constructed with a the adjacent curves of two arches and the horizontal
key stone whose sides are sloped at the same tangent of their crowns.
angle as the skewback and uniform width brick and
mortar joints. Springing - The upper and inner edge of the line of
skewback on an abutment.
Triangular - An arch formed by two straight inclined
sides. Springer - The first voussoir from a skewback.
Tudor - A pointed, four-centered arch of medium Spring Line - A horizontal line which intersects the
rise-to-span ratio whose four centers are all beneath springing.
the extrados of the arch.
Voussoir - One masonry unit of an arch.
Venetian - An arch formed by a combination of Jack
arch at the ends and Semicircular arch at the
middle.
Jack Segmental Semicircular
Bullseye Horseshoe Multicentered
Venetian Tudor
Triangular Gothic
FIGURE 9.91 Arch types.

The arch will require support when it is not possible

Extrados Crown Keystone for an arch to perform structurally. One method of
supporti ng brick m asonry arches i n modern
construction is provided by a steel angle. The steel
angle is bent to the curvature of the intrados of the
arch. To form a continuous support, curved sections
Rise
of steel angle are then welded to horizontal steel angles.
Depth Skewback angle
The angle is attached to a structural member or bears
Spring line Skewback on the brickwork abutments behind the wall. When an
Intrados
Abutment
arch is supported by a steel angle, the angle is designed
Springing
Voussoir to support the entire weight of brick masonry loading
the arch and the structural resistance of the arch is
Span
neglected. Figure 9.93 illustrates an arch supported
by a curved steel angle.
FIGURE 9.92 Arch terms.

Flashing
Building paper overlapping
9.9.2.2 STRUCTURAL FUNCTION flashing
The structural function of an arch is to carry a load Soldier brick

by putting the material of the arch into compression.
Masonry is excellent in compression. As a result,
masonry arches have been constructed for centuries.
Adjustable
steel angle
In many different applications, the brick masonry
arch has been used to span openings of considerable
Arch span center line
length. Structural efficiency is natural to the curving of
the arch which transfers vertical loads laterally along
the arch to the abutments at each end. Transferring
vertical forces gives rise to both horizontal and vertical
Two-soldier course in
reactions at the abutments. The cause of a a short span arch
combination of flexural stress and axial compression
is the curvature of the arch and the restraint of the
arch by the abutments. Rise and configuration can be
manipulated by the arch depth to keep stresses
compressive. Brick masonry arches can support
considerable loads because brick masonry is very
FIGURE 9.93 Arch supported by curved steel
strong in compression. angle.
Arches have historically been constructed with 9.9.2.3 WEATHER RESISTANCE

unreinforced masonry. Brick masonry arches continue
In most applications of the building arch, water
to be built with unreinforced masonry while very long
penetration resistance is a concern. In the past, the
span arches and arches with a small rise may require
mass of a multi-wythe brick masonry arch was enough
steel reinforcement to resist tensile stresses. Also,
to resist water penetration. Wall sections that are
reduction in the supporting wall and the thickness of
thinner are now used to minimize material use for
the arch may require incorporation of reinforcement
economy and efficiency. The arch should provide an
for sufficient load resistance. Complicated arches may
efficient weather resistant facade. Several arch
be prefabricated to avoid the complexity of on-site
applications do not require provisions for water
shoring. Prefabricated brick masonry arches are
penetration and insulation. For example, arch arcades
usually reinforced. These arches are built off site and
and arches supported by porch columns typically do
transported to the job or built at the site. Cranes may
not contain a direct path for water migration to the
be used to lift the arch into place in the wall. The
interior of the building. If this is the case, provisions
fabrication, transportation and handling should be
for weather resistance need not be included in the arch
considered in the structural design of the arch.
design and detailing.
Preventing water intrusion at an arch in an exterior
building wall is just as important as at any other wall Flashing
opening. Resistance to water penetration can be Masonry backup
provided by using a barrier wall system or a drainage
End dam
wall system. A drainage wall system, such as a brick
veneer or cavity wall, is the most common brick
masonry wall system used today. In a cavity wall or in
brick veneer, the arch should be flashed with weep
holes provided above all flashing locations.
9.9.2.3.1 PROVIDING FLASHING AND WEEP HOLES

Installation flashing and weep holes around an arch
can be difficult. It is easy to install flashing with jack
arches due to the flat or nearly flat configuration.
Flashing should be installed below the arch and above
the window framing or steel angle lintel. Flashing Window trim
should extend a minimum of 4 in. (102 mm) beyond
the wall opening at either end and should be turned Weep hole at each
up to form end dams. Weep holes should be provided end of tray flashing
at both ends of the flashing and should be placed at a
maximum spacing of 24 in. (610 mm) on center along
the arch span, or 16 in. (406 mm) if rope wicks are FIGURE 9.95 Short span arches.
used.
Flashing may be bent along the curve of the arch
with overlapping sections if the arch spans are greater
Building paper than 3 ft (0.9 m). Figure 9.96 shows a combination of
overlapping stepped and typical flashing that can be used. To form
Stud at jamb flashing a step, the end nearest the arch should be turned up
Weep hole Interior to form an end dam, while the opposite end is laid flat.
sheathing A minimum of No. 15 building paper or equivalent
Exterior moisture resistant protection should be installed on
sheathing &
building paper
the exterior face of the backing over the full height of
the arch and abutments. The building paper or
equivalent must overlap the arch flashing.
4 in.
Flashing min.
Building paper overlapping flashing
End dam
Tray flashing
Mini
mum
1 Step flashing
/3 sp
an
FIGURE 9.94 Flashing a Jack arch.
Flashing and weep holes can be placed in the first

masonry course above the arch if it is constructed with Flashing
Arch span
reinforced brick masonry. center line
Weep holes at regular
Installation of flashing with other arch types, such spacing & at ends
as Segmental and Semicircular arches can be more Weep hole at end (typical)
difficult. This is because most rigid flashing materials
are hard to bend around an arch with tight curvature.
Exterior sheathing & building paper
One section of flashing can be placed in the first
horizontal mortar joint above the keystone if the arch
span is less than 3 ft (0.9 m), as shown in Figure 9.95. FIGURE 9.96 Long span arches.
W hen designing a structural masonry arch,

consideration of the effect of flashing on the strength
of the arch should be included. Flashing acts as a
bond break. The loading on the arch will likely be
increased, and the structural resistance of the arch
will be reduced if flashing is installed above the arch.
Installation of flashing at the abutments will affect the
structural resistance of the abutment and should also 8 in. (203 mm) arch
be considered.
9.9.2.4 DETAILING CONSIDERATIONS

The purpose of the brick masonry arch is to serve
as a structural element and also provide an attractive
architectural element to complement the surrounding
structure. Careful consideration should be given to
the options available for the arch, soffit and skewback.
For any successful arch design, proper configuration 12 in. (305 mm) arch
of the abutments and location of expansion joints must
be taken into account.
9.9.2.4.1 ARCH DETAILING

There are a variety of arch depths, brick sizes,
shapes and bonding patterns. The arch is usually
composed of an odd number of units for artistic
purposes. Figure 9.97 shows some of the more
common arch configurations.
16 in. (406 mm) arch
An arch that is typically laid in radial orientation
using brick of similar size and color to the surrounding
brickwork is the Arch voussoirs. The arch, however,
can be formed with brick which are thinner or wider
than the surrounding brickwork and of a different color
for variation. A different variation is to project or recess
rings of multiple-ring arches to provide shadow lines
or a ‘label course’ . Three course Jack arch
Arches are constructed with two different types of

brick masonry units. The first is tapered or wedge-
shaped brick. These brick are tapered in the
appropriate manner to obtain mortar joints of uniform
thickness along the arch depth. The second type of
unit is the uncut, rectangular brick. The mortar joints
are tapered to obtain the desired arch curvature when Four or five course Jack arch
rectangular brick are used. A combination of units is
used in a few cases. One example will be the slanted
arch which is formed with a tapered keystone and
rectangular brick. The slanted arch is similar to a Jack FIGURE 9.97 Typical arch configurations.
arch, but it is more economical since it only requires
one special-shaped brick.
traditional Jack arch or Elliptical arch, are all different.
On the other hand, the voussoirs of a Semicircular
Tapered or rectangular brick selection can be
arch are all the same size and shape. Arch types with
determined by the arch type, arch dimensions and by
a sufficient quantity of brick shapes and sizes should
the appearance desired. If uniform mortar joint
be special ordered from the brick manufacturer rather
thickness is desired some arch types require more
than cut in the field.
unique shapes and sizes of brick. The brick sizes and
shapes, from the abutment to the keystone in a
When selecting the arch brick, the arch span should aesthetics of an arch is subjective, there are no hard
also be addressed. For short arch spans, tapered brick rules for proportion. The following rules-of-thumb,
are recommended to avoid wide mortar joints at the however, will help provide an arch with proper scale.
extrados . Larger span arches require less taper of the The arch depth designed f or Segmental and
voussoirs and can be formed with rectangular brick and Semicircular arches should equal or exceed 1 in. (25.4
tapered mortar joints. Mortar joint thickness between mm) for every foot (305 mm) of arch span or 4 in. (102
arch brick should be a maximum of 3/4 in. (19.1 mm) mm), whichever is greater. In Jack arches, the arch
and a minimum of 1/8 in. (3.2 mm). Consideration should depth should equal or exceed 4 in. (102 mm) plus 1
be given to the use of very uniform brick that meet the in. (25.4 mm) for every foot (305 mm) of arch span or
dimensional tolerance limits of ASTM C 216, Type FBX, 8 in. (203 mm), whichever is greater. For example,
or the use of gauged brickwork when using mortar joints the minimum arch depth for an 8 ft (2.4 m) span should
thinner than 1/4 in. (6.4 mm). Determination of the be 8 in. (203 mm) for segmental arches and 12 in.
minimum Segmental and Semicircular arch radii (305 mm) for jack arches.
permitted for rectangular brick and tapered mortar joints
is shown in Table 9.2. Uniform thickness of mortar The Jack arch depth will also be a function of the
joints is more aesthetically appealing if tapered brick coursing of the adjacent brick masonry. The springing
are used. and the extrados of the Jack arch should coincide with
horizontal mortar joints in the adjacent brick masonry.
1
Usually, the depth of a Jack arch will equal the height
Table 9.2 Minimum Radius for Uncut Brick of 3, 4 or 5 courses of the surrounding brickwork,
Nominal Face Minimum depending upon the course height.
Dimensions Permissible
of Arch Brick, in. Radius of Arch The keystone may be a single brick, multiple brick,
(height by width) to Intrados ft. (m) stone, precast concrete or terra cotta. Avoid using a
(mm) keystone which is much taller than the adjacent
2
4 x 2 /3 (101.6 x 67.7) 3.3 (1.0) voussoirs. As a rule-of-thumb the keystone should
2
8 x 2 /3 (203.2 x 67.7) 6.7 (2.0) not extend above adjacent arch brick by more than
2
12 x 2 /3 (304.8 x 67.7) 10.0 (3.1) one-third of the arch depth.
2
16 x 2 /3 (406.4 x 67.7) 13.3 (4.1)
The use of a large keystone may have basis in
1
4 x 3 /5 (101.6 x 81.3) 4.0 (1.2) purpose and visual effect. The possible location of
1
8 x 3 /5 (203.2 x 81.3) 8.0 (2.4) the first crack when the arch fails, with most arch types,
1
12 x 3 /5 (304.8 x 81.3) 12.0 (3.7)
is at the mortar joint nearest to the midspan of the
1
arch. The use of a large keystone at this point moves
16 x 3 /5 (406.4 x 81.3) 16.0 (4.9) the first mortar joint further from the midspan and
4 x 4 (101.6 x 101.6) 5.2 (1.6) increases the resistance to cracking at this midspan
8 x 4 (203.2 x 101.6) 10.3 (3.1) point. A large keystone aesthetically adds variation of
scale and can introduce other masonry materials in
12 x 4 (304.8 x 101.6) 15.5 (4.7)
the facade for additional color and texture.
16 x 4 (406.4 x 101.6) 20.7 (6.3)
1 1
Based on /4 in. (6 mm) mortar joint width at the intrados and When the keystone is formed with more than one
1
/2 in. (13 mm) mortar joint width at the extrados. If the masonry unit, avoid placing the smaller unit at the
mortar joint thickness at the extrados is 3/4 in. (19 mm), divide
bottom. Small units are more likely to slip when the
minimum radius value by 2.
arch settles under load. Also, the arch crown (the top
of the keystone) should coincide with a horizontal
The depth of the arch will depend upon the size mortar joint in the surrounding brickwork to give the
and orientation of the brick used to form the arch. The arch a cleaner appearance.
arch depth should be a multiple of the brick’s width. A
mini mum arch depth f or st ructural arches is 9.9.2.4.2 SOFFIT DETAILING
determined from the structural requirements. Any arch
One attractive feature of a structural brick masonry
depth may be used if the arch is supported by a lintel.
arch is the brick masonry soffit. Several bonding
patterns and designs can be used to form the arch
Based on the scale of the arch in relation to the
soffit. Deep soffits are common on building arcades
scale of the building and surrounding brickwork the
or arched entranceways.
depth of the arch should also be detailed. The arch
depth should increase with increasing arch span to
provide proper visual balance and scale. Since
Building paper
& exterior
sheathing
Wall tie
Inside face
of wall Jack Arch Semicircular
Skewback Arch Skewback
Weep hole
Tray flashing Keystone
at arch crown
Wall tie
Keystone
Metal tie @ 24 in. Regular mortar joint thickness
(600 mm) max. Cant brick
along arch ring or
as required
Segmental
Brick masonry Arch Skewback
FIGURE 9.99 Skewback.
FIGURE 9.98 Structural arch soffit. The abutment at the springing should be cut or be
a special cant-shaped brick. This allows vertical
Arches on either wall face should be bonded to alignment with the brick beneath, producing more
the brick masonry forming the soffit. A bonding pattern accurate alignment of the arch.
or metal ties should be used to tie the brick masonry
forming the soffit together structurally and to tie the The intersection of the arches may occur at the
arches on either wall face to the soffit. If metal ties skewback when two arches are adjacent, such as with
are used to bond the masonry, corrosion resistant box a two-bay garage or building arcades. A vertical line
or metal wire ties should be placed along the arch span between arches should be avoided. A special shape
at a maximum spacing of 24 in. (610 mm) on center. brick can mesh the two arches properly.
The exterior wall face and the interior wall face of

the arch should be structurally evaluated at sections
through the soffit. Deeper soffits may require an
increase in arch depth. Connection of the brick
masonry forming the soffit to interior framing members
with wall ties or connectors may not be required if the
arch is structural.
9.9.2.4.3 SKEWBACK DETAILING

The most desirable spring line location coincides
with a bed joint in the abutment for flat arches and Special brick
Arch brick
arch types that have horizontal skewbacks, such as
Jack and Semicircular arches. For other arch types,
the spring line should pass about midway through a
brick course in the abutment to avoid a thick mortar
joint at the springing.
FIGURE 9.100 Intersecting arches.
9.9.2.4.4 ABUTMENTS joints, if the arch is non-structural, may be at the arch
crown and also at a sufficient distance away from the
An arch abutment may consist of a column, wall,
springline to avoid sliding. The location of an expansion
or combination of wall and shelf angle. Failure of an
joint at the arch crown is not preferred because it
abutment occurs from excessive lateral movement of
disrupts the traditional view of the arch as a structural
the abutment or exceeding the flexural, compressive
element. For suggested expansion joint locations for
or shear strength of the abutment. The lateral
structural and non-structural arches see Figures 9.101
movement of the abutment is due to the horizontal
and 9.102.
thrust of the arch. Thrust develops in all arches and
the thrust force is greater for flatter arches. The thrust
Horizontal expansion Do not place vertical expansion
should be resisted so that lateral movement of the joint or top of wall joint within shaded area
abutment does not cause failure in the arch. Rigidity
of the non-masonry structural member and rigidity of
the ties are important if the abutment is formed by a
combination of brickwork and a non-masonry structural
member. Adjustable ties, single or double wire ties are
recommended. Corrugated metal ties should not be Vertical
used in this application since they do not provide Vertical expansion
expansion joint joint
adequate axial stiffness.
Abutments
9.9.2.4.5 LATERAL STABILITY
Minimum
When designing a masonry arch, gravity and out- distances
determined by Base of
of-plane loads should be considered. The arch should abutment wall
have sufficient resistance to out-of-plane loads or resistance to
lateral bracing should be provided. Lateral bracing is arch thrust
provided by the backing through the use of wall ties in
veneer construction. To carry loads perpendicular to Structural Arch
the arch plane in addition to vertical loads, arches which
are not laterally braced may require increased masonry FIGURE 9.101 Expansion joints.
thickness or reinforcement.
9.9.2.4.6 EXPANSION JOINTS Do not place

vertical expansion Optional
The use of expansion joints control the thermal joint within shaded vertical
and moisture movements of brick masonry. Expansion region Expansion joint expan-
Horizontal spacing, typ. sion joint
joints minimize cracking of the brickwork and also at crown
expansion joint
reduce the size of wall sections. Reduction of wall or top of wall of arch
size has an important effect upon the performance of
structural brick masonry arches. The state of stress
in a structural brick arch and the surrounding masonry
is sensitive to the relative movements of the abutments.
The differential movement of abutments can cause
Vertical
cracking and downward displacement of brick in the expansion
masonry arch and surrounding masonry if an insufficient Vertical joint
number of expansion joints are provided. expansion Steel angle
joint Horizontal
Care should be taken not to affect the integrity of expansion
the arch by detailing expansion joints too close to the joint beneath
arch and its abutments when the arch is structural. steel angle
Vertical expansion joints should not be placed in the Minimum
distances
masonry directly above a structural arch. This area of
determined by
masonry is in compression, so an expansion joint will sliding resistance
cause displacement when centering is removed. Vertical along steel angle
expansion joints should not be placed in close proximity
to the springline. The expansion joint will reduce the Non-Structural Arch
effective width of the abutment and its ability to resist
horizontal thrust from the arch. Location of expansion FIGURE 9.102 Expansion joints.
The design of expansion joints can be difficult with 9.9.2.5.2 MORTAR

very long span arches or runs of multiple arches along
Mortar used to construct brick masonry arches
an arcade. The arch structural analysis should
must meet the requirements of ASTM C 270 Standard
consider the location of expansion joints. Vertical
Specification for Mortar for Unit Masonry. The designer
expansion joints, for the particular case of multiple
should also be aware of mortar limitations in more
arches closely spaced, should be detailed at a sufficient
critical Seismic Design Categories.
distance away from the end arches so that horizontal
arch thrusts are adequately resisted by the abutments
The flexural tensile strength of the masonry should
to avoid overturning of the abutments.
be considered when selecting the mortar for structural
arches. The flexural tensile strength of the masonry
Expansion joints for long arcades should also be
will affect the load resistance of the arch and the
placed along the centerline of abutments between
abutments.
arches. The effective abutment length should be
halved and the overturning of each half of the abutment
9.9.2.6 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKMANSHIP
should be checked so that horizontal thrusts from
adjacent arches will not be counteracting. The performance of a masonry arch relies not only
on quality materials, but also proper methods of
9.9.2.5 MATERIAL SELECTION construction and workmanship. The design of the arch
prior to construction will help avoid poor spacing of
The arch must be constructed with durable materials
voussoirs, which results in uneven mortar joints and
to provide a weather resistant barrier and maintain
unsymmetrical arches. Many applications of the
structural resistance. The strength of an arch depends
masonry arch require proper shoring and bracing
upon the compressive strength and the flexural tensile
during const ruct ion, howev er, sev eral arch
strength of the masonry. Selection of brick, mortar
applications, such as barrel vaults and domes, can be
and other materials should account for these properties
entirely self-supporting, even during construction.
in the design.
9.9.2.6.1 T EMPORARY SHORING
9.9.2.5.1 BRICK
Structural and non-structural arches should be
As with any brick system, hollow or solid clay units
properly supported throughout construction. Brick
may be used for the arch and surrounding brickwork.
masonry arches may be constructed with the aid of
Solid brick should comply with the requirements of
temporary shoring, termed centering, or permanent
ASTM C 216 Standard Specification for Facing Brick.
supports, such as structural steel angles.
Hollow brick should comply with the requirements of
ASTM C 652 Standard Specification for Hollow Brick.
Centering carries the weight of a brick masonry
The compressive strength of masonry is related to the
arch and the loads being supported by the arch until
compressive strength of the brick, the mortar type
the arch has gained sufficient strength. The term
and the applicable grout strength. Brick should be
“centering”is used because the shoring is marked for
sel ected wit h consideration of the requi red
proper positioning of the brick forming the arch and
compressive strength of masonry for structural arches.
usually centering is provided by wood construction.
The compressive strength capacity of the brick
masonry will not limit the arch design.
Careful construction of the centering will ensure a
more pleasing arch appearance and avoid layout
Special arch masonry units can be cut from
problems, such as an uneven number of brick to either
rectangular units at the job site or specially ordered
side of the keystone.
from the manufacturer. The designer should determine
the availability of special shapes for the arch type, brick
Immediately after placement the keystone a very
col or and texture desi red bef ore specif ying
slight downward displacement of the centering, termed
manufactured special arch shapes. Several brick
easing, can be performed to cause the arch voussoirs
manufacturers produce tapered arch brick for the more
to press against one another and compress the mortar
common arch types as part of their regular stock of
joints between the brick. Easing helps to avoid
special shapes. In some cases, production of special
separation cracks in the arch. Centering should not
shapes may require a color matching process and
be removed until it is certain that the masonry is
adequate lead time for the manufacturer. The
capable of carrying all imposed loads. Early removal
manufacturer’ s lead time may be as long as several
of the centering may result in collapse of the arch.
months.
Centering should remain in place for at least seven 9.9.3 BRICK PAVING DESIGN
days after construction of the arch. When the arch is
constructed in cold weather conditions or when The flexibility of brick paving ranges from a typical
required for structural reasons, longer curing periods flat walk approaching a single family residence to an
may be required. The structural resistance of the arch application of the steep, most crooked street in the
and the arch loading will depend upon the amount of United States, Lombard Street in San Francisco.
brick surrounding the arch, particularly the brick
masonry within spandrel areas. The correct time of
removal of centering for a structural arch should be
determined with consideration of the assumptions
made in the structural analysis of the arch. Before
removing the centering it may be necessary to wait
until the brickwork above the arch has also cured.
FIGURE 9.104 Brick paving at Lombard Street

in San Francisco.
FIGURE 9.103 Brick masonry arch.
Brick paving is classified by the type of base and
9.9.2.6.2 WORKMANSHIP the method of installation. Brick Pavers should
conform to ASTM C 902 Standard Specification for
In an arch, all mortar joints should be completely Pedestrian and Light Traffic Paving Brick or ASTM C
filled. All face shells and end webs must be completely 1272 Standard Specification for Heavy Vehicular
filled with mortar if hollow brick are used to form the Paving Brick. There are three primary types of bases:
arch. Brick masonry arches may be constructed with rigid, semi-rigid and flexible. There is also a suspended
the units laid in a soldier orientation. To lay units in a diaphragm base used for structural roof and floor
soldier position and also obtain completely filled mortar assemblies of buildings.
joints may be difficult, but not impossible. The use of
two or more rings of arch brick laid in rowlock orientation A rigid base uses a reinforced or unreinforced
can help ensure full mortar joints. concrete slab on grade (Figure 9.105). Either mortared
or mortarless brick paving can be laid on this base.
Reinforcement (if required) 4 in. compacted gravel
Min. 4 in. concrete slab 1

/2 in. to 1 in. sand bed
Bond break 15 lb. felt

3
/8 in. to 1/2 in. mortar setting bed Flexible brick paving
Rigid brick paving
Compacted soil
Compacted base FIGURE 9.106 Flexible base paving.

Compacted soil
9.9.3.1 T RAFFIC
FIGURE 9.105 Rigid base paving assembly. A brick paving assembly must support vertical traffic
loads (live load) plus its own weight (dead load). The
A semi-rigid base would typically consist of brick paving must resist abrasion from traffic. Vehicular
continuous asphalt. On this type of base only traffic may impart horizontal thrust to the paving
mortarless brick paving should be used and may be assembly from braking, acceleration and turning action
used for pedestrians areas such as malls or medium of wheels. Resistance is provided by the inter-locking
to heavy vehicular traffic. bond pattern of the pav ing assembly. Three
classifications of traffic are light, medium and heavy.
A flexible base consists of compacted earth
covered with gravel and sand, or a mixture of sand Light traffic - Residential pedestrian traffic, such
and cement (Figure 9.106). Brick pavers for flexible as on patios, walkways, porches, gazebos and
base should be at least 25/8 in. (67 mm) thick to reach pool areas.
a good interlock if used in heavy vehicular traffic. This
thickness is ideal for any chamfers or rounded edges, Medium traffic - Commercial pedestrian traffic,
which should not exceed 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) in depth or such as on city walkways, entranceways, shopping
width. Some brick pavers are made with spacers or malls and light residential vehicular traffic, such
lugs. The lugs are typically 1/8 in. (3 mm) providing an as residential driveways and parking lots.
even gap for the jointing sand. During compaction of
the pavers the lugs keep the paver edges from touching Heavy traffic - Commercial vehicular traffic, such
each other reducing the chippage of the pavers. When as on streets and commercial parking lots.
the pavers are subjected to heavy vehicular traffic, lugs
are necessary. 9.9.3.2 SITE
The site may range from a small residential patio
There are a number of issues that must be to a major urban renewal project. Successful
addressed in brick paving design, including: installations will depend upon proper subgrade design
and preparation. Remove all vegetation and organic
• site materials from the area to be paved. Areas containing
• traffic poor sub-base material should be removed and refilled
• drainage with suitable material which is properly compacted.
• brick material
• bond pattern 9.9.3.3 DRAINAGE
• other materials
• subgrade Surface and subsurface drainage are significant.
Exterior brick paving should be sloped at least 1/8 to 1/4
in. per foot (10 to 20 mm per meter). Large exterior
paved areas for malls and vehicular parking lots require
a greater slope. All paving should be sloped away 9.9.3.5 INSTALLATION
from buildings, retaining walls and other elements
There are three basic methods for installing brick
capable of collecting surface water.
paving with mortar joints.
Mortar joints are less durable than the brick units
The first method is by the conventional use of
and standing water should be avoided. The long
troweled mortar. For durability, type S or M mortars
dimension of the mortar joints should parallel runoff.
are recommended for use in brick paving, with type M
Mortarless pav ing requires bot h surf ace and
used in locations subject to freezing. Brick pavers are
subsurface drainage. A significant moisture problem
buttered with mortar and pushed into a leveling bed of
is upward capillary action rather than the downward
mortar. The joints between the units should be
drainage, particularly in areas with high water tables.
completely filled to maximize moisture penetration
A capillary break should be used, such as a layer of
resistance. The width of the mortar joints is typically
gravel, to prevent this upward flow of moisture. 3
/8 to 1/2 in. (9.5 to 12.7 mm). Joints should then be
Regions with relatively impervious soils, capable of
tooled with a concave jointer when mortar becomes
surface water retention, may require subsurface
thumbprint hard.
drainage systems.
Turf
Sand should not be placed directly over gravel.
Sand will sift into the voids of the larger granular
material when drainage occurs. An impervious Paver Top soil
membrane, such as geotextile fabric, can separate the
1”sand
two materials.
Pave edge
Compacted
9.9.3.4 EDGING aggregate base
Spike
A method of containment must be provided around
Compacted subgrade
the entire perimeter of the paved area to prevent
horizontal movement of mortarless brick paving units
and the base over which they are installed. This may
be a brick soldier curb set in concrete or mortar, or a
special edging manufactured specifically for the
FIGURE 9.108 Paver restraint system.
purpose of brick paving. Landscaping timbers or
railroads ties may serve as an edging material. An The second method involves placing each brick unit
existing concrete curb, building or retaining wall may on a mortar leveling bed with a 3/8 to 1/2 in. (9.5 to 12.7
also be used. mm) open space between the units. The space is filled
by pouring a fluid mixture of 1 part Portland cement
and 3 parts of sand between the units. This is easily
4 in. compacted accomplished by placing mortar using a grout bag.
gravel base When grout is poured into the joints, the units must be
2 layers of 15 lb. protected to facilitate cleaning since grout will smear
Expansion joint
building felt the units, or immediately cleaned using sponges and
1
/2 in. to 1 in. Weep holes ample clean water. The joints should also be tooled to
sand bed @ 16 in. o.c. a concave finish.
Gravel
Flexible brick
perimeter The third method uses a dry mixture of 1 part
paving
drainage
Portland cement and three parts sand. Brick pavers
are installed on a damp cement and sand cushion with
open joints between the units. The dry grout mixture
is swept between the paving units. After sweeping
excess material from the paving surface, the paving is
Compacted earth sprayed with a fine mist of water until the joints are
saturated. The pavement should be maintained in a
Soldier course
edging embedded
damp condition for a period of two to three days. Mortar
in concrete footing joints should be tooled.
FIGURE 9.107 Edge drainage.

9.9.3.6 STUCTURAL BRICK FLOORS Bri ck pav ers, like all materials, change
dimensionally with changes in temperature. A slip
Brick may also be used in self-spanning floor plane between pavers and a waterproofing membrane
systems by using some form of reinforcement. The may be placed to avoid disruption to the membrane.
system may stand alone, that is, use brick, mortar, For example, it may consist of a porous gravel cushion,
grout and reinforcement, or work in harmony with other asphalt impregnated protection board or other material
elements, such as concrete or wood systems. capable of withstanding both horizontal abrasive
movement and vertical traffic loading.
9.9.3.6.1 SUSPENDED DIAPHRAGM BASES
9.9.3.6.4 BRICK PAVING DESIGN ASSEMBLIES
Certain special design factors must be used to
minimize the risk of deterioration and to assure long The following illustrations show how brick paving
term performance on a roof deck or suspended plaza. can be adapted to suspended diaphragm bases of
A roof deck plaza application must be structurally various types. These support bases may consist of
sound, aesthetically appealing, durable and economical reinforced brick masonry slabs, reinforced concrete
to install. slabs, steel decking, and wood framing.
9.9.3.6.2 MOISTURE The assembly in Figure 9.109 is suitable for

exterior pedestrian traffic. The pea gravel percolation
To assure an effective moisture-resistant system, layer will permit rapid drainage, thus preventing
proper design and installation of a horizontal possible damage from freeze-thaw cycles of trapped
membrane is essential. water.
Adequate drainage is important to prevent damage

Liquid waterproofing membrane
to or displacement of pavers due to water and/or frost 1
/8”protection board
action. Sloping membranes in conjunction with porous
2”pea gravel
base layers permit water to percolate or run freely to
Closed cell polystyrene insulation
drains. Special all-level drains are available which will
Brick pavers
handle both pavement surface and subsurface water.
Consideration should be given to horizontal

differential movement between structural concrete slabs
and the waterproofing membrane. Built-up bituminous
membranes may have non-elastic properties. Seamless
liquid waterproofing and rubber sheet membranes are
typically elastic in behavior and are capable of adjusting
to differential movement that may occur in the
supporting base.
All level drain
9.9.3.6.3 T HERMAL CONSIDERATIONS
The thermal aspects of roof terraces are similar FIGURE 9.109 Brick drain.
to those of normal roofs. The position of roof insulation
is important relative to the temperature variation of 9.9.3.6.5 STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
each element in a paved roof assembly. Insulation
may be placed directly over a membrane. The structural design of the suspended base should
follow normal design procedures. As with any solid
Roof deck insulation should be a non-rotting, masonry, the dead weight of brick pavers should be
moisture resistant, closed-cell type of material capable considered when combined with other materials and
of retaining thermal resistance in the presence of water. design conditions, such as live loads, vibration and
Traffic loading may be supported on insulation impact from traffic. The dead weight of mortared or
materials in a deck assembly provided the insulation mortarless brick pavers may be taken at approximately
material is structurally adequate. 10 psf per inch of thickness for structural design
purposes. Brick pavers are available in various
thickness so their total weight will vary. The most
popular pavers are 15/8 in. (41.3 mm) to 21/4 in. (57.2
mm) thick, weighting approximately 16 to 22 psf (766
to 1054 N/m2), respectively.
Diaphragm action becomes important in order to designed to support a 50 psf (2.4 kN/m2) live load,
maintain the integrity of mortar joints for mortared spanning about 6 ft (1.8 m). Turning a unit on edge to
paving. The span for mortared paving should be limited increase the slab’s thickness, the design load capacity
to a deflection of l/600 for mortared paving and l/360 can be doubled (100 psf [4.8 kN/m2]) and the span
for flexible paving. increased to over 7 ft (2.1 m) using the same size hollow
brick and the same mortar.
9.9.3.6.6 REINFORCED CONSTRUCTION
9.9.3.6.7 BRICK ON SHEET STEEL FORMS
Reinforced brick paving can be used to span an
open space or over a fill which has the potential of uneven A corrugated sheet steel as a base is utilized as a
settlement. Reinforcement in the masonry can eliminate variation of reinforced brick construction. Reinforcement
the necessity for a separate reinforced concrete slab of masonry can provide an economical solution to the
or other rigid base. problem of constructing brick floors over open spans
while the steel serves as a form. Steel is placed near
Various types of reinforced brick masonry slabs, the top of the pavement in grouted mortar joints for
as shown in Figure 9.110, can support a wide range of continuous spans. Brick are placed on a bed of mortar
live load conditions. and vertical joints are filled with mortar or grout.
21/4 x 33/4 x 8 brick

d = 2.75”
21/4” 1/2” (actual size)
31/2”
/4”clear
3
41/2”
#2 @ each joint
51/2”
1
/4”clear
Top of mortar bed
Section A-A
d = 2.75”
31/2”
A
12”
#3 @ each cell
#4 gage transverse A
wires @ 41/2”o.c.
d = 5.5”
71/2”
F IGURE 9.111 Corrugated sheet steel-

reinforced brick masonry slab assembly.
12”
#4 @ each cell
9.9.3.6.8 HIGH-BOND MORTARED PAVEMENT
FIGURE 9.110 Reinforced brick masonry slabs. Installing rigid brick paving with high-bond mortar
may be more resistant to water penetration than paving
Reinforced brick masonry slabs are practical, with conventional mortars. The result of higher bonding
particularly over relatively short spans. For pedestrian characteristics between the mortar and brick unit
and vehicular traffic the reinforced brick masonry slabs causes this advantage.
may be capable of of satisfying design loading. 2006
IBC Table 1607.1 lists distributed and concentrated live Figure 9.112 shows an assembly suitable for
loads, most ranging from 50 to 100 psf (2.4 to 4.8 kN/ exterior pedestrian traffic and utilizes a bituminous
m2). A 21/4 in. (57.1 mm) thick hollow brick slab may be leveling bed.
Waterproofing membrane Steel decking

Rigid insulation
Gypsum or wood fiber board
1
/4”asphalt impregnated protection boards
3
/4”bituminous leveling bed with 2% Multilayered 15 lb. felt embedded in hot asphalt
neoprene tack coat
Closed cell polstyrene insulation
Brick pavers
Expansion joint Brick pavers
FIGURE 9.114 Brick paving on steel deck base.

FIGURE 9.112 Brick paving on reinforced
concrete slab. Figure 9.115 portrays an assembly suitable for
mortarless pav ing used in residential f rame
The assembly depicted in Figure 9.113, utilizing construction. The designer must consider the
conventional built-up roofing, can be easily adapted deflection of the wood frame support and the impact
to flexible brick paving suitable for outdoor pedestrian on brick paving.
traffic.
2 x _ solid bridging
Structural slab Wood joists
Cut back asphalt primer Plywood subfloor

2 layers 15 lb. roofing felt or
4 layers 15 lb roofing felt waterproof membrane
with 43 lb. coating felt
Brick pavers
Brick pavers
FIGURE 9.113 Brick paving on reinforced

concrete slab. FIGURE 9.115 Brick paving on wood framing
assembly.
The type of construction that may be designed as
a non-rated or rated fire resistive assembly is illustrated The assembly in Figure 9.116 is also suitable for
in Figure 9.114 which shows only the general material mortared paving used in residential frame construc-
composition. tion.
When care is exercised during brick installation
2 x _ solid bridging and mortar grouting, cleaning can be avoided or held
to a minimum. Mortarless installations should require
Plywood subfloor
a minimum amount of attention. During the installation
15 lb. roofing felt (waterproof
membrane) lapped 6” process burlap bags may be used to remove excess
/2”to 3/4”mortar bed
1 mortar. Use a cleaning solution if dry cleaning or
Brick pavers
hosing with water fails to flush the surface clean. The
use of strong acid solutions should be avoided
whenever possible. Strong acids can dissolve mortar
from the joints and kill grass and shrubbery. These
acids may also cause “ acid burn”discoloration on the
brick paving. Provide sufficient ventilation to dilute
the harmful effects of acid fumes when applied in
confined spaces.
Rigid or mortared paving should be allowed to set

FIGURE 9.116 Brick paving on wood framing in an undisturbed condition for a period of at least 3
days. Protect from staining and light impact loads
assembly.
through the use of large sheets of plywood or
hardboard. Until the masonry has adequately cured
9.9.3.6.9 DRAINS AND WATERPROOFING full service of the pavement should be avoided.
All level drains and waterproofing membranes should No curing time for flexible brick pavement is re-
be installed in strict accordance with the manufacturers’ quired. Spread damp sand in thin layers and permit
instructions and specifications for suspended decks the sand to dry before sweeping sand into the joints.
where control of surface drainage is required. Sand must be clean and free of clay to avoid surface
“scumming”of the finished paving.
9.9.3.6.10 INSULATION
Usually brick floors and pavements are abrasion
Figure 9.112 depicts insulation required to support resistant and hard wearing, therefore, coatings to
a specific design live load. The insulation must also be maintain surface appearance are not normally
capable of withstanding the temperatures transferred required. Coatings and waxes may be desirable on
through the protection board from the application of hot interior brick floors to enhance the appearance and
bitumen. make the surfaces easier to clean.
9.9.3.6.11 MORTAR 9.9.3.6.13 MAINTENANCE
High-bond and latex modified Portland cement Certain coatings on exterior brick pavement are
mortars may vary among manufacturers, therefore, not recommended, as they may cause an extremely
the instructions for installation should be carefully slippery surface when wet during cleaning or in a
followed. Mortar joints should be properly tooled when rainfall. Other coatings, such as non-slippery water
the mortar is thumb print hard. repellent sealants, may be beneficial for exterior
applications. For interior brick there are a few aspects
9.9.3.6.12 CLEANING to be considered before applying any type of coating.
When cleaning high-bond mortared pavement, A common historic practice of applying a sealer
cleaning should be done as soon as possible after the on brick paving prior to waxing has been satisfactory,
mortar joints have been allowed to cure. A surface however, sealer and wax must be checked for
applied bond breaker may be applied to the brick prior compatibility prior to final application.
to mortar application to assist in the cleaning process.
Sealers typically have two purposes:
Steam cleaning is eff ective in melting any
protective paraffin coating and lifting excess mortar. 1. To lock loose sand in the cracks, and
Drains should be protected from clogging during the 2. To provide a protective finish.
cleaning process. A visual inspection after cleaning
may reveal problem areas that require scraping or light
brushing with a stiff bristle brush. Do not use wire
brushes when cleaning masonry.
When a sealer is used, it should be tested on a to the masonry and may be a source of efflorescence.
small area and evaluated before full application. A Use clean sand on the affected area to render icy
compatible wax should be selected, preferably a water surfaces passable.
emulsion type which is recommended for brick floors.
Where a metal snow plow blade is used to remove
The floor surface should be dry before a coating snow, the blade should be rubber tipped or mounted
is applied. To determine the most economical and on small rollers and the blade edge should be adjusted
effective means for maintaining a brick floor, each to a clearance height suitable to the pavement surface.
maintenance situation, whether it be with a sealer and Needless chipping of the edges of the brick should be
wax or a synthetic sealer-finish material (spry-buffing avoided regardless of the method used.
process), must be judged on its own merit.
9.9.4 LANDSCAPING
Removing snow on large or small areas of brick
pavement should not present any particular problem. In landscape architecture brick plays an ever-
To preserve the character of the brick there are growing role. Since it is made of natural earth materials
precautionary measures that can be taken. Avoid the and available in a multitude of colors that are
use of chemicals and “ rock”salt that aid in melting harmonious with nature, brick is an ideal landscape
ice. Using these materials will introduce soluble salts material. The designer is not limited in creativity when
using bond patterns of brick in an imaginative way.
Figure 9.117 illustrates a few basic patterns.
Running bond Basket weave or parquet Diagonal running bond
Stack bond Diagonal herringbone Octagon and dot
Stack bond Herringbone Roman cobble
FIGURE 9.117 Brick paving patterns.

9.9.4.1 STEPS
The flexibility of small brick units often provides

solutions to difficulties when constructing brick steps
on a slope. The individual brick units permit flexibility
of design, such as adjustments of tread and riser
dim ensions, and t he construction of curv es.
Manuf acturers may stock brick speci f ically
manufactured for steps.
FIGURE 9.120 Screen wall.
9.9.4.4 GARDEN WALLS

Several types of brick garden walls with new
variations are constantly being created. Garden walls,
like screen walls, are typically used to separate areas
and are commonly used to define boundaries.
FIGURE 9.118 Brick steps.
9.9.4.2 PLANTER BOXES

Interior or exterior brick planters may be
constructed in a wide variety of designs. They protect
decorative plants from animals and facilitate elevated
gardening.
FIGURE 9.121 Garden wall.
9.9.4.5 FOUNTAINS
Often, designers avoid the use of brick in
combination with water for fear of deterioration of the
masonry. There are, however, many examples of
successful brick projects with water including waterfalls
FIGURE 9.119 Planter boxes. and fountains.
A succesful fountain will contain some key design

9.9.4.3 SCREEN WALLS
features. The most important is to reduce or eliminate
Brick screen walls offer beauty as well as privacy the saturation of brick particularly during freezing
without loss of light or air. A brick screen wall may be weather. The fountains or pools must be drained of
used to conceal undesirable views and items and can water during cold weather. To drain rain or melting
provide a handsome separation between areas. snow, all brick surfaces must be sloped.
Normally, mortar will deteriorate first in a brick wall.

Portland cement-lime mortar with a latex additive is
more durable and aids in bonding the brick which
minimizes moisture penetration.
FIGURE 9.122 Fountains.
9.9.5 FIREPLACES AND CHIMNEYS

For thousand of years fire has been a focal point of
human existence. Fire offers warmth in cold weather,
cooks food, and provides light in darkness. Fireplaces
also serve as social gathering points for friends and
families.
The chimney can be a dominant, interesting

architectural feature on the exterior of a home. As such,
a well designed home needs a fireplace and chimney FIGURE 9.123 Chimneys.
that are aesthetically and architecturally pleasing as
well as effective and energy efficient.
The well-designed fireplace not only adds to the

beauty of a home, but also adds interest while in use.
Fireplaces and chimneys are important elements in
the design and construction of a home. Whether in
the living room or recreation room, the fireplace in the
home is a central feature around which to entertain
friends and enjoy good times.
There are several types of fireplaces used in

residential construction. The most frequently used is
the single face fireplace. This is a fireplace in which
the firebox faces the room and is in the same plane as
the wall. A variation of the traditional fireplace is the
Rumford fireplace which is a single-face fireplace,
featuring widely splayed sides, a shallow back and a
high opening. Recent performance tests indicate that
the heat projected in the room from a Rumford fireplace
is very high.
Multi-face fireplaces may have adjacent, opposite,

three or even all faces open to one or two rooms.
FIGURE 9.124 Rumford fireplace.
Quite frequently rooms lend themselves to locating
fireplaces in a corner to enhance a particular room.
FIGURE 9.127 Corner fireplace.
A functional fireplace makes a house into a home,

as it is difficult to imagine warming up to a forced air
outlet or a clanking radiator in the same manner as
cozying up to the amiable warmth of the hearth.
Many chimneys and fireplaces are built with

common brick or block and are given a special
architectural appearance with a veneer stone, brick,
marble or other selected material. The application of
veneer material to the fireplace or chimney must follow
FIGURE 9.125 Three face fireplace (long front, applicable building code requirements.
short sides).
FIGURE 9.126 See-thru or double view

fireplace.
FIGURE 9.128 Fireplace opening with an arch.
9.9.6 MASONRY HEATERS gases circulate through a maze of brick units before
being sent up the chimney. The heated mass is an
For centuries, throughout Europe and in nearly every efficient heat sink that absorbs the heat energy, evenly
region of the world, masonry heaters have been used distributes it throughout its mass by means of the
to heat rooms. Masonry heaters differ from an open flowing combustion gases through the winding flues that
face fireplace. There are many different styles, usually absorbs much of the heat energy before the combustion
named for the country of origin, such as Russian, gases are released to the chimney.
Finnish and German.
9.9.7 PARAPETS
Parapets are walls built up higher than the roof line.

They can give added visual height to the building or
may hide HVAC units or elevator service enclosures.
3 In the event of fire, parapets are required in some code
jurisdictions to separate roof sections.
11
Brick parapet walls are usually not suggested

13 2 since problems associated with differential movement,
anchoring and moisture penetration require special
10
design consideration. If parapets are required on
masonry walls, they should be constructed of
reinforced masonry only. Stud walls should not form
the parapet support for a brick facia.
13
9 4
12
5
7
6
1
1. Ashbox 7. Smoke Chamber

2. Bypass Damper 8. Firebox FIGURE 9.130 Parapet.
3. Capping Slab 9. Firebox Door
4. Chimney 10. Heat Exchange Area
5. Clean-Out 11. Shut-Off Damper 9.9.8 CORBELS AND RACKS
6. Combustion Air 12. Grate
13. Expansion Joint Corbeling and racking respectively, are projecting
and recessing successive courses of masonry. Both
may be used to accomplish a desired aesthetic effect,
FIGURE 9.129 Finnish or contra-flow brick increase or decrease wall thickness or create a
masonry heater. structural support.
Structural limitations set by the building codes must

Masonry heaters use the same burning material
be met and designers must ensure that the corbel does
as a fireplace, that is, wood is burned in a combustion
not exceed certain limitations. Moisture penetration
chamber. The principles used in a masonry heater differ
problems may occur if corbelling or racking allows
from an open fireplace where heat escapes through the
cores or cells to be exposed in the masonry. Non-
chimney and only a small amount of heat is radiated
cored units are often specif ied so that cores
into the room. The primary difference is that the hot
There are a variety of methods of installing thin
brick units. For example, thin brick units may be
adhered directly to concrete block masonry or
concrete, as shown in Figure 9.132. Another procedure
involves bonding thin brick to a concrete block masonry
or concrete with surface preparation.
FIGURE 9.132 Thin brick veneer.

FIGURE 9.131 Corbeling.
Thin brick functions as an architectural wall covering
and also provides protection to the material over which
will not be exposed. (Note that solid units are defined
it is applied. Thin brick has less fire resistance, sound
as at least 75% solid in the plane of the bearing surface,
resistance, structural strength, thermal mass and
therefore a defined ‘ solid’unit may be cored).
insulation properties, but virtually the same aesthetic
qualities as conventional brick masonry.
9.9.9 THIN BRICK VENEER
Thin brick veneer units are approximately 1/2 to 11/4 Architects often prefer a raked joint for aesthetic
in. (12.7 to 31.8 mm) thick and similar in appearance appeal. Although this method accents the brick, the
to face brick. The materials used to form thin bricks system performance is usually marginal since water
are shale and clay and are kiln-fired. The appearance has direct access to the bond between the thin brick
of a thin brick wall is that of a conventional brick masonry and substrate, and subsequently, may cause bond
wall, since face sizes are normally the same as failure of the thin brick. An alternate method that
conventional brick. performs extremely well is to apply a colored concave
tooled mortar joint between the thin brick. This will
Thin brick are produced in various colors, sizes accent the individual brick and at the same time
and textures. The color for thin brick units are as substantially increase the moisture barrier.
unlimited as those for other fired clay brick. The most
typical face size is the standard modular with nominal 9.9.10 BRICK SCULPTURE
dimensions of 22/3 in. by 8 in. (67.7 mm by 203 mm).
Egyptian artisans experimented with brick
The color of kiln-fired brick depends on several factors,
sculpture more than 5,000 years ago and the
such as:
Babylonians mastered it more than 2,500 years ago.
Ancient brick sculptures have also been found in China
• Intensity of firing
and Mexico.
• Duration of firing
• Composition of raw materials
The brick used in brick sculptures add a touchable,
• Introduced additives
human dimension to images due to its texture, warmth
and rich colors. Even in exterior and high traffic
Thin brick texture depends on methods used by
environments, brick’ s permanence assures the
the manufacture and the surface treatment used prior
durability of the work. One of the most attractive
to firing. Glazed thin brick units can also be provided
attributes is that brick sculpture acts as a harmonious
by some manufacturers.
extension of the brick buildings on which they appear. • into a transmitted path through the barrier
Used in conjunction with fine architectural detail the • over a reflected path away from the residential
art becomes part of the building, and the building or commercial area
becomes part of the art to make a project stand out.
Sound can be reduced to tolerable levels by
The design is the first step in creating a brick changing different parameters, such as height and
sculpture. The design process starts with an idea, or mass of the wall. Brick aids in the reduction of the
several ideas, then the architect and sculptor work noise since it is a massive material.
together to create a final design. Each idea is studied,
and after a process of elimination, one is chosen and
developed into a working design. The sculptor then
carves the design into the unfired clay brick. The brick
is coded for reassembly at the jobsite after the carving
is completed. The method of firing used in the carved
brick is the same used in the other brick. The brick
shrinks an amount approximately equal to one mortar
joint during the firing. The reassembly of the units
with mortar joints without distortion of the design is
allowed by this shrinkage.
FIGURE 9.134 Sound barrier wall.
9.10 CLEANING
There are two prominent methods of cleaning both
new and old masonry. One is using an abrasive
blasting technique commonly called sandblasting. This
method is popular for Europeans who prefer to
maintain a historic look on their buildings. They are
very sophisticated with equipment and workmanship,
and perform an excellent job cleaning masonry.
FIGURE 9.133 Brick sculpture. The American method prefers using cleaning
agents as a basis for cleaning masonry. Historic
9.9.11 SOUND BARRIER WALLS masonry, which is far younger than European historic
masonry, can be returned to the pristine, new look
Public awareness of noise pollution mandated
using specialized masonry cleaning solutions.
some modification of highway boundaries. Sound
Technology continues to advance the cleaning agents
barrier walls are part of the solution with brick sound
offering different products for the various colors and
barrier walls contributing a share Providing an
textures of brick masonry.
aesthetically pleasing appearance, brick sound barrier
walls reduce noise. The use of brick in this application
The final appearance of new masonry is highly
provides a human scale not found in other materials.
dependent on how clean the brick is maintained during
construction and the efficiency by which the brick is
When strategically located between the traffic
cleaned after construction. Ideally, the mason will clean
noise and the adjacent residential or commercial
the brick as the work progresses, but there is always
properties, sound barrier walls effectively distribute
some mortar debris left on the brickwork that should
noise:
be cleaned.
• into different paths
• into a diffracted path over the top of the barrier
Although not practical on many commercial When the brick construction is complete, the
projects, a simple washing with a garden hose and a project may require a general cleaning. When this is
fiber brush shortly after the end of the workday is a necessary, the brick should be cleaned as soon as
highly effective method of keeping the completed brick practical, but not less than seven days, after the
clean. Typically, the bricklayer will make an effort to brickwork is finished. The method of cleaning and the
clean major mortar stains and droppings as the work cleaning agents should be the least required to
progresses. Taller brick walls will accumulate mortar minimize the potential of irreversible texture and color
droppings as the work progresses and these are impact on the brick. When possible, water alone is
cleaned at the end of the project. Water blasting will the preferred cleaning method.
normally remove these minor droppings in an effective
manner. Bef ore cleani ng the brickwork, t he brick
manufacturer should be consulted for recommendations
The contractor may be able to construct the scaffold on materials and methods effective in cleaning the brick.
far enough away from the wall to mitigate the mortar Such consultation will help in refining the general
droppings that attach to the wall. Scaffold plank should methods and recommendations given in Table 9.3.
be kept reasonably clean to minimize the mortar debris
that will potentially come in contact with the wall. The cleaning agents should never dry on the brick
Protection at the base of the wall will also keep the masonry surface. This is an issue that is particularly
mud and mortar spatter to a minimum and attention important in hot weather. Hot weather cleaning may
must be given to the rainy season, where rain splatters require additional personnel to keep water on the wall
will spray the debris on the base of walls if unprotected. during the cleaning process, or coordination of cleaning
in small or shady areas.
When the brick are laid, a diligent mason will use
the trowel to capture protruding mortar and finish the Cleaning should be done when the temperature
joints in the appropriate manner. After the joints are is at least 50°F (10°C). This assures that the cleaning
tooled, excess mortar can be cut away with a trowel agents will be effective in the cleaning process. Always
or brushed away with a non-metallic brush. Using a test the cleaning process on a small, inconspicuous
sponge with clean water on a very dense brick may be panel before the overall cleaning process.
an effective cleaning method.
Table 9.3 Cleaning Guide for Brick Masonry

Brick Category Cleaning Method Comments
Water is the preferred method of cleaning. Specialty
Hand Cleaning (Bucket & Brush)
detergents are available for specific application.
Consult manufacturer’ s data for appropriate application
Red/Red Flashed High Pressure Water Blasting
of cleaning agents.
Abrasive blasting can permanently alter texture.
Abrasive Blasting
Abrasives other than sand are available.
Water is the preferred method of cleaning. Specialty
detergents are available for specific application.
Consult manufacturer’ s data for appropriate application
Light Colored Units
of cleaning agents. Muriatic acids solutions may cause
(White, Tan, Buff, Gray, High Pressure Water Blasting
stains in brick with manganese and vanadium. Light
Pink)
colored brick are susceptible to acid burn and staining.
Abrasive Blasting
Abrasive blasting can permanently alter texture.
Abrasives other than sand are available.
Use clean water and non-metallic brush. Stubborn
Light Colored Units with Hand Cleaning (Bucket & Brush)
stains may require a specialty cleaning solution.
Sand Finish
Abrasive blasting is not recommended,
Clean daily with sponge and ample clean water. If
necessary, polish with soft cloth. May also be cleaned
Glazed Units
using water blasting using care not to clean at high
Pressure Water Blasting
pressures that will permanently damage the texture.
splatters and smears become increasingly

difficult to remove.
 Remove larger mortar debris prior to general

cleaning. Avoid the use of metal tools, although
scraping mortar debris off with a masons trowel
is acceptable.
 Determine the appropriate cleaning agent and

test on a sample panel. Avoid the use of
muriatic acid which may cause staining and
acid burning.
 Protect other materials and vegetation. Metals

are sensitive to acids and must be protected.
FIGURE 9.135 Brick masonry restored by
cleaning.  Use sufficient water for the job. Most cleaning
agents require the wall to be wet prior to
application and thoroughly flushed to rinse the
agent from the wall.
Abrasive cleaning may have permanent effects on

the texture and color of the brick and is not
recommended. Infrequently, abrasive blasting may be
preferred and should only be performed by an individual
with adequate experience and skill to perform the work.
Often, designers believe that a ‘ light’sandblast is
appropriate for brick masonry, however, a ‘ brush
sandblast’ , which is less aggressive than a light
sandblast should be utilized. Also, soft abrasives should
be considered.
9.11 REINFORCED GROUTED

BRICK MASONRY
FIGURE 9.136 Power washing brick. Structural brick masonry structures in seismic
regions must be reinforced to withstand lateral forces
One issue that occurs on many projects is the during seismic activity.
coordination of cleaning the brickwork. Naturally, the
primary contractor prefers to wait as long as possible Reinforced masonry has high dampening and
before cleaning the brick so that it will be pristine when energy absorption characteristics. Reinforcing steel
the project is complete. Waiting too long can cause improves the ductility and toughness of the masonry
major difficulties since a cleaning agent containing acid system and holds a building together. With proper
may be required. If the cleaning is performed after the design and construction, the reinforcement will transmit
landscaping is in place, then there are significant issues forces to adjacent elements that will carry the forces to
of protection. the ground.
The cleaning procedure should consider the Additionally, reinforced masonry performs well
following: because the materials; steel, masonry, grout, and
mortar, work together as a single structural unit. The
 Coordinate the schedule for cleaning. Cleaning temperature coefficients for steel, mortar, grout and
should always be performed when the masonry units are similar allowing the different
protection requirements are minimal. Wait at component materials to act together through normal
least seven days for the mortar to sufficiently temperature ranges. Thus, disruptive stresses are not
cure and clean within one month of the generated by temperature changes which would destroy
completed brickwork. After one month mortar the bond and force transfer between the reinforcing steel
and the grout.
Additionally, reinforced masonry materials work
together as a unit because the reinforcing steel is
locked into the masonry system. This mechanism is
developed through the grout.
Vertical reinforcement
Metal ties
The design and construction of any building with
seismic exposure must take into consideration Brick wall
connections to adjacent structural systems. If
connections hold together and make the structure Foundation
dowels
perform as a total system the structure will not only
surv iv e but also f unct ion, ev en after major
earthquakes. Wire mesh or reinforcement
6” 5 /2”
1
Slab on grade
Details of reinforcing bar size and spacing is
Finish
dependent on engineering requirements. All grade
connections must be satisfactory to transmit the forces
12”
due to the lateral and vertical loads. The elements
must be sufficiently tied together to act as a unit. 2 - #5
continuous
typ.
3”clear
Following are typical reinforced grouted brick
masonry wall details: 12”
Typical dimensions
FIGURE 9.138 Continuous footing, exterior

wall slab on grade with a curb (Rectangular shape).
Metal ties
Brick wall
Foundation
dowels Metal ties
Wire mesh or reinforcement
Slab on grade Brick wall
6”
Finish
grade Foundation
dowels Wire mesh or
reinforcement
Slab on grade
6”
Finish
24”
grade
12”
2 - #5’
s
continuous
24”
typ.
3”clear
12”
12”
24” 2 - #5’
s
continuous
Typical dimensions typ.
3”clear
6” 12” 6”
FIGURE 9.137 Continuous footing, exterior 24”

wall slab on grade (L shape).
Typical dimensions
FIGURE 9.139 Continuous footing, exterior

wall slab on grade (T shape).
Vertical
Metal ties reinforcement
Brick wall
Foundation dowels
Wire mesh or
reinforcement
Slab on grade
16”
2 - #5
continuous typ.
3”clear
16”
Typical dimensions
FIGURE 9.140 Continuous footing, interior wall slab on grade (Rectangular shape).
1 - #4 nosing bar
12”
1”
71/2”
Wire mesh or
reinforcement
4”
FIGURE 9.141 Concrete steps on grade masonry side walls.

Concrete steps
#4 nosing bar bend

18”into wall
Brick wall
Finished grade
12”
2 - #5’
s
continuous typ.
3”clear
16” Typical dimensions
FIGURE 9.142 Concrete steps on grade masonry side walls.
2 x 4 @ 16”o.c. 2 x 4 @ 16”o.c.
16d @ 4”o.c. 2 x 4 plate 16d @ 4”o.c. 2 x 4 plate
Concrete slab Lightweight concrete Concrete slab Lightweight concrete
on grade on grade
5
/8”plywood
5
/8”plywood
2 x 12
floor joist
2 x 12
blocking @
48 “o.c.
Barrier membrane
6 x 65/16”@ 48” Barrier membrane
o.c. w/13/4” Anchor bolt
6 x 65/16”@ 48” Anchor bolt
diameter bolt
o.c. w/13/4”
each leg
Vertical reinforcement diameter bolt
each leg Vertical reinforcement
Metal ties Brick wall

Metal ties
Brick wall
Typical dimensions
Typical dimensions
FIGURE 9.143 Masonry wall and wood floor
connection at grade (Joist perpendicular). FIGURE 9.144 Masonry wall and wood floor
connection at grade (Joist parallel).
Brick wall w5 x steel column
Brick wall Horizontal

C Vertical
#3 ties @ 16”o.c.
reinforcement reinforcement
- 6”
1’
Vertical Vertical #5 dowels x 30”
reinforcement long @ 48”o.c. Isolate steel
reinforcement
stagger weld column from grout
bars to column
Brick 1’
- 8”
pilaster
Typical dimensions
Brick wall 5
/8”diam. anchor
bolts @ 48”stagger
#3 ties @ 16”o.c.
Vertical
reinforcement
C w8 x steel column
Vertical reinforcement 16”square brick column
Typical dimensions
Brick wall #5’s @ 24”o.c.
x 6’- 0”typ.
2 sets of #3 ties @ 16”o.c.
Vertical
6 vertical bars 16”square brick column reinforcement C
Typical dimensions
FIGURE 9.145 Brick masonry pilaster and F IGURE 9.146 Brick masonry wall and
columns (Plan sections). concrete column steel (Plan sections).
Metal ties Metal ties
Vertical reinforcement Vertical reinforcement

Metal strap Metal strap
2 x _ blocking
2 x _ @ 16”o.c. 2 x _ @ 16”o.c. @ 48”o.c.
4 x _ ledger w/ 3/4”
anchor bolts @ 48”o.c.
Anchor bolt
Joist hanger Brick wall
4 x _ ledger w/ 3/4”bolts @ 48”o.c.

FIGURE 9.150 Interior wall, joist parallel to
Brick wall
wall 4 x _ ledger, metal tie straps, no lightweight
concrete.
F IGURE 9.147 Exteri or w all, joi st
perpendicular to wall 4 x _ledger, metal tie strap, 2 x _ continuous
blocking 2 x _ @ 16”o.c.
no lightweight concrete.
Metal ties
Metal strap Angle 6 x 6 x 5/16”
@ 48”o.c. w/ 3/4”
Anchor bolt
diam. bolt each leg
Vertical
2 x _ blocking
reinforcement
@ 48”o.c.
2 x _ @ 16”o.c.
Anchor bolt
4 x _ ledger w/ 3/4”bolts @ 48”o.c.
Brick wall
F IGURE 9.151 Exterior wal l, rafters
perpendicular to wall, roof overhang clip angle
rafters to wall.
FIGURE 9.148 Exterior wall, joists parallel to
wall 4 x _ ledger, metal tie straps, no lightweight
concrete. 2x_@ 2 x _ blocking
16”o.c.
Metal ties
Metal strap Angle 6 x 6 x 5/16”@
48”o.c. w/ 3/4”
diam. bolt
Anchor bolt
each leg
2x_@ Joist hanger
16”o.c. 4 x _ ledger w/ 3/4”
anchor bolts @ 48”o.c. Metal ties Brick wall
Brick wall
F IGURE 9.149 I nterior wall , jo ist

perpendicular to wall 4 x _ ledger, metal tie straps, FIGURE 9.152 Exterior wall, rafters parallel
no lightweight concrete. to wall, roof overhang clip angle rafters to wall.
2 x _ continuous
blocking
Metal ties Metal decking

Vertical Lightweight concrete
2 x _ rafters reinforcement
Angle 6 x 6 x 5/16” Anchor bolt

@ 48”o.c. w/ 3/4”
diam. bolt each leg Vertical Brick wall
reinforcement
Metal ties Brick wall #5 dowels W __ x steel beam

@ 24”o.c.
24” 36” Plate embedded
in masonry
F IGURE 9.153 Exterior wal l, rafters

perpendicular to wall sloped roof.
FIGURE 9.156 Exterior wall, metal decking
parallel to wall, decking supported by steel beams.
2 x _ blocking 2 x _ @ 16”o.c.

Vertical Lightweight
reinforcement concrete
Angle 6 x 6 x 5/16”@
48”o.c. w/ 3/4”
Anchor bolt
diam. bolt each leg
Brick wall
Vertical
reinforcement #5 dowels
@ 24”o.c. W __ x steel beam
Metal ties
Brick wall 24” 36”
Plate embedded
in masonry
FIGURE 9.157 Exterior wall, perpendicular

F IGURE 9.154 Interior wal l, rafters
metal decking to wall, decking supported by steel
perpendicular to wall. beams.
2 x _ @ 16”o.c. 2 x _ blocking

reinforcement concrete
Angle 6 x 6 x 5/16”
Anchor bolt
@ 48”o.c. w/ 3/4”
diam. bolt each leg Brick wall
Vertical
reinforcement
Light metal steel
Metal ties #5 dowels joist
Brick wall
@ 24”o.c.
in masonry
FIGURE 9.155 Interior wall, rafters parallel FIGURE 9.158 Exterior wall, metal decking
to wall. parallel to wall.

Vertical Lightweight concrete reinforcement concrete
reinforcement
Brick wall
Brick wall
Plate embedded
in masonry
#5 dowels
#5 dowels @ 24”o.c.
@ 24”o.c. 24” 36”
24” 36”

parallel to wall.
perpendicular to wall.

Lightweight concrete reinforcement concrete
Vertical
reinforcement
Brick wall
Brick wall
Plate embedded
#5 dowels in masonry
#5 dowels @ 24”o.c.
@ 24”o.c. 24” 36”
in masonry

FIGURE 9.160 Exterior wall, metal decking perpendicular to wall.
parallel to wall.
Metal ties
/2”diam. @ 24”o.c.
1
Vertical
Metal ties Metal decking reinforcement Metal decking
Lightweight concrete Lightweight
Vertical Brick wall
concrete
reinforcement
Brick wall
#5 dowels
#5 dowels @ 24”o.c. L 31/2”x 31/2”x 3/8”
@ 24”o.c. 24” 36” w/ 3/4”anchor
24” 36” Plate embedded in
bolts @ 32”o.c.
masonry
FIGURE 9.161 Exterior wall, metal decking FIGURE 9.164 Interior wall, metal decking
perpendicular to wall. parallel to wall.
Metal ties
1
/2”diam. @ 24”o.c. Concrete slab
Vertical
reinforcement Metal decking
Lightweight
Brick wall
concrete
L 6”x 4”x 5/16”

w/ 3/4”anchor
L 4”x 5/16”x 1’- 0” bolts @ 48”o.c.
w/ 3/4”anchor slot bolt holes in
bolts @ 48”o.c. vertical legs
#5 dowels @ slot bolt to
24”o.c. L 31/2”x 31/2”x 3/8” masonry wall
Vertical
24” 36” w/ 3/4”anchor reinforcement
bolts @ 32”o.c. Metal ties
FIGURE 9.165 Interior wall, metal decking Brick wall

perpendicular to wall.
#5 vertical
FIGURE 9.168 Brick wall, end connect-steel

angles and plates to concrete slab.
Concrete slab
Bond beam reinforcement
Brick masonry wall
L 6”x 4”x 5/16”

w/ 3/4”anchor bolts
@ 48”o.c. each
leg and stagger
vertical slot holes
in vertical legs Vertical reinforcement
FIGURE 9.166 Brick wall, and bond beam Metal ties

corner.
Brick wall
Concrete floor
FIGURE 9.169 Brick wall, interior connect-

steel angles and plates to concrete slab.
FIGURE 9.167 Brick wall, interior support of

a concrete slab.
Horizontal steel Horizontal steel
#3 vertical
1”metal strap
Bond beam reinforcement
Brick wall
Brick wall
F IGURE 9.170 Brick wall, bon d beam FIGURE 9.171 Brick wall, intersection.
intersection.
Humanities Instructional Building, UC Irvine,

California.
Hospital Facility, Norwalk, California.
Watseka Parking Structure, Culver City, California.
UC Riverside Entomology Building, Riverside,

California. Sherwood Country Club, Thousand Oaks,
California.
CHAPTER
10
CONCRETE BLOCK
of special precautions that must be implemented to

10.1 GENERAL avoid delays during periods of very hot, very cold, or
very wet weather. Since concrete block masonry uses
From the beginning of the concept of construction, small standard-sized units to form an ultimately large
masonry has been the medium from which the most structure, extensive fabrication and extensive site
carefully crafted and highly prized buildings have been preparation is not required.
created. Examples include the massive pyramids of
Egypt and Mexico, the inspirational elegance of the Buildings are designed with masonry for many
Parthenon in Greece, the lofty European cathedrals reasons, some of which are:
as well as the more familiar fireplaces, brick cottages
and walled gardens. Both new and old masonry  to be durable,
structures reflect the scale of the human hand and the  to be attractive and comfortable,
boundless power of that hand to create.  to keep out wind and rain,
 to mitigate noise, and
Masonry construction dates from prehistoric times,  for energy efficiency.
but has been continually improved, engineered, and
enhanced to meet design requirements and at the As a unit of design, concrete block masonry is ideal
same time satisfy construction economics. for walls incorporating steps, curves and relief.
Concrete block’ s texture, patterns and integral color
Concrete block masonry is frequently chosen as a contribute to distinctive design compatible with both
material of construction for its association with qualities building finishes and the natural environment.
of permanence and solidity. It is chosen for the unique
colors, textures, and patterns; f ire resistance, Concrete block masonry walls can be designed to
compliance with building code requirements and meet security, visual and acoustical requirements. The
economic advantages. Masonry creates a high structural integrity of concrete block is ideal for retaining
performance enclosed structure in a single operation walls and provides resistance to damage from wind,
by one trade, bypassing the diff iculties of ten water or vandalism.
encountered managing the numerous trades and
subcontractors needed to erect a comparable building Concrete masonry units are available as precision
of multiple wall materials. block or with architectural finishes that range from a
smooth, ground-face finish to the stone-like facets of
The masonry construction process is carried out split-face units, to colored and glazed block. Unlike
with small, relatively inexpensive, tools and machines wood, concrete masonry does not burn and does not
on the construction site. Compared to steel need to be painted. One of concrete masonry’ s biggest
construction, masonry typically does not require a large adv antages is aesthetic v alue; another is the
and expensively equipped shop operation to process adaptability to any design. Combining concrete
major materials prior to erection. Compared to cast- masonry unit walls with other materials for floors or
in-place concrete, masonry does share the necessity
ceilings is a favorite approach of many architects. Left building dimensions and the cell layout must be able
exposed, concrete masonry is easily integrated into a to accommodate required structural members.
total living environment. Further, cell aligment must be coordinated for the
required continuity of structural members.
Concrete masonry is easily insulated and has a
high thermal mass. As a relatively heavy material, like There are many design solutions for the installation
stone, it slowly absorbs and releases heating or cooling of concrete block masonry. This chapter presents a
energy. Concrete masonry can provide additional limited number of generic design approaches
heating or cooling hours in which the HVAC system considered to be the most typical. Using this infomation
does not need to be utilized. Concrete masonry’ s as a foundation, the designer is encouraged to develop
inherent thermal mass makes it the ideal choice for details using the basic concepts of dimensioning,
creating a more energy-efficient building. detailing, and interfacing with other materials. If these
few general approaches are used, the designer can
be further assured that the mason can efficiently
10.2 LAYOUT AND ASSEMBLY implement the installation and any design can be
constructed with efficiency.
10.2.1 MODULAR CONSIDERATIONS
A significant cost in masonry construction is labor. 10.2.2 MODULAR DIMENSIONS
One way of reducing the amount of labor is using Table 10.1 shows the number of block units
dimensions that are based on the length of a concrete required for certain lengths and heights. For absolute
block (a module). This is known as modular precision, the number of stated block units will always
dimensioning. Modular dimensioning allows for whole measure 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) less than the given in the
units to be placed. This eliminates the labor and time table. This dimension can be adjusted by the mason
of field cutting and custom fitting any concrete blocks during construction, particularly in long or high walls.
to fit non-modular dimensions.
Figure 10.1 shows how the actual height
In addition to the assurance of economy, the quality dimension of the concrete masonry unit and the height
in concrete masonry construction is obtained when of the mortar joint combined to form a modular
modular consideration is given to details and layout. dimension.
The wall surface and unit module must match the
155/8”
/8”
3
155/8”
33/8”for 4”block
75/8””for 8”block
/8”
3
FIGURE 10.1 Actual dimensions that form modular lengths.

CONCRETE BLOCK 173
Table 10.1 Modular Dimensions (English Units) Table 10.1 Modular Dimensions (English Units)
Length Height Length Height
Dimensions
16" Unit 4" Unit 8" Unit Dim ensions
16" Unit 4" Unit 8" Unit
3'-4" - 10 5
3'-8" - 11 - 21'-0" 16 63 32
4'-0" 3 12 6 22'-0" 16 1/2 66 33
22'-8" 17 68 34
4'-4" - 13 -
1 23'-4" 17 1/2 70 35
4'-8" 3 /2 14 7
24'-0" 18 72 36
5'-0" - 15 - 24'-8" 18 1/2 74 37
5'-4" 4 16 8 25'-4" 19 76 38
5'-8" - 17 - 26'-0" 19 1/2 78 39
1
6'-0" 4 /2 18 9 26'-8" 20 80 40
6'-4" - 19 - 27'-4" 20 1/2 82 41
6'-8" 5 20 10 28'-0" 21 84 42
7'-0 - 21 - 28'-8" 21 1/2 86 43
7'-4" 51/2 22 11 29'-4" 22 88 44
7'-8" - 23 - 30'-0" 22 1/2 90 45
8'-0" 6 24 12 30'-8" 23 92 46
8'-4" - 25 - 31'-4" 23 1/2 94 47
8'-8" 61/2 26 13 32'-0" 24 96 48
9'-0" - 27 - 32'-8" 24 1/2 98 49
40'-0" 30 120 60
9'-4" 7 28 14
50'-0" 37 1/2 150 75
9'-8" - 29 -
1 60'0" 45 180 90
10'-0" 7 /2 30 15
70'-0" 52 1/2 210 105
10'-4" - 31 - 80'-0" 60 240 120
10'-8" 8 32 16 90'-0" 67 1/2 270 135
11'-0" - 33 - 100'-0" 75 300 150
1
11'-4" 8 /2 34 17 200'-0" 150 600 300
11'-8" - 35 - 300'-0" 225 900 450
12'-0" 9 36 18 400'-0" 300 1200 600
12'-4" - 37 -
1
12'-8" 9 /2 38 19
13'-0" - 39 - Figures 10.2 and 10.3 are examples of how the
13'-4" 10 40 20 modular dimension develops into the ov erall
13'-8" - 41 - dimension.
14'-0" 101/2 42 21
14'-4" - 43 -
14'-8" 11 44 22
15'-0" - 45 4
15'-4" 111/2 46 23
15'-8" - 47 -
/8”(5) + 75/8”(5) = 3’- 4”
16'-0" 12 48 24
16'-4" - 49 -
1
16'-8" 12 /2 50 25
17'-0" - 51 -
17'-4" 13 52 26
17'-8" - 53 -
1 8”total unit height
18'-0" 13 /2 54 27
3
18'-4" - 55 -
18'-8" 14 56 28 75/8”block
19'-0" - 57 -
19'-4" 141/2 58 29 3
/8”
19'-8" - 59 -
20'-0" 15 60 30 FIGURE 10.2 Example of vertical modular
20'-8" 151/2 62 31 height.
As the figures are reviewed, note the following:

10.3 WALL AND OPENING
DIMENSIONS  Modular Dimensions - Block sizes are 3/8 in. (9.5
mm) less in all dimensions so the addition of the
mortar joint will make multiples of 8 in. (203 mm).
Using the modular layout for 8 in. x 8 in. x 16 in. Dimensions are in 4 in. and 8 in. (102 and 203
(203 mm x 203 mm x 406 mm) Concrete Masonry mm) multiples.
Units (CMU), the following figures show how the sizes
of openi ngs and reinf orcement spacing are  Actual Dimensions - Outside dimensions and
distances between openings are 3/8 in. (9.5 mm)
determined.
under the given dimension. Inside dimensions and
opening are 3/ 8 in. (9.5 mm) over the given
dimensions.
 Multiples of 8 in. will always be in even feet (2'-0",
4'-0", 6'-0"); or in even feet plus 8 in. (2'-8", 4'-8",
6'-8"); or in odd feet plus 4 in. (1'-4", 3'-4", 5'-4").
16” 16” 75/8”
The mason can make up the 3/8”

short dimension in the mortar joints
FIGURE 10.3 Modular length dimensions.

See Figure 10.3
483/8”minus height
563/8”or 4’- 83/8”

of half course
955/8”or 7’- 115/8”

803/8”or 6’- 83/8”
See Figure 10.5

for Section
See Figure 10.6

for Section
FIGURE 10.4 Elevation of a running bond CMU wall with opening dimensions.
8” 243/8” 235/8” 403/8” 155/8” 403/8” 24”

2’- 03/8” - 115/8”
9’ 3’- 43/8” 2’- 75/8” 3’- 43/8” 2’- 0”
*
16’- 0”
Note: Actual dimensions based on 8”nominal units.
* /8”difference can be adjusted with mortar joints.

3
FIGURE 10.5 Cross-section plan view of opening dimensions.

CONCRETE BLOCK 175
8” 32” 16” 8” 24” 24” 24”

37/16” 37/16”
FIGURE 10.6 Cross-section plan view of opening dimensions at “Starter Course”

.
10.4 FOUNDATION DETAILS In considering construction efficiency, the dowels

from foundation must be of sufficient length, but not
excessively tall. The foundation with vertical dowels
For an effective and efficient design (space, will be placed prior to the concrete block installation.
material, and costs), proper planning is required. When open-end block are not used, the mason must
Proper planning does not simply mean that CMU have lift each block unit over the dowel and set the unit.
been engineered and the work is ready f or Minimum placement motion prior to the actual setting
construction, but it does mean that the designer has of the unit will improve the installation quality.
considered details and dimensions that allow for
efficiency. Proper planning also means the designer The details presented intentionally show a
has provided conceptual details that clearly describe minimum distance above the foundation to enable the
the materials and layout required for construction. This mason to easily place the initial courses of CMU.
section provides a few typical details (masonry to Alternately, if the reinforcing dowels protruding from
foundation) of construction that would assist a designer the footing are excessively tall, open-end units may
in prov iding the proper initial design for CMU be used. Reinforcing dowels are hooked around
construction. foundation reinforcement to prov ide additional
continuity.
8”concrete block
8”concrete block
Dowel
Concrete slab
Dowel from foundation
allows for short distance Waterproof
threading the CMU over membrane
reinforcement
Fill
12”(typ.)
1’- 0”
8”(typ.)
Continuous Continuous
3”clear
1’- 8”
4” 10” 4”
Typical Dimensions Typical Dimensions
FIGURE 10.7 Exterior wall with slab floor. FIGURE 10.8 Exterior wall with slab floor.
8”concrete block
8”concrete block
Continuous horizontal
reinforcement
Vertical
reinforcement
reinforcement
Dowel
Dowel
1’- 0”
16”(typ.)
Continuous Continuous
3”clear
1’
- 8”(typ.) 1’- 8”(typ.)
FIGURE 10.9 Exterior wall on slab floor. FIGURE 10.11 Exterior wall with raised slab
floor.
8”concrete block
Continuous
horizontal Dowel
reinforcement
Solid blocking Continuous

Vertical Vertical horizontal
reinforcement Floor joist reinforcement reinforcement
Dowel
4”
6”min.
(typ.)
18”min.
(typ.)
1’- 0”min.
(typ.)
Continuous
12”min.
(typ.)
reinforcement
8”
(typ.)
Continuous
3”min.
reinforcement
3”min.
18”(typ.) 1’- 8”(typ.)
FIGURE 10.10 Exterior wall with raised floor. FIGURE 10.12 Interior wall with slab floor.
CONCRETE BLOCK 177
8”concrete block Dowel Solid blocking

Dowel
Continuous
horizontal Vertical reinforcement
reinforcement Waterproof
membrane (typ.)
4”concrete
4”
slab (typ.)
Wood plates
18”min.
with bolts
(typ.)
12”
4”
12”masonry
foundation wall
grouted solid
4”
Compacted
8”(typ.)
gravel or 16”
stone fill Typical dimensions
18”(typ.)
FIGURE 10.13 Interior wall - Bearing partition.
FIGURE 10.16 Interior wall with raised floor.

Continuous 10.5 CONCRETE MASONRY

horizontal Dowel
reinforcement WALL ASSEMBLY DETAIL
Gravel or Waterproof
stone fill membrane The nomenclature of concrete masonry is best
described in a wall assembly diagram. Figure 10.17
4” 4”
8”
is an isometric drawing of a typical CMU wall system.

At the top of the wall is the bond beam. The bond
beam has the same function as the “ double top plate”
Typical dimensions
in light timber f raming. The bond beam is a
16” CONTINUOUS reinforced beam at the level where the
roof or floor frames into the wall. The bond beam acts
to give continuity to the building, similar to the metal
FIGURE 10.14 Interior wall - Non-bearing straps on a barrel. The bond beam also acts as
partition. collector. It may collect in-place lateral forces and
transfer them to a shear wall through strut (axial
loading) action. The bond beam may also collect out-
of-plane lateral loads and transfer them to support walls
Studs
through bending (beam loading) action.
Blocking Surrounding all openings is reinforcement. The

reinforcement also limits cracking that may occur at
Finished Floor joists the edges of the opening due to temperature differences.
grade The corners of openings can be points of larger stresses
4”min.
2”x 6”foundation and the edge reinforcement helps mitigate corner
grade redwood or
treated mud sill
cracking. Reinforcement around the perimeter of
12”- 1 story
15”- 2 story
openings acts to hold the individual masonry units

min. (typ)
Foundation
together.
reinforcement dowel
9”min. (typ.)
12”- 1 story
15”- 2 story
min. (typ)
FIGURE 10.15 Exterior wall with raised floor.

Bond beam
Vertical steel
Parapet wall
Sheet metal cap
Combined
lintel and
bond beam
Horizontal
steel in
lintel
Beam
Vertical steel units
each side of
Vertical opening Sash units
steel
Sill units
Horiz. bond
beam Tie
Typical steel door frame
Horizontal bond beam

at 4’- 0”on centers
16”x 16”pilaster
FIGURE 10.17 Typical concrete masonry wall assembly.

CONCRETE BLOCK 179
10.6 FLOOR AND ROOF

CONNECTION DETAILS Cricket (sloped section)
for water drainage
Ledger
10.6.1 TIMBER CONNECTIONS Tension straps
connected
One of the most important issues to avoid in timber directly from wood
beam to CMU wall
framing to masonry walls is cross-grain bending on
the timber ledger. Cross-grain bending has such little
strength that the National Design Specification (NDS)
for timber design does not give stress values. Cross-
grain bending creates tension forces perpendicular to
the fibers of the timber member, in which timber is
extremely weak (Figure 10.18).
In Figures 10.19 through 10.25 the moment, which Hanger

causes weak axis bending in the wood ledger, is never
allowed to develop in the wood member. The force at
the top of the cross-section is given a load path directly
into the masonry wall through the tension strap.
Without this tension strap at the top, cross grain FIGURE 10.19 Wood beam to CMU wall with
bending could occur, as shown in Figure 10.18. cricket.
Wood or masonry
Diaphragm nailing
Ledger
F
Hanger
Force diaphragm pulls the
top of the ledger away
Anchor bolt into

masonry resists
the force in the
diaphragm
F
Tension straps
A moment (equal and opposite
connected directly
forces applied at a distance
from wood beam
apart) creates cross grain
to CMU wall
bending
FIGURE 10.20 Wood beam to CMU wall.

The moment causes the wood
section to bend. The bending
develops tension forces
perpendicular to the fibers
FIGURE 10.18 Cross grain bending on a timber

cross-section without strap (not recommended).
Vertical reinforcement Perimeter nailing

Ledger Vertical Tension tie
Perimeter Tension strap connected from wood reinforcement
nailing girder directly to CMU wall 5
/8”plywood Horiz.
5
/8”plywood reinf.
2 x 14 @
16”o.c. (typ.)
8”concrete block Joist hanger
Pre-manufactured girder
and hanger
8”concrete block
FIGURE 10.24 Wood beam to CMU wall with
drag strut (2 sides).
FIGURE 10.21 Pre-manufactured wood girder
to CMU wall.
Vertical reinforcement Perimeter nailing
Ledger
Perimeter Tension strap connected from wood Strap @ 48”o.c.
nailing /8”plywood
5
beam directly to CMU wall alt. each side
5
/8”plywood
Joist hanger 2 x 14 @ 16”

o.c. (typ.)
2 x blocking
Horizontal reinf. @ 48”o.c.
8”concrete block (typ.)
8”concrete block
FIGURE 10.25 Wood beam to CMU wall (2

FIGURE 10.22 Wood I-beam to CMU wall. sides).
Perimeter nailing
Perimeter nailing
Tension tie
Vertical /8”plywood
5
reinforcement Strap @ 48”o.c. (typ.)
Vertical
Horizontal reinforcement /2”plywood
1
reinforcement
8”concrete
block wall
8”concrete Horizontal
block reinforcement
2 x 14 @ 2 x roof
16”o.c. (typ.) rafters (typ.)
Joist hanger
Joist hanger
FIGURE 10.23 Wood beam to CMU wall with FIGURE 10.26 Wood rafter to CMU parapet wall
drag strut. (rafter perpendicular to wall).
CONCRETE BLOCK 181
Perimeter nailing
Strap @ 48”o.c. (typ.)

1
/2”plywood
1
/2”dia. @ 24”o.c. (typ.)
Horizontal
reinforcement
Metal decking
Slab reinforcement
2 x roof rafters (typ.) Concrete slab
Joist hanger #5 dowels
@ 24”o.c.
(typ.)
8”concrete
block wall Steel beam
8”concrete block wall
FIGURE 10.28 Steel beam (double angle conn.)

and concrete deck to CMU wall (beam and deck
Horizontal reinforcement flutes perpendicular to wall).
#5 @ 16”o.c.
footing dowel /2”dia. @ 24”o.c. (typ.)
1
Horizontal
(typ.) reinforcement
Metal decking
Slab reinforcement
Concrete slab
18”
#5 dowels
12”
@ 24”o.c.
(typ.)
3”CLR.
16” 8”concrete
block wall
Typical dimensions Steel beam
FIGURE 10.27 Full wall section –one story

with parapet. Vertical reinforcement
10.6.2 STEEL CONNECTIONS

Steel beams can be integrated with concrete slabs FIGURE 10.29 Steel beam (double angle conn.)
and the system acts as a horizontal diaphragm to and concrete deck to CMU wall (beam perpendicu-
transfer horizontal shear loads to vertical shear walls. lar and deck flutes parallel to wall).
The shear loads are transferred to the vertical walls
through connections. The connections may be a wall
attachment, such as a bolted or welded plate
connection or may be a beam pocket in the wall with a
positive connection.
Vertical reinforcement Vertical reinforcement
Horizontal Horizontal
8”concrete 8”concrete
block Metal decking block Metal decking
wall wall
Slab reinforcement Slab reinforcement
Concrete slab Concrete slab
#5 dowels
@ 16”o.c.
#5 dowels
(typ.)
@ 24”o.c.
(typ.)
Light metal joists

Bar joist
FIGURE 10.30 Steel beam and concrete deck

to CMU wall (beam parallel and deck flutes FIGURE 10.32 Pre-manufactured steel truss
perpendicular to wall). and concrete deck to CMU wall (b eam
perpendicular and deck flutes parallel to wall).
Horizontal
reinforcement Horizontal
reinforcement
8”concrte
block Metal decking 8”concrete
wall block Metal decking
Slab reinforcement wall
Slab reinforcement
Concrete slab
Concrete slab
#5 dowels
@ 16”o.c.
#5 dowels
(typ.)
@ 24”o.c.
(typ.)
Bar joist Plate embedded

in masonry
FIGURE 10.31 Pre-manufactured steel truss

and concrete deck to CMU wall (beam and deck FIGURE 10.33 Concrete deck to CMU wall
flutes perpendicular to wall). (deck flutes perpendicular to wall).
CONCRETE BLOCK 183
1
/2”dia. @ 24”o.c.
(typ.)
Horizontal #5 dowels
@ 16”o.c. Metal decking
reinforcement
(typ.) Slab
reinforcement
8”concrete Concrete
block Metal decking slab
wall
Slab reinforcement
Concrete slab
#5 dowels
@ 24”o.c.
(typ.)
Bar joist
Horizontal
Plate embedded reinforcement
in masonry
Vertical
reinforcement 12”Concrete
block wall

FIGURE 10.34 Concrete deck to CMU wall and concrete deck (2 sides) to CMU wall (beam
(deck flutes parallel to wall). perpendicular and deck flutes parallel to wall).
1
/2”dia. @ 24”o.c. 10.7 CORNER PATTERNS
(typ.)
#5 dowels
@ 16”o.c. Metal decking While maintaining the modular dimensions and
(typ.) Slab patterns on a straight wall can be accomplished with
reinforcement relative ease, some issues can arise when transitioning
Concrete around corners. An 8 in. (203 mm) wide unit turns a
slab
corner with ease since the 8 in. (302 mm) width is half
the unit length of 16 in. (406 mm). This simple
configuration is shown in Figure 10.42. Other wall
widths are a more difficult challenge in turning a corner,
but with the correct unit and placement, this challenge
can be overcome (Figures 10.37 through 10.41, 10.43,
and 10.44). This section provides some examples of
Bar joist how the modular dimensions can be maintained at the
Horizontal corner details.
reinforcement
Vertical
reinforcement 12”Concrete
block wall

and concrete deck (2 sides) to CMU wall (beam
and deck flutes perpendicular to wall).
Mo
du Mo
le 6” du
of le
8” of
8”
4” 4 ”
4” +
le
du 4” 16” le
16” Mo du 6”
8” o
16” 8 ”M
16”
16” 8”
16”
16” 4” 14”
6”
16” 6”
4”
16”
16”
8” 16”
16” 16”
8”
4” 16” Mo 14”
Mo du
du 4” le
le +4
of
8” ” - 2”
le
d ule odu
M
Mo 8”
8”
FIGURE 10.37 4" (102 mm) wall to 4" (102 FIGURE 10.39 6" (152 mm) wall to 6" (152
mm) wall. mm) wall.
4”
16” 6”
16”
4” 12”
16”
4” 6” 16”
16”
16”
8”
8” 6”
16” 16”
12”
8”
16”
16”
8”
FIGURE 10.38 4" (102 mm) wall to 4" (102

mm) wall. FIGURE 10.40 6" (152 mm) wall to 6" (152
mm) wall.
CONCRETE BLOCK 185
Mo
du
le
of
6” Mo 8”
du l e
le d u
of 16” o
8”
8 ”M 8”
16” 16”
8”
8”
16” 16”
16”
8”
16”
14”
8”
8”
8”
16”
16” 8”
16”
16” 16”
16” Mo 16”
16” du 8”
6” le
” of
+6 8”
8”
ule of
Mod ule
8” d
Mo
mm) wall. mm) wall.
Mo Mo
du du
le le
of of
8” 8”
o f
ul e le
16” od 8” du
”M 8” Mo + 4”
8
16” 16” 8”
8” 8”
16” 16”
16” 16”
8” 8”
8”
16”
16”
16”
16” 16”
16” 16”
Mo 8”
du 16” 8”
le Mo
of du
8” 8” le
e of of
l 8” 8”
du of
Mo le
du
Mo
mm) wall. mm) wall.
10.8 VERTICAL STEEL 32

”c
en
PLACEMENT ter
s
One method of economically installing masonry

units is the use of open end units where reinforcement
occurs. The open end unit allows the CMU to be “slid”
into place as opposed to having the CMU lifted over
the vertical reinforcement. Figures 10.45 and 10.46
show typical details. One consideration of specifying
and using open-end units is the confinement of grout
40
in partially grouted masonry walls. ”c
en
ter
s
16
”c
en
ter
s
FIGURE 10.46 Arrangement of steel and open

end units - 32" (813 mm) and 40" (1016 mm) spacing.
10.9 PILASTER DETAILS

Pilasters are columns built in a concrete masonry
wall. There is no single detail or method of constructing
24
”c pilasters. Figures 10.49 through 10.52 provide details
en
ter of typical CMU pilasters.
s
FIGURE 10.45 Arrangement of steel and open 8” x 8” x 16” Four No. 6 and two No. 5
end units - 16" (406 mm) and 24" (610 mm) spacing. bars detailed
FIGURE 10.47 28" x 16" (711 x 406 mm) stan-
dard pilaster in 12" (305 mm) wall.
CONCRETE BLOCK 187
16”pilaster
alternate unit 12”x 8”x 16”
Four No. 5
bars detailed
Six No. 5 bars detailed.

FIGURE 10.51 12" x 16" (305 x 406 mm) pilaster.
FIGURE 10.48 24" x 16" (610 x 406 mm) open
center-centered.
4”x 8”x 16”

Four No. 5
bars detailed 8”x 8”x 16”
standard
FIGURE 10.49 16" x 16" (406 x 406 mm)

centered.

8”x 8”x 16”
Four No. 5
bars detailed

10.10 WALL TO WALL

CONNECTIONS
A significant issue for masonry constructed in higher
Seismic Design Categories is connection of the
elements. If connections hold together and allow the
structure to perform as a total system there is an
excellent chance for the structure to survive even great
earthquakes. Providing a continuous load path assists
in holding connections together. Details of structural
reinforcing bar size and spacing are dependent on
engineering requirements. Figures 10.53 through
10.56 give typical layout of providing continuous
reinforcement at CMU wall intersections.
FIGURE 10.54 Typical wall connections.
)
mm
( 6 10
4” 2”(51”mm)
2
11/2”(38 mm)
Metal strap
Shear wall
Flange Metal straps at
4’- 0”(1.22 m)
o.c. vertical
Grouted
cells
Metal Strap Anchorage
Bond beam at 4’- 0”

(1.22 m) o.c. vertical
maximum
As = 0.1 in2/ft
(211 mm2/m)
Grout and Reinforcement Bonding
FIGURE 10.53 Exploded isometric view of FIGURE 10.55 Metal strap anchorage and grout
reinforcing steel for intersecting walls. reinforcement bonding at wall intersection.
CONCRETE BLOCK 189
Cut joint reinforcement and

add lapping wire or use
welded intersections
4”
FIGURE 10.57 Masonry beam spanning an

opening.
Vertical steel
Bar in grout space reinforcement
Bond beam
units
2’- 0”lap
Lintel
reinf.
Lintel units
FIGURE 10.56 Typical wall connections - Plan
of joint reinforcement showing intersection and
alternate lapping.
FIGURE 10.58 Lintel and bond beam detail.
10.11 LINTEL AND BOND BEAM 10.12 CONTROL JOINTS

CONNECTION As with all construction, it is vitally necessary to
accommodate the possibility of movement in a
A lintel is a beam that spans over an opening, concrete masonry building. This movement can occur
typically a window or doorway. Reinforced CMU is an from a number of sources:
easy and cost effective way to create lintels. One of
the key components in detailing a lintel is to extend 1. Temperature changes,
the lintel reinforcement past the edge of the opening
and into the wall. The design professional will 2. Change in moisture conditions,
determine the exact distance of the rereinforcement 3. Loading conditions,
extension past the opening edge.
4. Foundation movement, and
5. Differential movement of the various
materials in a building
Concrete will crack when movement occurs.

Concrete masonry units are no different and will also
crack under movement. Rather than letting the Adjacent to
concrete masonry crack in a random pattern, masonry opening
can be designed and constructed to maximize the At wall
probability of forcing cracks into specific locations. intersections
At changes in
Vertical joints are installed at predetermined locations wall height
with limited and specific spacing. The vertical joints
are weakened improving the probability of cracking at Adjacent to
the desired location. These joints are known as control opening
joints.
Control joints are not expansion joints. Control

joints are considered joints that will accommodate
shortening, shrinkage, and/or reduction in the length Maximum distance of At pilaster
50% joint spacing
of the wall, while expansion joints will accommodate
both expansion and contraction of the wall or increases
and decreases in length.
FIGURE 10.59 Typical control joint locations.
Control joints in masonry are vertical and spaced
at intervals so that when shortening occurs the
resulting cracks will be at the location of the control Control joints may be constructed with vertical head
joints. Table 10.2 provides maximum recommendation joints, raking back the mortar at least one inch (25.4
for empirical spacing of control joints. mm) and interrupting the non-chord horizontal steel at
least every other spacing of reinforcement. To prevent
Joints in the wall, whether they are control joints or the wall from displacing perpendicular to the plane of
expansion joints, must align with any joints that are the wall, dowels may be installed across the joint
built into the roof system, the floor system, the spandrel provided one end is encased in a plastic sleeve or pipe.
beams or other elements that are intended to Solid grouted walls crack at the control joint and provide
accommodate movement of the building. aggregate interlock which prevents displacement and
slip. Primary structural reinforcing steel, such as
When horizontal reinforcing steel is used in the perimeter chord steel, must not be cut. In order to
wall, either in bond beams or in the mortar bed with keep the wall system waterproof, the control joint should
joint reinforcement, the spacing of the control joints to be caulked. Backer rod is placed in the cut joint before
accommodate shortening of the wall can be adjusted caulking. This prevents the undesirable condition of 3-
accordingly. sided contact of the caulking material and concrete
masonry.
Vertical control joints should be located in concrete
masonry walls at the following locations: Typical caulking compounds can stretch best when
the width of the joint is greater than the depth of the
1. At determined intervals and spacing for the sealant, similar to the rubber band. Manufacturer’ s
length of the wall, recommendations should always be followed. The
usual practice is to place the caulking so the depth of
2. At major changes in the wall height, sealant is only half the width. Sealant depth is
3. At changes in the wall thickness, controlled by using a compatible backup rod. Figure
10.60 shows two typical methods of detailing control
4. At control joints in the foundation, floor and joints.
roof,
5. At wall openings, and
6. At wall intersections
CONCRETE BLOCK 191
Flanged neoprene
control joint
continuous
vertically 3
/8”
/2”both sides
1
Caulking
Gasket
Stop horiz.
bars each
side of joint
except at Backer rod
chord bars
1-vertical bar Backer rod

each side of joint
Caulking sealant cont.
Masonry wall each side
Plan View of Control Joint in CMU Wall
1
/2”typ.
/8”typ.
3 Backer rod 1
/2”maximum control
joint width
For Ratings Up to and Including 2 Hours

Sealant
Caulking
Ceramic fiber
blanket
Plan View of Control Joint in CMU Wall
Intersecting Concrete Wall.
Backer rod
FIGURE 10.60 Typical CMU wall control joint.
Table 10.2 CMU Control Joint Spacing1.

Table 1 - Recommended Control Joint Spacing for
Above Grade Exposed Concrete Masonry Walls
Distance between joints should not exceed the lesser

of:
Length to height ratio ft (m)
or
11/2 25 (7.62)
Notes: 1
/2”maximum
1. Table values are based on the use of horizontal control joint width
reinforcement having an equivalent area of not less
than 0.025 in./ft. (52.9 mm/m) of height to keep
unplanned cracks closed.
2. Criteria applies to all concrete masonry units.
3. This criteria is based on experience over a wide FIGURE 10.61 Typical fire rated CMU wall
geographical area. Control joints spacing should control joints.
be adjusted up or down where local experience
justifies but no farther than 25 ft. (7.62 m)
1
NCMA TEK Note 10-2B
24 ga galvanized For all door

formed division #5 bar vertical frames use bond
strip each side of joint beam block at
and doweled into both jambs or cut
Concrete footing ends of block
block wall open to allow
grout to fill voids
in steel frame
when pouring
grout
All horizontal wall and

Caulking w/ urethane
foam backing (each
added reinforcement FIGURE 10.64 Exterior door jamb - Wraparound
shown on sections or
face). Caulking
structural wall
method.
color shall match
elevations
mortar being used for
adjacent wall.
Slacked control joint Masonry opening
from top of footing to top
of wall (typ) Door opening
Door
Note: For control joints in head section over openings install divi-
sion strips in 8”sections with alternating key each side of
joint.
Stop
Sealant
FIGURE 10.62 CMU wall control joint with 11/2”rough buck
reinforcement passing through the joint. Shim space
3
/4”frame
10.13 DOOR JAMB DETAILS

The details of this section provide suggestions for FIGURE 10.65 Exterior door jamb (8”CMU) -
attaching the doors to the concrete masonry. Details No plaster.
show embedded mechanical devices required for
attachment. If no embedded devices are shown in a
Masonry opening
detail, expansion bolts may be used.
Door opening
For all door frames, use bond beam block at both
jambs or cut ends of block open to allow grout to fill
Door
voids in steel frame when pouring grout.
11/2”rough buck
Shim space
3
/4”frame
FIGURE 10.63 Exterior door jamb - Butt FIGURE 10.66 Interior door jamb (6" CMU) -
method. No plaster.
CONCRETE BLOCK 193
Plaster
Door
Door
FIGURE 10.67 Interior door jamb (6" CMU) -

No plaster.
Plaster
Door

Plaster both sides.
FIGURE 10.68 Interior door jamb (6" CMU) - Plaster

No plaster.
Door
Masonry opening
Door opening
Door
Plaster
FIGURE 10.72 Interior door jamb (6" CMU) with

Shim space
plaster.
3
/4”frame
Masonry opening
Metal frame wrap
No plaster.
around type
Plaster
Door
Door
11/2”frame
Tee anchor (or wire anchor) in mortar
joint. Frame installed before block work
Sealant
Shim space
FIGURE 10.73 Metal frame with tee anchor in
mortar joint.
Plaster one side.
Caulking
Flashing Rough header

Aluminum frame
Masonry
opening
Shim space
FIGURE 10.76 Window jamb.
Door opening 1 /2”frame
1
Door
FIGURE 10.74 Exterior wood door head (6"

CMU).
Aluminum frame
Caulking
FIGURE 10.77 Window jamb.
Rough header
Masonry
opening
Shim space
Door /4”frame
3
opening
Stop
Door
Caulking
FIGURE 10.75 Interior wood door head (6"

Aluminum frame
CMU).
10.14 WINDOW DETAILS FIGURE 10.78 Window head.
Aluminum and wood sash windows are commonly Aluminum frame

used in buildings. A logical construction sequence is
for the mason to provide the openings of the proper Caulking
size and location with the windows installed at a later
time.
For specific details of types, styles, colors,

textures, opening arrangements and other product
information, consult the manufacturer.
FIGURE 10.79 Window sill.

CONCRETE BLOCK 195
Finally concrete masonry significantly reduces the
10.15 RESIDENTIAL DESIGN cost of long-term maintenance. Wood siding must be
periodically painted and the threats of termite damage
Concrete masonry has many advantages for the or dry-rot damage are real issues. Concrete masonry
home. One advantage is the high thermal mass cannot rot and is not food source for vermin or mold.
properties which is a sought after characteristic in
passive solar design. Figure 10.80 shows how a wood If concrete masonry is not chosen as the actual
stud wall (dashed green line) will start passing the heat wall material, concrete masonry can still offer economy
from the outside to the inside within 2 hours of the by forming the foundation wall to the wood framing.
days heat (solid blue line). The concrete masonry (thick Concrete masonry does not require the formwork that
solid red line) takes 6 hours before outside a concrete wall requires.
temperatures are felt inside. By the time the concrete
masonry heats up and is passing the outside heat to
the inside, the day is over and the direction of heat 10.15.1 RESIDENTIAL CONSTRUCTION
movement reverses to cooler nightime temperatures. ISOMETRIC WITH DIAPHRAGM ROOF
Therefore, the heat of the day never makes it through
the concrete masonry to the inside of the building. Figures 10.81 through 10.93 are provided to show
how the elements of residential construction come
In addition to thermal mass, concrete masonry together to form and give support to the building. Some
offers excellent noise abatement and fire resistance. notable items are the plywood shear wall gable
Some insurance companies specifically ask if a home extending from the roof to the concrete masonry wall,
is wood stud construction or masonry construction. the location of reinforcing steel at all edges of openings,
Masonry construction may be a factor in determining and the use of cleanouts at the foundation level.
home insurance premiums.
LEGEND Masonry: 6 hr. lag

Studs: 2 hr. lag
Wood Stud Wall
Outdoor Temperature
D
Concrete Masonry Wall a
m
p
i
n
Heat Losses
g
Heat Gain
3 am 6 am 9 am Noon 3 pm 6 pm 9 pm
Time
FIGURE 10.80 Masonry vs wood stud thermal lag time. (NCMA TEK Note 6-3).
Bond beam units form

continuous grouted
bond beam, reinforced
as required.
Window
opening
Bond beam Door

units form opening
continuous
concrete sill,
reinforced as
required
Reinforced grout
filled cell at 48”
o.c. maximum
Cleanouts,
when required
Continuous bars
in foundation
8”
Concrete slab
12”
8”
2” Waterproof membrane
4” 18”
10” um
Compacted free draining blanket of inim ions
4” ”m en
s
clean gravel or crushed stone 12
l dim
a
pic
12 18” Ty
Ty ”m
p ica ini
mu
ld m
im
en
sio Splices in reinforcement to
ns
be staggered and lapped
per code
FIGURE 10.81 Residential construction with diaphragm roof.

CONCRETE BLOCK 197
10.15.2 RESIDENTIAL CONSTRUCTION ISOMETRIC WITHOUT ROOF DIAPHRAGM
Anchor bolts
Continuous 16” grout filled bond

beam formed with two bond
beam units reinforced as required
Door
opening
Continuous
grout filled
bond beam
Grout filled cells

reinforced as
required
Cleanouts,
when
required
Reinforcing bars
continuous in
8” foundation
Concrete slab
12”
8”
2” Waterproof membrane
4” 18”
10” um
inim ons
4” Compacted free draining blanket of ”m si
clean gravel or crushed stone 12 en
l dim
a
pic
12 18” Ty
Ty ”m
p ica inim
ld um
im
en Splices in all reinforcement shall be
sio
ns staggered and lapped per code
FIGURE 10.82 Residential construction without diaphragm roof.

10.15.3 RESIDENTIAL WALL SECTION
Wood Wood
frame frame
roof roof
2”x 8”plate and anchor

bolts as required
2”x 8”plate and anchor
bolts as required Grouted bond beam
over all openings
Grouted bond beam reinforced as required
over all openings
reinforced as required
8”units 8”units
W indow W indow
Grouted reinforced bond

Grouted reinforced bond beam as required
beam as required
Wood frame floor
Concrete slab floor
Waterproof membrane
18”minimum
Fill 10”
12”
4” 4”
Reinforced as Reinforced as
8”min. required required 8”min.
18” 18”
12”minimum 12”minimum
Typical dimensions Typical dimensions
FIGURE 10.83 Residential wall sections.

CONCRETE BLOCK 199
10.15.4 RAISED WOOD FLOOR CONNECTION
FOR RESIDENTIAL CONSTRUCTION Vertical and horizontal
reinforcement as required by
design
Min. lap per code

Solid blocking - bolts
Studs as required for
horizontal loads
2”x 6”foundation grade Plywood

redwood or treated sill
Floor joists
Floor joists
#4 cont.
”min.
18”min.
18”minimum
6’
Grade #4 cont. Grout all cells in
12”min.
blocks below
floor line
Grout fill all cells Grade
12”minimum
Solid blocking
12”min.
w/bolts
”min.
8”min.
6’
#4 cont.
#4 cont.
12”
Typical dimensions
12” minimum
Typical dimensions
minimum
FIGURE 10.84 Typical CMU foundation wall FIGURE 10.86 Typical CMU foundation wall
perpendicular to floor joists. perpendicular to joists.
Vertical and horizontal

reinforcement as required
Studs by design
Min. lap per code
Solid blocking -
2”x 6”foundation grade bolts as required
redwood or treated sill for horizontal
loads
Blocking Plywood
”min.
Floor joists
18”minimum
6’
#4 cont.
Grade
Floor Joist
joists
18”min.
Grout fill all cells hangers

12”minimum
3 x ledger bolts Grout fill

as required by all cells
design
8”min.
12”min.
#4 cont.
”min.
6’
#4 cont.
12” Typical dimensions
minimum
12”
minimum Typical dimensions
FIGURE 10.85 Typical CMU foundation wall FIGURE 10.87 Typical intermediate CMU wall
parallel to floor joists. parallel to joists.
10.15.5 FOUNDATION DETAILS FOR RESIDENTIAL CONSTRUCTION

reinforcement as required
by design
Expansion joint filler and
Min. lap per code

sealant if no dowels in slab
Dowels from slab to wall may be

omitted where design permits
If over 36”special
design required
#4 cont.
Grout fill all cells in

Grade blocks below floor line
12”min.
”min.
6’
#4 cont. min.
12”minimum
Typical dimensions
FIGURE 10.88 Typical exterior wall - Slab floor.

reinforcement as Vertical and
required by design horizontal
Min. lap per code
Min. lap per code
reinforcement as
required by design
Dowel Dowel
10”min.
18”minimum
18”minimum
Grade
12”min.
#4 cont. top #4 cont. top

and bottom and bottom
Typical dimensions
12”minimum
Typical dimensions
12”minimum
FIGURE 10.89 Typical exterior wall - Slab floor. FIGURE 10.90 Typical interior wall - Bearing
partition, slab floor.
CONCRETE BLOCK 201
10.15.6 ROOF CONNECTION DETAILS FOR RESIDENTIAL CONSTRUCTION
Nails to blocking
Wood lintel beam

continuous - bolts
must be designed for
horizontal loads
Joist
Horizontal
Block at angle reinforcement
Horizontal bars may act Bars

as bond beam and lintel continuous 8”concrete block
reinforcement between
openings
and at sill
Vertical wall bars in
grout filled core
Vertical
reinforcement
8”concrete block
Horizontal
reinforcement
FIGURE 10.91 Typical joist parallel to wall. FIGURE 10.93 Wood tie beam.
Plate 2”x 4”- bolt at 48”o.c.
Saw block to
Cripples
match roof pitch
for gable
Gable end or interior

wall extend to roof
Brace 2”x 6”
Wall plate at 48”o.c.
Ceiling joists Horizontal reinforcement
2 x _ ledger
8”concrete block
8”concrete block
FIGURE 10.92 Typical masonry gable. FIGURE 10.94 Typical wood frame gable.
8. Mortar for laying concrete block shall be Type

10.16 GARDEN FENCES S for SDC D and above. Type S mortar mix
by volume may be 1 part Portland cement,
10.16.1 GENERAL 1
/2 part lime and 41/2 parts damp, loose sand.
9. Grout for concrete block wall to be 1 part
This section provides typical designs for masonry Portland cement, 3 parts sand to which a
residential garden fences using concrete block. maximum of 2 parts pea gravel may be added.
Structural clay brick may also be used for garden fences. Suff icient water to be added to make
consistency for pouring without segregation.
Details are for typical free standing fence walls The grout may contain up to 1/10 part lime,
not more than 6 ft (1.8 m) in height. based on volume of Portland cement.
The walls are designed for lateral pressure of not 10. Block fence to be placed at center of “
I”type
less than 10 pounds per square foot (479 Pa) in foundation and at either edge of “ L”type
accordance with the minimum requirements stated in foundation.
ASCE 7-05, Section 6.4.2.1.1.
A ten pound per square foot (479 Pa) wind

pressure is equivalent to the pressure caused by a #4 vertical
reinforcement 1-#4 horizontal at top
wind speed of approximately 70 mph (113 km/hr).
@48”o.c.
6’- 0”max.
Designs are the common types used, grade beam, Joint reinforcement
and spread footing. Footings should be level. Use or 1-#4 horizontal at
step footings for uneven terrain with each step a height midheight
24”lap length
to fit the masonry module, typically 4 in. (102 mm) or 8
#4 vertical dowels
in. (203 mm). @ 48”o.c. in
foundation
10.16.2 GENERAL NOTES Finished grade
2”min.
Designs are not to be used for retaining walls and 1 - #4 horizontal
1’- 0”
are based on the following criteria: in foundation
3”CLR.
1. Concrete for footing to be f’ = 2,500 psi (13.9 1’- 6” Alternate bend
c
MPa) minimum at 28 days or optional 1 part
Portland cement, 21/2 parts sand and 31/2 parts FIGURE 10.95 6 in. concrete masonry block
gravel with a maximum 71/2 gallons of water wall fence with “
I”type foundation.
per sack of cement.
2. Concrete block units shall conform to ASTM
C 90. #4 vertical
reinforcement
3. Reinforcing Steel to be deformed and conform
@48”o.c. 1-#4 horizontal at top
to ASTM A 615, grade 40 or grade 60.
Minimum lap length shall be 24 in. (610 mm).
Joint reinforcement
6’- 0”max.
4. When joint reinforcement is used, spacing of or 1-#4 horizontal at

joint reinforcement shall not exceed 16 in. midheight
(406 mm) on center. Lap joint reinforcement
24”lap length
#4 vertical
6 in. (152 mm).
dowels @ 48”
5. Center vertical reinforcement in the concrete o.c. in
block cell. foundation
Finished grade
6. Concrete block units shall be laid in running
2”min.
bond. 2 - #4 horiz.
in foundation 1’- 0”
7. Concrete block cells to have vertical continuity
of the cells. All cells containing reinforcement 3”CLR.
shall be solidly grouted (vertical and horizontal 2’- 0”
reinforcement).
FIGURE 10.96 6 in. concrete masonry block
wall fence with “
L”type foundation.
CONCRETE BLOCK 203
11. When inspection is required, first inspection The designs given for continuous footing walls
to be after trenches are ready for concrete typically satisfy the design criteria for Exposure C.
foundation and all required steel is tied in
place. The second inspection shall be when
the vertical and horizontal steel is in place,
10.17 RETAINING WALLS
but not grouted.
The popular use of masonry in retaining walls is a
12. Foundat ion m ust be pl aced agai nst
result of the ease of construction combined with the
undisturbed soil with no appreciable slope
inherent visual beauty. With proper engineering and
of side walls on all types of foundations.
reinforcing steel, masonry retaining walls also provide
13. Height of fences shall comply with all high structural integrity.
provisions of the local building code.
Retaining walls are built to restrain a mass of earth
10.16.3 CONTINUOUS FOOTING WALLS or other material. They have the capacity to resist
overturning and sliding forces. Because overturning
Continuous footing designs are based on the and sliding can lead to catastrophic failure, the code
applicable Exposure Category as defined in IBC requires a 1.5 safety factor (2006 IBC Section 1806.1).
Section 1609.4. Sliding is resisted by the friction between the footing
and the soil, plus the pressure of any earth in front of
IBC Section 1609.4 the wall. A key at the bottom of the footing can provide
1609.4 Exposure category. For each wind direction additional resistance to sliding. In the 2006 IBC, Table
considered, an exposure category that adequately 1804.2 lists allowable values for lateral bearing
reflects the characteristics of ground surface pressure and the coefficient of friction, based on the
irregularities shall be determined for the site at which type of soil. Overturning is resisted by the weight
the building or structure is to be constructed. (vertical loading) of the wall, footing, and soil resting on
Account shall be taken of variations in ground the footing.
surface roughness that arise from natural topography
and vegetation as well as from constructed features. The soil pressure is usually highest under the toe
(front bottom edge of footing) and should not exceed
1609.4.3 Exposure categories. An exposure the bearing capacity of the soil which it rests upon.
category shall be determined in accordance with the
following: The wall must also be strong enough to prevent
failure at any point in its height due to the force of the
Exposure B. Exposure B shall apply where the retained material, which is resisted by the reinforcing
ground surface roughness condition, as defined steel in the masonry wall.
by Surface Roughness B, prevails in the upwind
direction for a distance of at least 2,600 feet (792 In order to reduce lateral pressure loads on a
m) or 20 times the height of the building, whichever retaining wall, drainage for water behind the wall should
is greater. be provided. This drainage prevents excessive
hydrostatic pressure from developing. Two common
Exception: For buildings whose mean roof height methods of drainage to relieve hydrostatic pressure
is less than or equal to 30 feet (9144 mm), the are shown in the figures below. In Figure 10.97 gravel
upwind distance is permitted to be reduced to is used to direct water into a plastic tube, with
1,500 feet (457 m). perforations on top, that will channel the water out and
away from the wall. In Figure 10.98, a pre-manufactured
Exposure C. Exposure C shall apply for all cases and proprietary geo-filter mesh is used to direct the
where Exposures B or D do not apply. water down to a gravel channel. Water is then directed
through the base of the wall by weep holes or weep
Exposure D. Exposure D shall apply where the joints.
ground surface roughness, as defined by Surface
Roughness D, prevails in the upwind direction for If drainage is not provided, hydrostatic pressure
a distance of at least 5,000 feet (1524 m) or 20 must be considered. The hydrostatic pressure could
times the height of the building, whichever is double or triple the soil pressure.
greater. Exposure D shall extend inland from the
shoreline for a distance of 600 feet (183 m) or 20
times the height of the building, whichever is
greater.
A designer familiar with local conditions can assist

in the choice of retaining wall type, and where
unfavorable soil conditions occur, such as silt or
Gravel
quicksand, or where piling is required under a retaining
wall, the assistance of an engineer is essential in design.
Pilings are columns placed under ground to extend or
Perforated pipe connect the bottom of a foundation to “ better”soil
(Top half only) to
channel water conditions or bedrock deeper in the ground.
around the wall
10.17.1 GRAVITY WALLS
The gravity type wall is simple in design and
construction and a good choice for small projects. It
is thicker at the base than cantilever walls and could
cost more to construct on the larger projects.
Cantilever retaining walls are designed with slightly
lower toe pressures than the gravity walls, and may
be a better choice where poor soils with low bearing
resistance are encountered. On the other hand, gravity
retaining walls have greater resistance to sliding
because of greater weight. There are many locations
where a simple gravity retaining wall is the most
Shear key as required
satisfactory and economical choice.
FIGURE 10.97 Cantilever retaining wall with The stability of a gravity retaining wall depends on
gravel and perforated pipe drainage. the weight of the wall and the weight of soil bearing on
the footing. As the height of the retaining wall
increases, or the amount of retained soil increases,
and the base thickness must also increase. Uplift
pressure at the back of the wall (the heel) is avoided by
Proprietary designing the gravity retaining wall thick enough at the
geo-filter mesh base so that the resultant of all forces (overturning force
and vertical loads) falls within the middle one-third of
the base. The eccentricity of the resultant force is equal
Gravel channel
to or less than one-sixth of the base width. When the
with weep holes in
vertical joints only eccentricity (e) is equal to one-sixth the base width
exactly, the maximum footing pressure on the soil at
the front edge of the base (toe) will be twice the average
pressure on the soil.
Gravity walls are of mass masonry designed so

that no tension stresses developed in the wall under
most loading conditions. In some instances, low
tension stresses are permi tted by prov iding
reinforcement in the wall. These partially reinforced
walls are considered as semi-gravity walls.
The material used as cell-fill should be granular,

FIGURE 10.98 Cantilever retaining wall with namely gravel or rock, in areas subject to freezing. In
geo-filter and gravel channel to weep holes. warm climates, any fill material may be used that
increases the gross-unit weight of the masonry.
There are six basic types of retaining walls: gravity
walls, counterfort or buttressed walls, cantilever walls, When used, mortar for gravity retaining walls must
supported walls, segmental walls, and geosynthetic re- be carefully considered. Mortar will provide shear
inforced segmental retaining walls. Selection of the resistance to withstand forces exerted by the retained
particular type of wall will depend on the site, size of soil. Mortar must also be durable, therefore, high to
wall, loads, soil conditions, use and economics of ma- moderate strength mortars are preferred.
terials and construction.
CONCRETE BLOCK 205
Concrete footings for gravity retaining walls should
be placed on firm, undisturbed soil. In areas where
freezing temperatures are expected, place the base
of the footing below the frost line. If the soil under the
footing consists of soft or silty clay, place 4 to 6 in. Tensile tie
counterfort Principal wall
(102 to 152 mm) base of well-compacted sand under reinforcement
the footing before pouring the concrete. Since the is horizontal
retaining wall is non-reinforced gravity construction, it
is not necessary to place reinforcement in the footing.
Care should be taken to avoid exerting large

construction impact forces on the wall.
Provisions should be made to prevent the

accumulation of water behind a gravity retaining wall.
Water allowed to accumulate causes increased FIGURE 10.100 Counterfort retaining wall.
pressure, seepage, and in areas subject to frost action,
an expansive force of considerable magnitude near
the top of the wall. Gravel backfill and weep holes
(located at a 4 to 8 ft (1.2 to 2.4 m) spacing) along the Principal wall
base of the wall should be sufficient. reinforcement is
horizontal
Compression buttress
Depends on weight or brace
for stability
Cross-Section
FIGURE 10.99 Gravity retaining wall.

Principal wall
reinforcement is Hearth
10.17.2 COUNTERFORT OR BUTTRESSED backfill
horizontal
WALLS
Counterfort or buttressed walls span horizontally Compression buttress

between vertical support members. If the vertical or brace
supports are behind the wall and buried in the earth
backfill, they are called counterfort and are tension
members (Figure 10.100).
Plan View
If the vertical supports are exposed in front of the
wall, they are called buttresses and are compression
members (Figure 10.101). In either case, the main FIGURE 10.101 Buttress retaining wall.
wall is considered as a continuous member supported
at each cross wall.
Counterfort and buttressed retaining walls have

been used to retain fills up to 25 ft (7.6 m).
10.17.3 CANTILEVER RETAINING WALLS Adjacent slabs are often tied into the foundation
(Figure 10.103(b)) reducing the need for a large
The most common type of retaining wall is the foundation. These slabs help resist sliding forces and
cantilever retaining wall (Figures 10.102 and 10.103). contribute to reducing soil bearing pressure and
The tension stresses which develop in the wall are overturning forces.
resisted by reinforcing steel placed in the wall and off
center toward the soil side (tension face) of the wall.
The base resists sliding, overturning and rotating due
Property line
to the lateral loading and must also be large enough
to assure that the bearing capacity of the soil is
adequate.
Stem
Heel Toe
Reinforcing steel (a) Retaining wall adjacent to property line
Property line
Tension face Compression
face
Heel Foundation
Toe
Adjacent slab
Shear key (as

required)
FIGURE 10.102 Cantilever retaining wall. Heel Toe
Cantilever retaining walls can be designed with a (b) Retaining wall adjacent to property line with foundation
minimum length of heel or toe, which is useful in limited tied into floor slab to increase the sliding resistance.
space areas such as near property lines and existing
utility lines (Figure 10.103). These walls require special * Provide at least a 2" (50.4 mm) footing extension to allow for
attention to assure they can resist the lateral earth construction tolerances.
forces and overturning moment through their own weight
and strength. When there is no footing heel on a property
FIGURE 10.103 Property line type retaining
wall, there will be no resisting soil mass and thus the
walls.
wall foundation may be large and heavy.
Retaining walls must be designed to safely resist Cantilever retaining wall footings must be placed
overturning and sliding due to the forces imposed by on firm, undisturbed soil. In areas exposed to freezing
the retained backfill. The factor of safety against temperatures the base of the footing should be placed
overturning should ideally be at least 2.0 and the factor below the frost line.
of safety against sliding not less than 1.5. In addition,
the bearing pressure under the footing or bottom of the Backfilling against retaining walls should be
retaining wall should not exceed the allowable soil delayed for at least 7 days after placement of grout.
bearing pressure, or should provide a factor of safety of During backfilling, heavy equipment should not
at least three over the ultimate bearing capacity. approach closer to the top of the wall than a distance
equal to the height of the wall.
CONCRETE BLOCK 207
Care should also be taken to avoid exerting large To give an indication of the material and size of a
impact forces on the wall, such as dumping a large retaining wall, Figure 10.104 provides two typical types
mass of earth against the wall. Ideally, backfill should of cantilever retaining walls - Heel Dominate and Toe
be placed in 12 to 24 in. (305 to 610 mm) increments, Dominate. The heel dominate retaining wall has the
with each lift being compacted by hand equipment. majority of the foundation extending into the retained
earth. The toe dominate retaining wall has the majority
Prov isi ons m ust be made to prev ent the of the foundation extending into the non-retained side
accumulation of water behind the face of the wall and of the wall.
to reduce the possible effects of frost action. In most
cases, weep holes spaced 4 to 8 ft (1.2 to 2.4 m) apart The design tables for the cantilever retaining walls
along the base of the wall are sufficient. are for retained soil with no slope (level soil at the top
of the retaining wall). Design lateral pressures are for
Where heavy prolonged rains are anticipated, a 30 psf per foot of depth and for 45 psf per foot of depth.
continuous longitudinal drain along the back of the wall
may be used in lieu of weep holes. The design criteria for the tables is based on the
following material assumptions:
Climate, soil conditions, and type of construction
determine the need for waterproofing the back face of Masonry design strength, f’
m
= 1,500 psi
retaining walls. Waterproofing is recommended in Concrete masonry units, ASTM C 90
areas subject to severe frost action; in areas of heavy Grout strength, 3,000 psi
rainfalls; and when the backfill material is relatively Footing concrete strength, 3,000 psi
impermeable. The top of masonry retaining walls Reinforcement, Grade 60
should be capped or otherwise protected to prevent
water entry into hollow cores.
Surcharge loading Surcharge loading
2”clear
CMU Vertical reinforcement
Continuous #4
Vertical Drainage system reinforcement (typ.) H
reinforcement typically gravel and Top reinforcement
H
perforated pipe
12” (typ.)
Top
reinforcement Bottom
12” (typ.) reinforcement 3”
clr. D
Continuous #4 16”for no surcharge 3” 16”for no surcharge

D
reinforcement 24”for 100 psf clr. 24”for 100 psf
(typ.) surcharge surcharge
Bottom 12”for no surcharge

B
reinforcement 18”for 100 psf surcharge
B
Heel Dominate Toe Dominate

Cantilever Retaining Wall Cantilever Retaining Wall
FIGURE 10.104 Cantilever retaining wall.

Table 10.3a Reinforcement Requirements for Typical Cantilever Retaining Wall

1
Design Details and Steel Requirements –No Surcharge Loading
Foundation Foundation Toe Dominate Heel Dominate
CMU Top Bottom Vertical Vertical
H
Width Reinforce- Reinforce- Reinforce- Reinforce-
ment ment B D ment B D ment
10” 8'-0" #6 @ 8" #5 @ 8" 5'-3" 1'-0" #6 @ 16" 6'-3" 1'-0" #6 @ 16"
10” 7'-4" #5 @ 8" #4 @ 8" 4'-6" 1'-0" #5 @ 16" 5'-9" 1'-0" #5 @ 16"
Lateral 10” 6'-8" #5 @ 8" #5 @ 16" 4'-0" 1'-0" #6 @ 24" 5'-0" 1'-0" #6 @ 24"
Pressure 10” 6'-0" #4 @ 8" #4 @ 16" 3'-6" 1'-0" #5 @ 24" 4'-6" 1'-0" #6 @ 32"
45 psf 8” 5'-4" #5 @ 16" #4 @ 32" 3'-0" 1'-0" #5 @ 32" 3'-9" 1'-0" #6 @ 32"
8” 4'-8" #4 @ 16" #4 @ 32" 2-6" 1'-0" #4 @ 32" 3'-0" 1'-0" #5 @ 32"
8” 4'-0" #4 @ 32" #4 @ 32" 2'-0" 1'-0" #4 @ 32" 2'-3" 1'-0" #4 @ 32"
10” 8'-0" #5 @ 8" #5 @ 16" 4'-6" 1'-0" #5 @ 16" 4'-0" 1'-0" #6 @ 24"
10” 7'-4" #4 @ 8" #5 @ 16" 4'-0" 1'-0" #6 @ 24" 3'-6" 1'-0" #6 @ 32"
Lateral 10” 6'-8" #5 @ 16" #4 @ 16" 3'-6" 1'-0" #5 @ 24" 3'-3" 1'-0" #5 @ 32"
Pressure 10” 6'-0" #5 @ 16" #5 @ 32" 3'-0" 1'-0" #5 @ 32" 3'-0" 1'-0" #5 @ 32"
30 psf 8” 5'-4" #4 @ 16" #4 @ 32" 2'-6" 1'-0" #4 @ 32" 2'-6" 1'-0" #5 @ 32"
8” 4'-8" #4 @ 32" #4 @ 32" 2'-3" 1'-0" #4 @ 32" 2'-0" 1'-0" #4 @ 32"
8” 4'-0" #4 @ 32" #4 @ 32" 2'-0" 1'-0" #4 @ 32" 1'-6" 1'-0" #4 @ 32"
1
Allowable values: Bearing = 3000 psf, Lateral Bearing = 200 psf with an increase of 100% per foot of depth, Coefficient of Friction = 0.35
Table 10.3b Reinforcement Requirements for Typical Cantilever Retaining Wall

1 2
Design Details and Steel Requirements –100 psf Vertical Surcharge Loading
Foundation Foundation Toe Dominate Heel Dominate
CMU Top Bottom Vertical Vertical
H
Width Reinforce- Reinforce- Reinforce- Reinforce-
ment ment B D ment B D ment
12” 8'-0" #6 @ 8" #5 @ 8" 5'-6" 1'-6" #6 @ 16" 6'-9" 1'-3" #6 @ 16"
12” 7'-4" #5 @ 8" #4 @ 8" 5'-0" 1'-6" #5 @ 16" 6'-3" 1'-3" #6 @ 16"
Lateral 12” 6'-8" #5 @ 8" #5 @ 16" 4'-6" 1'-6" #6 @ 24" 5'-6" 1'-3" #6 @ 24"
Pressure 12” 6'-0" #4 @ 8" #4 @ 16" 4'-0" 1'-0" #6 @ 32" 5'-0" 1'-0" #6 @ 32"
45 psf 12” 5'-4" #5 @ 16" #4 @ 32" 3'-6" 1'-0" #5 @ 32" 4'-6" 1'-0" #5 @ 32"
12” 4'-8" #4 @ 16" #4 @ 32" 3’
-0" 1'-0" #5 @ 32" 3'-9" 1'-0" #4 @ 32"
12” 4'-0" #4 @ 32" #4 @ 32" 2'-6" 1'-0" #4 @ 32" 3'-0" 1'-0" #4 @ 32"
10” 8'-0" #5 @ 8" #5 @ 16" 4'-9" 1'-0" #6 @ 16" 4'-9" 1'-0" #6 @ 16"
10” 7'-4" #4 @ 8" #5 @ 16" 4'-3" 1'-0" #5 @ 16" 4'-3" 1'-0" #5 @ 16"
Lateral 10” 6'-8" #5 @ 16" #4 @ 16" 3'-9" 1'-0" #6 @ 24" 4'-0" 1'-0" #6 @ 24"
Pressure 10” 6'-0" #5 @ 16" #5 @ 32" 3'-3" 1'-0" #6 @ 32" 3'-6" 1'-0" #6 @ 32"
30 psf 8” 5'-4" #4 @ 16" #4 @ 32" 3'-0" 1'-0" #5 @ 24" 3'-0" 1'-0" #5 @ 24"
8” 4'-8" #4 @ 32" #4 @ 32" 2'-6" 1'-0" #4 @ 24" 2'-6" 1'-0" #4 @ 24"
8” 4'-0" #4 @ 32" #4 @ 32" 2'-3" 1'-0" #4 @ 32" 2'-3" 1'-0" #4 @ 32"
1
Allowable values: Bearing = 3000 psf. Lateral Bearing = 200 psf with an increase of 100% per foot of depth. Coefficient of Friction = 0.35
2
Rankine value of 0.36 applied to the 100 psf vertical surcharge
CONCRETE BLOCK 209
10.17.4 SUPPORTED WALLS Load
Basement walls and subterranean garages are

often laterally supported at the top by floor systems.
Depending on the type of support provided by the

floor and foundation systems, a supported wall could
be considered having either a fixed top and bottom, a
fixed base with simply supported top or a simply
Compression face
supported top and bottom (Figure 10.105). Each wall
type must be designed and reinforced accordingly.
Note that the location of reinforcement may be on the Load
opposite face of a cantilevered retaining wall for
Tension face
maximum efficiency. Continuity of the connections at
the top and the bottom must be developed by proper
reinforcement in order to provide the required degree
of fixity.
FIGURE 10.106 Supported retaining wall.
prevent overturning and sliding. The units may also be

used in combination with horizontal layers of soil
reinforcement extending into the backfill to increase
the effective width and weight of the gravity mass.
This type of retaining wall is considered a flexible

structure, therefore, the footing does not need to be
placed below the frost line provided there is enough
(a) (b) (c) foundation bearing capacity.
(a) Simply supported top and bottom
Units used for segmental retaining walls conform
(b) Simply supported top: fixed at bottom to the requirements of ASTM C 1372 Standard
(c) Fixed at top and bottom Specification for Dry-Cast Segmental Retaining Wall
Units to assure that units delivered to a project are
uniform in weight, dimensional tolerances, strength, and
FIGURE 10.105 Supported retaining walls with durability; features not necessarily provided in site cast
various end conditions. materials.
Basement or subterranean garage walls are often

subjected to both vertical and lateral loads since these
perimeter walls support the building above as well as
resist the earth pressure (Figure 10.106). The com-
bined wall loading, vertical load plus lateral load, must
be considered in the design.
10.17.5 SEGMENTAL WALLS
An innovative type of wall for the purpose of

retaining earth is the segmental retaining wall.
Segmental retaining walls are gravity retaining

walls depending primarily on self-weight for stability.
The system consists of concrete masonry units which
are placed without the use of mortar and depends on
a combination of mechanical interlock and mass to
FIGURE 10.107 Segmental retaining wall units.
The segmental retaining walls offer many design the toe of the structure for stability. Shear capacity is
advantages, which include aesthetics, design flexibility, an important component to assure that the units act
economics, ease of installation, performance and together as a coherent mass, since the system consists
durability. of individual units dry stacked upon each other.
The design of segmental retaining walls can be Shear capacity provides a means of transferring
conventional (gravity), soil-reinforced or geosynthetic. lateral forces from each course to the adjacent course.
Due to the concrete unit size, shape, batter, and other This is provided by the frictional resistance between
conditions, the structural capacity of the segmental segmental reinforced wall units in the form of keys or
retaining wall system will v ary. Manuf acturer leading/training lips.
recommendations should be followed for design
information. When using multiple depth walls, taller segmental
retaining walls can be achieved. These walls increase
10.17.5.1 CONVENTIONAL OR GRAVITY the weight of the wall system and provide a steady
base and greater resistance to soil pressures.
Conventional or gravity segmental retaining walls
can be constructed with either single or multiple depths The conventional or gravity retaining wall is usually
of units (Figure 10.108). The conventional segmental battered so that the wall steps back into the hillside.
retaining wall structure must have enough mass to The force of gravity on the heavy units resists lateral
prevent both sliding at the base and overturning about soil pressure to form a functional retaining wall.
10.17.5.2 SOIL-REINFORCED OR GEOSYNTHETIC

Uniform surcharge loading
Soil-reinforced or geosynthetic segmental retaining
walls are not constructed with traditional steel
reinforcement surrounded by grout. The reinforcement
consists of a high density polyethylene or polyester
Exposed height of wall
manufactured in a grid-like pattern. It is flatly laid into

Total height of wall
the wall and the earth behind the wall in predetermined

layers and dimensions. Thus, it effectively helps to
hold the wall back into the earth. A diagram of this
system is shown in Figure 10.109.
Uniform surcharge loading

Wall
embedment depth
(a) Single Depth Wall

Geosynthetic
reinforcement
Exposed height of wall
s
Exc avation boundarie
Total height of wall
Wall
(b) Multiple Depth and Battered Segmental Wall embedment depth
F IGURE 10.109 So il-rein forced or

FIGURE 10.108 Conventional or gravity geosynthetic reinforced segmental retaining wall.
segmental retaining wall.
CONCRETE BLOCK 211
The foundation, leveling pad, wall units, retained basement walls are to be finished, this is particularly
soil and drainage fill are basic elements of the segmental true since square and plumb masonry walls are easily
retaining wall system. The geosynthetic reinforcement furred out for gypsum wallboard finish. Competing
is the additional element for soil-reinforced segmental wall systems lack the precision of hand crafted
retaining walls. masonry walls. Where desired, architectural concrete
masonry units provide an attractive and inexpensive
A designer who has technical knowledge of soil finished wall surface.
and structural mechanics should prepare the typical
designs and specifications for segmental retaining 10.18.2 STRENGTH AND DURABILITY
walls. The manufacturer for each segmental retaining
wall unit can provide prescriptive design information Concrete masonry can be easily and economically
related to that product which will specify the wall reinforced making the system ideal for resisting soil
heights, design conditions, and when a segmental pressure imposed on below grade walls.
retaining wall should be designed by a qualified engineer.
The durability of concrete masonry makes it
The design flexibility of segmental retaining wall perfect for foundation basements and above grade
systems means that these walls can be used in a construction. Properly designed and constructed
number of applications, including landscaping, concrete masonry buildings have continually withstood
structural walls for changes in grade, bridge abutments, disasters such as earthquakes, hurricanes and
stream channelization, water-front structures, tunnel explosions.
access walls, wing walls and parking area support.
10.18.3 TEXTURES AND INTERIOR FINISHES
The installation success of any segmental retaining The needs of the designer, the builder and the owner
wall is based on complete and accurate field are met with the wide variety of colors and textures of
information, careful planning and scheduling, the use concrete masonry units. Some additional options to
of specified materials, proper construction procedures standard precision block surfaces are split faced, scored,
and inspection. burnished, and fluted block. To achieve specific
patterns, color tinted units can be used in the entire
10.18 CONCRETE MASONRY wall or in specific patterns or sections.
BASEMENTS 10.18.4 NATURAL LIGHTING
Building walls below grade are known as Windows and window wells of a variety of shapes
foundation walls. These walls may serve as support and sizes can easily be accommodated with the
for above grade walls or other structural members, modular nature of concrete masonry, providing
such as enclosure walls around excavated areas or basements with warm, natural lighting. Glass block
as both supporting and enclosure walls. units can be incorporated into the walls in lieu of
traditional glass windows for additional security and
Concrete masonry is excellent for basement and privacy.
foundation wall construction due to economy, durability,
strength, noise insulation, termite resistance and fire 10.18.5 ENERGY EFFICIENCY
resistance. These attributes justify the widespread use
of concrete block masonry for foundation walls and The consistent temperatures in basements are due
basements. to the thermal mass of concrete masonry, consequently
providing a more comfortable area. Large windows wells
Basements are typically built with standard gray and walk-out basement doors may also contribute to
block which can be unfinished or used as a base for heat by allowing solar energy into basements.
other finish treatments such as plaster, paint or
wallboard on furring strips. Attractive finishes to the 10.18.6 FIRE RESISTANCE
interior walls of a basement can be achieved with
architectural units. Concrete masonry successfully resists the passage
of flames, smoke and heat. Building codes give high
10.18.1 MAINTENANCE AND LOW COST fire ratings to concrete masonry walls, making efficient
One of the advantages of concrete masonry fire walls for hotels, apartments and other structures.
construction is the high quality and performance which These concrete masonry attributes are excellent for
makes the concrete masonry units competitive with basements to safeguard against the spread of electrical
other construction materials. In cases where the and mechanical fires.
10.18.7 AREAS OF REFUGE

2 x 4 @ 16”o.c.
As a subterranean level, basements are naturally

2 x 4 mudsill 5/8”dia.
protected from the flying debris associated with anchor bolts @ 48”o.c.
hurricanes and high winds. This sheltered location
provides a natural refuge as recognized by the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and the 11”
FEMA requirements for ‘ safe’rooms during natural
disasters.
#5 dowels @
2 - #5’
s
10.18.8 NOISE CONTROL 16”o.c.
36”36”
Concrete masonry is a superior noise control

material in two ways. First, concrete masonry walls
work as barriers which block sound transmission over
a wide range of frequencies. Second, concrete masonry 8”concrete masonry wall
can be an efficient sound absorption material for #5’s @ 48”o.c.
absorbing noise produced within a room. vertical
#5’
s @ 48”o.c.
10.18.9 BASEMENT DESIGN horizontal
Basement walls are either partially or fully below #5 dowels @

grade which encloses habitable or potentially habitable 16”o.c.
36” #4 dowels @ 32”o.c.
space (Figure 10.110). 12” 24” 31/2”slab on grade w/
24” 6 x 6 - 10/10 reinf.
By contrast crawl space walls, which include 2 - #5’
s
curtain walls and possible pier footings, do not enclose
habitable space (Figure 10.111). (Crawl space walls are
shorter than basement walls and are not supported by 2 - #5’
s
12” 18”
a slab at the base.) Stem walls are foundation walls
that typically do not support unbalanced backfill loads
3”Clr.
(Figure 10.112). 18”
Crawl space walls and curtain walls frequently fall Typical Dimensions
and Detailing
into this large stem wall definition. The basement, crawl
space, and stem walls are laterally supported at the FIGURE 10.110 Typical basement wall.
top by a first floor diaphragm.
Residential basement walls may act more as a

cantilevered retaining wall if there is a large, open
adjacent stairway. Likewise, crawl space walls may
step down to become basement walls. These walls
must be designed to transmit any imposed loads from
the above grade structure into the surrounding soil and
resist the pressure exerted by the soil. Bond beam
Typically, basement walls are designed to span

vertically between the basement slab or footing and Pier
the first floor system. The load path at the bottom of a Infill wall between piers
basement wall can be transmitted through soil load
bearing and through passive or frictional resistance of #5’s @ 48”o.c.
the footing with the soil. However, the connection at vertical (typ.)
the top of the wall may need careful detailing (Figure
10.113).
FIGURE 10.111 Crawl space wall.

CONCRETE BLOCK 213
Masonry wall s must be connected to all
Beam
intersecting walls that provide support. This can be
achieved by bonding the walls together horizontally with
metal straps or reinforced bond beams.
Vertical
reinforcement
10.18.10 WATER PENETRATION RESISTANCE
Basement walls must resist water penetration in
order to prevent water damage to adjoining storage
Stem wall and habitable spaces. To mitigate below grade water
problems, three techniques are commonly and
collectively employed:
#5’s @ 48”o.c.
vertical 1. A surface drainage system to collect and direct
water away from the foundation is installed.
Footing
2. Dampproofing or waterproofing systems are
applied to the masonry walls.
3. Drainage is provided to direct surface and roof
FIGURE 10.112 Stem wall. water away from the basement.
Uplift pressure Anchor strap

during strong winds
Plywood diaphragm
Vertical loads (dead Floor joist

and live loads)
Blocking
Toe nailing
Joists Joist hanger

Sill plate Ledger beam
Anchor bolt Basement wall reinforcement
FIGURE 10.114 Ledger beam connection at

top of residential basement wall.
FIGURE 10.113 Typical connection at the top

of residential basement wall. Joist anchor
Floor diaphragm
Calculations may show that sill plates and anchor
Blocking
bolts may lack the capacity to carry the expected
reaction from the soil loads, although wood sill plate
connection details have historically performed well.
Masonry basement wall connections to other floor

systems, such as cast-in-place concrete, can carry the
Floor joist
soil load reaction with mechanical connections or
typical reinforcement. Joist hanger
Basement wall reinforcement

Also, floor connections can be made using ledger
beams and straps or with sill plates and hanging the
joists to the sill plates. FIGURE 10.115 Alternate connection at top
of residential basement wall.
Moisture presence on the inside surface of 10.18.11 CONSTRUCTION

basement walls is frequently attributed to moisture
penetration through the walls when this moisture may Basement walls can be constructed in a variety of
actually be due to condensation. Condensation may ways using different materials, techniques and
form on the cooler wall surface when the indoor air methods. Basement walls, however, rely on the quality
temperature is greater than the wall surf ace construction in accordance with the structural design
temperature. Greater indoor humidity levels require and the project specif ications f or successf ul
smaller temperature differentials to cause condensation. performance.
When the wall temperature is significantly below the
air temperature, condensation may occur any time. For basement wall construction, concrete masonry
units must comply with ASTM C 90 Standard
Minimizing the accumulation of surface water by Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units.
diverting it away from the foundation is the first line of To provide a finished interior to the basement specific
defense in creating a moisture free basement. This colors and textures may be specified.
may be achieved in many ways. The finished grade
should be sloped away from the foundation at least 6 There are several types of concrete masonry units
in. (152 mm) within 10 ft (3.1 m) of the building. A av ailabl e to prov ide an ext ensiv e v ariety of
shallow trench or swale can be provided to intercept appearances. Also, there are a variety of units which
the water and divert it if the topography of the ground facilitate reinforced masonry construction, thereby
is such that the natural slope is toward the building. reducing the complexity and cost of construction.
Gutters and downspouts will collect water from the Backfilling is one of the most critical operations in
roof of the building and deposit it away from the basement construction. Proper backfilling will prevent
foundation. When necessary, water from downspouts or minimize wall cracking during the construction
should be directed onto splash blocks or carried away process. Walls designed to be supported at the top
using plastic tubing. With the use of roof overhangs, may crack or even fail if not properly braced until the
balconies, and porches the soil that surrounds the lateral supports at the top of the walls are provided.
foundation may be protected from the direct exposure
of rain. To prevent infiltration of surface water, planting One bracing scheme which has been used for
of shrubbery or the placement of a thin layer of residential basement walls is shown in Figure 10.116.
impermeable soil over the backfill immediately adjacent Considerably more bracing may be required for high
to the foundation wall will further help. walls or large backfill pressures.
”
-0
8’
”
-0
8’
2 x 10
plank
2x4
cleat 2 x 10
brace
2 x 4 strut
brace
Two 2 x 6 stakes
driven into firm soil
at least 12”
FIGURE 10.116 Typical bracing scheme for concrete masonry basement walls.
CHAPTER
11
REINFORCING STEEL
The qual ity of resisting bot h tensile and

11.1 GENERAL compressive loading is ideal for areas of high seismic
activity. Seismic events create loading on a structure
The development of reinforced masonry parallels that reverses direction. Thus, a structural member
the development of reinforced concrete. Both systems that is in compression one second can go into tension
are heterogeneous, meaning made up of more than during the next second. Masonry structures must be
one material which have different properties, but the reinforced in order to provide the necessary capacity
system of materials is treated as homogeneous (one to resist the load reversals and extreme stress
material). Unreinforced masonry, like concrete, is ideal excursions that occur during earthquakes.
for resisting compressive forces but is relatively weak
in tension. Reinforcing steel, on the other hand, is In addition to the high tensile and compressive
excellent when used to resist tension forces but it can strength characteristics, reinforced masonry provides
be subject to buckling when placed under compres- high dynamic properties such as high dampening and
sion loads. Masonry (for compression) and steel (for energy absorption. The reinforcing steel also improves
tension) combine to produce a structure capable of the ductility and toughness of the masonry system and
resisting high compressive and tensile loads. holds a building together through continuity of
connections between elements.
When a wall, beam or column is loaded and
deflects in a curved form, compression forces develop
on the concave side (inside of curve) and tension
forces develop on the convex side (outside of curve).
The forces are transmitted through the masonry, into
the grout and then through the grout into the reinforcing
steel (Figure 11.2).
The principles of reinforced masonry design given

in the 2005 MSJC Code, Section 2.3.1 & 3.3.2 (f), state
the tensile strength of the masonry (unit, mortar, and
grout) shall be neglected for tensile stresses. In the
structural analysis, this means only the steel
reinforcement is considered for carrying and resisting
the tensile forces.
FIGURE 11.1 28 Story Excalibur Hotel/Casino-
Las Vegas, Nevada.
11.2.2 WALL WITH LATERAL LOAD
Figure 11.4 depicts a cantilever retaining wall in

flexure (note the curve of the deformed shape). The
earth behind the wall exerts forces that pushes the wall
Compression
Lateral Force
Lateral Force
Compression
Tension Tension to the left. While the masonry on the left side of the
wall is being squeezed in compression, the reinforcing
Reinforcing steel on the right side of the wall, closest to the earth,
Reinforcing
steel
steel is being pulled into tension.
Grout
Grout
In Figure 11.4, note how the reinforcement is
placed closer to the tension side than the compression
Concrete masonry Brick side. This location is advantageous in a retaining wall
application since the load is always causing tension
on the right and compression on the left.
FIGURE 11.2 Forces transmitted through
masonry and grout to steel.
“
d”distance
11.2 TENSION STRESSES
Lateral earth pressure

11.2.1 BEAM WITH VERTICAL LOAD
The top of the beam shown in Figure 11.3 is
Tension side
Compression side
squeezing together in the center, placing the masonry
into compression. The bottom of the beam, however,
is pulling apart in the center, putting it in tension. When
the limited tension capacity of the masonry is
exceeded, masonry cracks and the steel reinforcement
resists the tension force. This combination of steel
reinforcement and masonry extends the application and
use of masonry for structures.
Whenever a beam curves, a tension side and

compression side develop. The reinforcing steel must
be placed on the tensi on side of the curv e.
Continuous reinforcement is preferred to lapping bars F IGURE 11.4 Cantilever retaining wall
of reinforcement; however, lapping reinforcement bars supporting lateral earth pressure.
is acceptable when field conditions dictate.
For buildings subjected to wind forces, the load
can be applied on either side. Direct wind forces push
Vertical load on beam on a building while wind suction forces pull on the
opposite side of the structure. Figure 11.5, shows the
Tension Tension forces created on a building due to wind loading. The
Compression wind direction can switch and thus the tension side on
the wall will switch (there will still be uplift on the roof).
Because tension can occur on either side of the wall,
Compression
the most economically reasonable location of the
Compression
Tension reinforcement is in the center of the wall. Walls 10 in.
Flexural cracks (254 mm), 12 in. (305 mm) and greater in thickness
may contain two layers of reinforcing steel, one near
Flexural reinforcing steel
each wall face, to obtain the maximum structural
efficiency. This configuration will place reinforcement
directly in the tension zone regardless of the direction
FIGURE 11.3 Beam supporting vertical load.
of lateral force.
Joist to masonry Uplift Joist to masonry
wall connection wall connection
d W in
W in d
Roof to joist must Roof to joist must

resist uplift resist uplift
For the wind direc tion

shown, tension is on right
Positive wind Negative wind
side of each wall
pressure pressure (suction)
For the wind direction
shown, tension is on
right side of each wall
Wall to foundation Wall to foundation

connection connection
Concrete slab
FIGURE 11.5 Wind loading on a building.
In columns, the steel may act in compression along

11.3 COMPRESSION STRESSES with the compressive capabilities of masonry. The
modulus of elasticity of steel, ES = 29,000,000 psi
Reinforcing steel can also be used to increase the (199.9 GPa), is much higher than the modulus of
compressive capability of masonry columns. elasticity of the masonry which ranges from Em =
500,000 psi (3.4 GPa) to 4,000,000 psi (27.6 GPa).
Vertical load Because of the higher modulus of elasticity of the steel,
the steel can be stressed at least “
n”(Modular ratio n =
ES/Em) times the stress of the masonry. The actual
stress in the steel will be much greater because the
masonry tends to move from under the load, shifting the
load to the reinforcing steel. This is called creep or
plastic flow.
Unsupported reinforcing steel bars in compression

may buckle, or move outward from the center. In order
Vertical reinforcing steel to prevent the vertical column bars from buckling, they
must be encased with horizontal steel ties.
Horizontal ties
The importance of lateral ties is seen in the code.
Section 2.1.6.5 of the 2005 MSJC Code gives the
following general requirements for tie spacing in
columns.
1. For Seismic Design Categories A, B and C, the

minimum diameter of column ties shall be at least
1
/4 in. (6.4 mm) in diameter.
2. For Seismic Design Categories A, B, and C,

FIGURE 11.6 Reinforced brick column - spacing of column ties shall not exceed the more
Properly tied vertical reinforcing steel assists in restrictive of:
carrying compressive loads.
a. 16 diameters of the longitudinal (vertical)
reinforcement.
Ties As a rule of thumb, shear reinforcement is spaced

at a maximum distance of one-half the overall depth
of the beam minus 3 in. (76.2 mm) or 48 in. (1219 mm)
on center. The actual maximum distance is a little
Vertical
reinforcement less than one-half the beam depth (MSJC Code,
tied to dowels Section 2.3.5.3.1).
projecting
from footing
Load
Reinforced
concrete footing
d/2
d
Shear
cracks
Allowable shear stress ex-

FIGURE 11.7 Reinforced concrete masonry ceeds actual stress. Shear
reinforcement not required.
column.
Shear reinforcement spaced as
required but spaced not more
b. 48 tie diameters. the d/2 so that every potential
shear crack is crossed.
c. Least cross-sectional dimension of the
column.
FIGURE 11.8 Beam reinforced for shear.
As an example, if vertical reinforcement of a 16 in.
(407 mm) square column were #5’ s (5/8 in. diameter
[15.9 mm]) encased by 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) ties, then the Shear forc e f rom
maximum spacing of the column ties would be the most wind or earthquake
restrictive of the following:
 Vertical Reinforcement (5/8) x 16 = 10 in.

Horizontal Reinforcement
shear to resist
 Horizontal Reinforcement (1/4) x 48 = 12 in. reinforcement overturning
tension
 Least Column Dimension 16 in. Diagonal and compression
tension forces
shear d
d/2 or 48”
Most Restrictive (10 in.) applies. cracks
max.
d/4 max.
3. In Seismic Design Categories D and above, the
minimum diameter of a column ties shall be at
least 3/8 in. (9.5 mm).
4. For Seismic Design Categories D and above, Hook design

requirements
spacing of column ties shall not exceed 8 in.
(203 mm) for the full column height.
11.4 SHEAR STRESSES FIGURE 11.9 Shear wall or shear reinforced

pier.
Although masonry has the capability to resist shear
forces, these forces in beams and walls are often large
enough to exceed the shear capacity of the masonry.
When this occurs, the beam or shear wall must be
reinforced with steel to resist these high shear forces.
The shear reinforcing steel is placed in the same
direction as the load causing the shear stress.
tension. Therefore there is need for continuous
11.5 SHRINKAGE AND rei nf orcement and in addit ion t o continuous
TEMPERATURE STRESSES reinforcement; any required ties must be spaced closer
together.
Concrete block masonry walls shrink due to The close spacing of ties acts as a cage to hold
moisture loss and hydration of the cement. This masonry together. This is known as confinement of
shrinkage causes tension stresses to develop and the the masonry. Section 1613 of the 2006 IBC develop
masonry may easily crack if reinforcement and/or seismic design requirements for buildings. The
control joints are not provided. Accordingly, horizontal formulation is based on the concept of Seismic Design
reinforcing steel or joint reinforcement is used to Categories (SDC’ s) in lieu of the familiar Seismic Zones
accommodate shrinkage stresses and reduce vertical contained in previous model codes. The relative scale
cracking. Joint reinf orcement and def ormed of seismic activity (0 minimal and 4 severe) of Seismic
reinforcement may be used in combination to reinforce Zones (Figure 11.11) has been replaced with SDC’ s.
the masonry system. The new ground motion maps (Figure 11.12) of the IBC,
do not provide the immediate global insight gained from
Masonry walls may also crack from expansion and viewing the seismic zones. The high gradation of the
contraction caused by temperature changes. Joint ground motion maps (scale of 0 to 300), blurs the areas
reinforcement and deformed reinforcing steel control between low and high seismic loading.
cracking and may allow wider spacing of movement
control joints.
11.6 SEISMIC FORCES

In high seismic risk areas, masonry structures
must be reinforced to provide adequate strength as
the structures undergo the reversal of stresses caused
during an earthquake. Figure 11.10 depicts the
deformed shape of a structure during a significant
earthquake. The placement of tension steel would be
on the convex side of the curved beams and columns.
However, the picture is only a snapshot in time during
a seismic event. In the next second, the building could
curve in the opposite directions where all tension sides
become compression and compression sides become F IGURE 11.10 Buil ding su bjected to
earthquake forces.
FIGURE 11.11 Uniform Building Code Seismic Zone Map.

Maximum Ground Motion for the Continental U.S. –0.2 sec Spectral Acceleration
(5% critical damping), Site Class B (2006 IBC Figure 1613.5(1))
Maximum Ground Motion for the Continental U.S. –1.0 sec Spectral Acceleration
(5% critical damping), Site Class B (2006 IBC Figure 1613.5(2))
FIGURE 11.12 Seismic ground accelerations.

and within 8 in. (203 mm) of movement joints and the
11.7 MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT ends of the walls. The maximum spacing of vertical
REQUIREMENTS reinforcement is 10 ft.(3.1 m) on center. Minimum
horizontal reinforcement shall consist of horizontal joint
reinforcement of at least two W1.7 (MW11) wires spaced
11.7.1 MINIMUM AREA OF STEEL not more than 16 in. (406 mm) on center, or deformed
reinforcement of at least 0.20 in2 (129 mm2) in cross-
To assure adequate reinforcement in masonry, the
sectional area for bond beams spaced at 10 ft (3.1 m)
MSJC Code specifically states minimum reinforcing
on center maximum; at top and bottom of wall openings
steel spacing and amount based on Seismic Design
and within 16 in. (406 mm) of the top of the wall. The
Categories.
reinforcement shall extend at least 24 in. (610 mm) or
Further, the Uniform Building Code has historically at least 40 bar diameters past openings.
stated and the MSJC Code strongly implies that plain
When the seismic risk is increased additional
bars larger than 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) are not to be used in
reinforcing steel is required for the performance of
masonry. Reinforcing steel of 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) and larger
masonry.
must be deformed bars.
In addition to the requirements of SDC’s A and B,
11.7.1.1 MINIMUM STEEL REQUIREMENTS FOR LOW
SDC C contains specific seismic provisions contained
SEISMIC EXPOSURE
in 2005 MSJC Code, Section 1.14.5.2.3. This code
The categories with virtually no seismic risk, SDC section states minimum vertical reinforcement of one
A and B, contain no special provisions for reinforcement #4 bar at 48 in. (1219 mm) on center maximum, and
in masonry. When masonry walls are not part of the also within 8 in. (203 mm) of the ends of the wall.
lateral resisting system, simple provisions of the IBC Horizontal reinforcement has the same requirement
and MSJC Code are followed, such as positive anchorage as vertical minimum reinforcement or two W1.7
at all connections and limits in lateral deflection. (MW11) wire joint reinforcement at 16 in. (406 mm)
Masonry may then be constructed without reinforcing on center maximum for walls thicker than 4 in. (102
steel, and hence, without grout. mm).
If SDC A walls are part of the lateral force-resisting The required area of 0.20 in.2 (129 mm2), equates
system (shear walls), walls may be designed to one #4 bar, which is 0.20 in.2 (129 mm2) in cross-
empirically in accordance with 2005 MSJC Code sectional area.
Section 1.14.2.2. Lateral force-resisting walls in SDC’ s
In addition to the above, columns require ties with
A and B shall have minimum reinforcement of 0.20
a minimum of two ties within the top 5 in. (127 mm) of
in.2 (129 mm2) in cross-sectional area and shall be
the column.
provided at corners, within 16 in. (406 mm) of openings
0.20 in2 reinforcement area min.
2
0.20 in reinforcement at top of wall & at roof and floor
area, (minimum each levels
0.20 in2 reinforcement way at spacing shown)
Top of roof area (minimum around Top of
openings) parapet
24”minimum
but not less
than 40 bar
diameters
10’-0”maximum spacing 10’-0”max. spacing of 0.20 in2 reinforcement

of vertical reinforcement horizontal reinforcement area min. at base of
wall or in top footing
FIGURE 11.13 Minimum lateral force-resisting reinforcement for SDC’

s A and B.
0.20 in2 reinforcement 24”minimum but 0.20 in2 reinforcement 0.20 in2 reinforcement area min. at
area (minimum around not less than 40 area, (minimum each top of wall & at roof and floor levels
openings) bar diameters way at spacing shown)
Top of parapet
Top of
roof
4’-0”maximum spacing 4’
-0”maximum spacing of 0.20 in2 reinforcement
of vertical reinforcement horizontal reinforcement area min. at base of wall
or in top footing
FIGURE 11.14 Minimum reinforcement for SDC’

s D and E.
11.7.1.2 MINIMUM STEEL REQUIREMENTS FOR HIGH

SEISMIC EXPOSURE
Provide #4
Seismic Design Categories D and E contain reinforcement at
provisions in addition to those required in SDC’
s A, B the top of wall and
and C. at all floor and roof
Parapet as
levels.
required
Seismic Design Category D requires that the Bolts in grouted

minimum amount of reinforcement in a wall be units as required.
calculated on the gross cross sectional area of the
wall and be uniformly distributed. The minimum #4 bar @ roof level.
amount of reinforcement must be at least 0.002 times Horizontal joint
the gross cross sectional area with at least one-third reinforcement shown
of the reinforcement spanning the weak, usually but a min. of #4 bars
horizontal, direction. Stack bond masonry must be @ 4’- 0”o.c. may
Wall height
also be provided.
fully grouted using open-end units or hollow units with
full head joints. When using solid units for stack bond Vertical reinforcement
masonry, the head joints must be fully mortared. in grouted cells spaced
Additionally, the maximum spacing of reinforcement 4’- 0”o.c. max.
for stack bond masonry is 24 in. (610 mm) on center. #4 bar at base of
wall or at the top
SDC E, contains additional requirements for stack of footing.
bond masonry. Stack bond masonry should be
constructed with open end units so that the void in the Dowel to match
vertical reinforcement.
head joint is eliminated. Bond beam units are ideal to
facilitate the flow of grout and spacing of reinforcement
should not exceed 16 in. (406 mm) for horizontal and
24 in. (610 mm) for vertical using 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) FIGURE 11.15 Typical block wall section.
reinforcement for the lateral force resisting system.
Type N mortar and masonry cement are not to be

used for the lateral force resisting walls in SDC D and
E.
distance is defined as the distance from center of
11.8 REINFORCEMENT SPACING reinforcement to the compression (typically furthest)
side of the masonry as shown in Figure 11.17.
Consideration must also be giv en to the
economical spacing of reinforcement. Reinforcing Walls are subjected to lateral forces from either
steel spaced closely together will slow construction and direction (wind and earthquake). Therefore, the
be costly. Table 11.2 lists steel size and spacing based reinforcing steel should be placed in the center so that
on approximately the same area of steel per foot. when the wall receives lateral loads, the distance “ d”
Larger bars spaced at greater intervals are more is the same for both sides of the wall.
economical than smaller bars spaced close together.
As a rule of thumb, #5 and smaller bars can be readily
t
handled on the construction site. For #6 and larger
bars, field fabrication and placement becomes difficult
or impossible due to congestion.
Table 11.1 Weight of Reinforcement

Bar Size Lbs/ft Lbs/20 ft. bar
#3 0.375 7.5
#4 0.680 13.6
#5 1.055 21.1
#6 1.500 30.0
#7 2.042 40.8
#8 2.688 53.8 d d
Table 11.2 Equivalent Spacing of Reinforcement

1-#3 at 8" on center = 0.165 square inches per foot FIGURE 11.16 Steel placed in the middle of wall.
1-#4 at 16" on center = 0.150 square inches per foot
1-#5 at 24" on center = 0.155 square inches per foot
1-#6 at 32" on center = 0.165 square inches per foot If the wall is thick enough (10 in. (254 mm) or wider)
2-#4 at 32" on center = 0.150 square inches per foot two layers of reinforcement can substantially increase
1-#7 at 48" on center = 0.150 square inches per foot the maximum “ d”distance and increase structural
efficiency.
No. 3 vertical bars at 8 in. (203 mm) on center The California Department of Transportation
would make masonry construction difficult and normally designs freeway sound barrier walls using
expensive. Using #5 vertical bars at 24 in. (610 mm) the double steel configuration. The result was an
on center is more economical. absolute minimal amount of failure of these tall
cantilev er walls during the 1994 Northri dge
Size and spacing of steel for an 8 in. (203 mm) Earthquake.
wide concrete masonry wall using minimum reinforcing
t
steel coefficient is given in Table 11.3 below.
Table 11.3 Minimum Steel Ratios; Size and

Spacing for 8 inch CMU (SDC D and E)
As = 0.0007bt As = 0.001bt As = 0.0013bt
#3 @ 16" o.c. #4 @ 24" o.c. #4 @ 16" o.c.
#4 @ 32" o.c. #5 @ 40" o.c. #5 @ 24" o.c.
#5 @ 48”o.c. #6 @ 48”o.c. #6 @ 40”o.c.
11.8.1 LOCATION OF REINFORCEMENT “d” d

DISTANCE d
For walls primarily receiving loads from only one

direction (such as retaining walls), reinforcement placed FIGURE 11.17 Two rows of steel placed for
in the tension face is advantageous. The “ d” maximum “d”distance.
11.8.2 TOLERANCES FOR PLACEMENT OF 11.8.3 PLACEMENT OF STEEL

REINFORCEMENT
The placement of reinforcing bars in masonry
For reinforced masonry to perform as designed, should conform to the recommended practice of
reinforcing steel must be placed in the proper location. placing reinforcing bars in concrete. Principal steel
should be properly located and secured in position to
The proper placement of reinforcing steel is stated resist the forces for which it was designed. This is
in MSJC Specification, Article 3.4 B. These allowable particularly important in cantilever retaining walls,
tolerances are listed in Table 11.4 and shown in Figure beams and columns.
11.18.
The 2005 MSJC Code and 2006 IBC merely state
Longitudinal reinforcement, typically vertical that reinforcement shall be secured to prevent
reinforcement in a masonry wall, is allowed a tolerance movement of reinforcement, particularly during the
of + 2 in. (51 mm). This tolerance is not meant to be grouting process. Table 11.5 provides historic
cumulative since a condition of obstruction of requirements for maximum intervals of securing steel
reinforcement by the webs in the masonry unit would reinforcement.
be created. Table 11.5 Historic Intervals for Securing
Reinforcing Steel
Table 11.4 Reinforcement Placement Bar Bar Secured Secured
Tolerances No. Diameter Intervals Intervals
Distance, d, from face of Allowable 112 x Bar 200 x Bar
1 2
masonry to the center of tolerance Diameters Diameters
reinforcing steel #3 .375 3' - 6" 6' - 3"
1 #4 .500 4' - 8" 8' - 4"
d < 8" ± /2"
8" < d < 24" ±1 #5 .625 5' - 10" 12' - 5"
1 #6 .750 7' - 0" 12' - 6"
24" < d ± 1 / 4"
#7 .875 8' –2" 14' - 7"
#8 1.00 9' - 4" 16' - 8"
#9 1.12 10' - 5" 18' - 9"
#10 1.27 11' - 10" 20' - 10"
#11 1.41 13' - 2" 22' - 11"
1
2000 IBC, Section 2106.6.2.2, SDC E
2
1997 UBC, Section 2104.5
d distance
d distance
CMU Beam Brick Beam

6
SECTION VIEW
Tolerance see Table 11.4
Specified
d distance spacing Tolerance + 2”
PLAN VIEW OF A WALL Max. 6”
FIGURE 11.18 Tolerances for steel placement. FIGURE 11.19 Maximum slope for bending
dowel into position (ACI 318, Section 7.8.1.1).
When footing dowels are not properly aligned, the
dowels may be bent to a maximum 6:1 slope as shown
in Figure 11.19. Vertical reinforcement can transmit
forces to the dowels even when the two bars are not
in direct contact.
Style:
New dowels can be installed into the foundation if 6-1V-1H Style: 8-1V-1H
dowels are not supplied or if they are improperly
located. Dowels can be installed by several methods
including drilling over-sized holes and securing the
dowels with grout or epoxy. Installing expansion
anchors, cinch anchors, anchor shields, or some other
positive connection may also be used to anchor dowels
into the foundation.
11.8.4 REINFORCING BAR POSITIONERS Style:

8-2V-2H used Style: 8-2V-2H
To assure that the reinforcing bars are in the as 8-2V-1H
specified locations, vertical bars must be secured
against displacement. Wire positioners or some other
device may be used. Figures 11.20 and 11.21 show
typical bar positioners that can be used to locate and
hold vertical and horizontal steel in place.
D/A 815 D/A 817

Horizontal
Vertical reinforcing steel
reinforcing steel
Common gradle positioner styles and configurations
FIGURE 11.21 Reinforcement positioners for

concrete masonry.
Horizontal Grout Positioners must be lined up vertically in a wall so

reinforcing steel space the steel can be dropped through the proper slot in
PLAN SECTION the positioner after the wall has been built.
Typical single curtain positioner
Horizontal The first positioner is optimally located just above
Vertical reinforcing steel
reinforcing steel
the foundation dowel bars.
11.8.5 CLEARANCES
11.8.5.1 CLEARANCE BETWEEN REINFORCEMENT AND
MASONRY UNITS
The effectiveness of reinforcing steel depends on
the amount of grout surrounding the reinforcement.
Code requirements are contained in 2005 MSJC
Horizontal
reinforcing steel
Specification, Article 3.4 B. Reinforcing steel must have
Grout
space a minimum of 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) of grout between the
steel and the masonry when fine grout is used. When
PLAN SECTION coarse (pea gravel) grout is used, the clearance between
the steel and the masonry units must be at least 1/2 in.
Typical double curtain positioner (12.7 mm). This assures proper bond so that stresses
are transferred between the steel and the masonry.
FIGURE 11.20 Reinforcement positioners for
brick masonry.
1
/4”min. for fine grout
1
/2”min. for course grout
Spliced 1”or db min.
bars
FIGURE 11.23 Minimum clearance of vertical

wall reinforcement in cell.
1”or db min.
1

1
db = Bar diameter Alternate configuration
F IGURE 11.24 Minimum clearance of

horizontal reinforcement in a concrete masonry.
1
1
1”or db
min. 1”or db
min.
FIGURE 11.22 Reinforcing steel clearances.
11.8.5.2 CLEAR SPACING BETWEEN REINFORCING

BARS
2005 MSJC Code Section 1.13.3.1 requires that

the clear distance between parallel bars be at least 1
in. (25.4 mm), or in the case of #9 through #11 bars,
F IGURE 11.25 Mi nimu m cl earance of
the bar diameter. For columns (2005 MSJC Code reinforcement in a multiwythe brick wall.
Section 1.13.3.2), the clear distance increases to 11/2
in. (38.1 mm) or 1.5 times the reinforcement diameter,
whichever is greater.
11.8.6.2 JOINT REINFORCEMENT AND T IES
Joint reinforcing steel can be used in mortar joints

that are at l east twice as thick as t he joint
reinforcement. There must be a minimum of 5/8 in.
(15.9 mm) of mortar cov erage f rom the joint
Min. spacing 11/2 or reinforcement to the exposed surface, which is typically
11/2 db in columns the mortar joint (Figure 11.28). 2005 MSJC Code
Section 1.13.4.2 reduces this minimum to 1/2 in. (12.7
mm) if the masonry is not exposed to earth or weather.
FIGURE 11.26 Minimum clearance between 5

/8” min. exterior exposure
reinforcement in a column.
1
/2” min. interior exposure
11.8.6 REINFORCEMENT COVER
11.8.6.1 DEFORMED REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcing steel must be completely embedded 2db min. db

in mortar or grout with a minimum cover to assure
protection. Where masonry is not exposed to earth or
weather, a minimum cover of 11/2 in. (38.1 mm) is
sufficient (2005 MSJC Code Section 1.13.4). When
the masonry is exposed to the exterior (earth or
weather) MSJC Code requires a minimum protective
cover of 2 in. (50.8 mm) for reinforcing bars larger
than #5 and 11/2 in. (38.1 mm) when the bar size does FIGURE 11.28 Cover of joint reinforcement.
not exceed #5.
11.9 ANCHORAGE OF
REINFORCING STEEL IN
11/2” MASONRY
recommended
In order to develop reinforcing steel in masonry,
sufficient embedment must be provided. This can be
accomplished by using a bar of sufficient length, or
when sufficient length is not possible, hooks may be
used. The term “ develop” means providing holding power
by the masonry. For example, if the reinforcement has
a tension (pulling out of the masonry) of 1000 lbs. and
2”for bars larger 11/2”interior the reinforcement is only embedded 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) into
than #5, 11/2”for
#5 bars and
the masonry, failure would occur with less than 1000
smaller when lbs. of force. The tension force was not developed in
exposed to earth the masonry.
or weather
11.9.1 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH
11.9.1.1 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF STRAIGHT

REINFORCEMENT
To develop a reinforcing bar tension force, the bar

must be extended an adequate distance or development
FIGURE 11.27 Minimum cover of reinforcing length, ld, into the masonry.
steel.
The development length is based on the allowable Table 11.6 Standard Hook and Bend
bond stress, the bar diameter, and the sum to be
developed in the steel bar. db = bar diameter D = 5db for #3 through #7, Grade 40
D = Finished inside D = 6db for # 3 through #8, Grade 50/60
bend diameter D = 8db for #9 through #11, Grade 50/60
2005 MSJC Code Section 2.1.10.2 requires
embedment length as: Dimensions of Dimensions of
Standard 180 Standard 90
ld = 0.0015dbFs for bars in tension Hooks Hooks
Bar
The minimum embedment for reinforcement is 12 Grade J (in) D (in) A (in) D (in)
Size
in. (305 mm) and 6 in. (152 mm) for wire. #3 40
5
2 /8
7
1 /8
1
5 /2
7
1 /8
1 1 1 1
#4 40 3 /2 2 /2 7 /4 2 /2
11.9.1.2 HOOKS 3 1 1
#5 40 4 /8 3 /8 9 3 /8
The term “hook”or “ standard hook”used for tie #6 40
1
5 /4
3
3 /4
3
10 /4
3
3 /4
anchorage in SDC’ s D and E means a minimum turn 1 3 1 3
#7 40 6 /8 4 /8 12 /2 4 /8
of 135 degrees or 180 degrees. 1 1
#3 50/60 3 2 /4 6 2 /4
A hook has the benefit of developing stress within #4 50/60 4 3 8 3
3 3
a very short distance. #5 50/60 5 3 /4 10 3 /4
1 1
#6 50/60 6 4 /2 12 4 /2
According to 2005 MSJC Code Section 1.13.5, a 1 1
#7 50/60 7 5 /4 14 5 /4
‘
standard hook’is defined as one of the following:
#8 50/60 8 6 16 6
3 1 1
1. A 180-degree turn plus extension of at least 4 #9 50/60 11 /4 9 /2 19 9 /2
1 3 3
bar diameters but not less than 21/2 in. (63.5 #10 50/60 13 /4 10 /4 22 10 /4
mm) at free end of bar #11 50/60
3
14 /4
1
11 /2 24 12
3. For stirrup and tie anchorage only, either a 90-

Detailing dimension
degree or a 135-degree turn, plus an extension
db of at least 6 bar diameters.
J D 180°
.
D1
max
d
4 db or 21/2”min.
45 °
13
5
°
FIGURE 11.29 Standard 180° hook.

At least 6d but not
less than 21/2 inches
2. A 90-degree turn plus an extension of at least
12 bar diameters at free end of bar, or
FIGURE 11.31 Standard 135° hook
Detailing dimension
1
Table 11.7 Minimum Diameters of Bend
db Bar Size Grade Minimum Diameter
No. 3 thru No. 7 40 5 bar diameters
90° No. 3 thru No. 8 60 6 bar diameters
No. 9 thru No. 11 60 8 bar diameters
A 1
12 db MSJC Code Section 1.13.6
The diameter of bend measured on the inside of

the bar, including stirrups and ties, shall be not less
FIGURE 11.30 Standard 90° hook. than values specified in Table 11.6.
Hooks should not be placed in the tension portion where:
of any beam, except at the ends of simple or cantilever
beams or at the freely supported end of continuous or K shall not exceed the lesser of the masonry cover,
restrained beams. clear spacing between adjacent bars nor 5 times db.
 = 1.0 for #3 thru #5 bars
Hooks should not be assumed to carry a load = 1.3 for #6 thru #7 bars
which would produce a tensile stress in the bar greater = 1.5 for #8 thru #9 bars
than 7500 psi (51.7 MPa).
Further requirements of the MSJC Code include
Hooks are not eff ectiv e in adding to the a 50% splice length increase when epoxy coated bars
compressive resistance of bars. are used and noncontact splice bars are to be
separated by no more than 8 in. (203 mm) or one fifth
Any mechanical device capable of developing the the required lap length.
strength of the bar without damage to the masonry
may be used in lieu of a hook. Data should be Splices may be made only at certain locations and
presented to show the adequacy of such devices. in such manner that the structural strength of the
member will not be reduced.
11.9.2 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR HIGHER
SEISMIC RISK Welded or mechanical connections shall develop
125 percent of the specified yield strength of the bar
In SDC D and above, standard hooks for lateral in tension.
ties are defined as either a 135 degree standard hook
or a 180 degree standard hook. Other hooks must 11.10 ANCHOR BOLTS
conform to hooks as listed in Section 11.9.1.2.
11.10.1 GENERAL
11.9.3 LAP SPLICES FOR REINFORCING
STEEL Anchor bolts are used to connect masonry to
Often, it is not practical to build a reinforced structural supports and to transfer loads from masonry
masonry wall using a single continuous length of attachments such as ledgers and sill plates. Some
reinforcing steel. The reinforcement may be placed examples for the use of anchor bolts are the
using bars that have been cut to manageable lengths. connections between masonry walls and roofs, floors,
For these shorter lengths of reinforcement to function ledger beams and large signs.
as continuous they must be connected in some
fashion. Conv entional embedded anchor bolts are
commonly specified as bent bar anchor bolts, plate
The usual method is to lap (also known as lap anchor bolts and headed anchor bolts. They are
splices) the bars a specified length. 2006 IBC Section available in standard sizes (diameters and lengths) or
2107.5 requires that tension or compression lap splices can be f abri cated to meet specif ic proj ect
for Allowable Stress Design be a minimum of 12 in. requirements.
(304.8 mm) or in accordance with the following formula:
Anchor bolts are commonly embedded at:
ld = 0.002dbfs (Equation 21-2)
1. The surface of walls—for connecting relief
where: angles and wood or steel ledger beams to the
ld = embedment length of lap of straight walls,
reinforcement 2. The top of walls—for attaching sill plates and
db = diameter of reinforcement, inches (mm) base plates to the walls, and
fs = computed stress in reinforcement due to 3. The top of columns—for anchoring steel
design loads, psi (MPa) bearing plates onto the columns.
Strength design provisions are somewhat more Anchor bolts can be divided into two categories:
complex for determining reinforcement lap splices. 1. Embedded anchor bolts which are placed and
The following formula applies: grouted during construction, and
2. Drilled-in anchors which are placed after
0.13d b 2 f y  construction of the masonry.
l de 
K f 'm
Anchor bolts are subjected to shear and tension 11.10.2 TIES AT ANCHOR BOLTS IN COLUMNS
forces resulting from loads, such as gravity loads,
earthquakes, wind forces, differential movements and Section 1.14.5.3.1 of the 2005 MSJC Code
dynamic vibrations. The magnitudes of these loads requires confinement of anchor bolts at the top of
can vary significantly. columns for SDC C and above. Anchor bolts are
placed within at least 2 No. 4 lateral ties, with the ties
The Uniform Building Code required that bent bar located within the top 5 in. (127 mm) of the column.
anchor bolt must have a hook with a 90-degree bend
and an inside diameter of three bolt diameters, plus an
extension of 11/2 bolt diameters at the free end. Minimum cover 11/2 in.
for #5 and smaller
bars, 2” for bars larger
The effective embedment length, lb, for plate or than #5
headed anchor bolts is the length of embedment
measured perpendicular from the surface of the
masonry to the bearing surface of the plate or head of
5”
the anchorage, and lb for bent bar anchors is the length
of embedment measured perpendicular from the
surface of the masonry to the bearing surface of the
Ties must surround
bent end minus one anchor bolt diameter. The 2005 anchor bolts, and
MSJC requires a minimum embedment of 2 in. (50.8 column bars
mm) or 4 bolt diameters, whichever is greater.
Column
ties
Bend bar anchor bolt

Vertical column
Diameter of reinforcing steel
bend = 3 db
***
db
**
FIGURE 11.33 Anchor bolt ties at top of

lb*
db column.
***
db
** Min. extension
= 1.5 db 11.11 COLUMNS
Plate anchor bolt
lb * 11.11.1 GENERAL
A column is a vertical member at least three times

*** ** as high as the least horizontal dimension. Although
db
columns can be designed to support lateral loads they
Headed anchor bolt
are primarily compression members supporting
girders, beams, trusses or similar structural elements.
lb*
In walls, if vertical reinforcement is not restrained
Grout
against buckling by ties, reinforcement is assumed not
to carry vertical compressive loads. Nevertheless, the
reinforcing steel will participate in carrying vertical
* Minimum embedment lenght lb = 4db but lb may not be less than 2” (51 mm).
** 1/4” for fine grout, 1/2” for coarse (pea gravel) grout loads, thus providing an added factor of safety in wall
*** 1/2” Min. strength design design.
FIGURE 11.32 Anchor bolt detail.

In the design of columns, however, vertical
reinforcing steel significantly contributes to the load
carrying capacity of the member when ties prevent the
16”
compression reinforcement from buckling.
Nominal 8”CMU
Column Ties
75/8”square actual
24”
Column ties 4-#3 bars
12-#10 bars
FIGURE 11.34 Minimum column size and

reinforcement.
Columns may be categorized by location, that

FIGURE 11.35 Maximum amount of steel in
is, they may be isolated (free standing), projecting a 16" x 24" column.
from a wall (pilaster), or flush in a wall (buried). The
least dimension of columns by 2005 MSJC Code
definition is 8 in. (203 mm). Min. s pacing be-
tween vertical bars
The required area of vertical column reinforcement is 11/2 bar diameters 11/2 in. min. for #5 bars
or 11/2 in. whichever and smaller
is at least 0.0025 times the net cross sectional area
is greater 2 in. min. for bars larger
of the column, and not more than 0.04 times the net than #5
cross sectional area of the column (2005 MSJC Code
Sections 2.1.6.4 and 3.3.4.4.1). At least four vertical
bars are required in each column.
11.11.2 COLUMN TIES

45°
max
11.11.2.1 COLUMN T IE REQUIREMENTS

.
6 ”
All longitudinal bars for columns shall be enclosed max.
by lateral ties. Lateral support is provided to the Tie anchorage
6d min.
longitu-dinal bars by the corner of a complete tie Column reinforcement
having a 90° or 135° turn plus an extension of 6 bar Max. area = .04 bt
Min. area = .0025 bt
diameters. The corner bars shall have such support Min. size #3
provided by a complete tie enclosing the longitudinal Max. size #11(ASD)
bars. Alternate longitudinal bars shall have such Max. size #9 (SD)
lateral support provided by ties and no bar shall be
farther than 6 inches from such laterally supported
bar as shown in Figure 11.36. FIGURE 11.36 Reinforcing tie details.
11.11.2.2 T YPICAL LAYOUT OF T IES AND MASONRY

UNITS FOR COLUMNS
Alternate courses
FIGURE 11.39 Typical brick columns.
11.11.3 TIE SPACING FOR ELEMENTS THAT

ARE PART OF THE LATERAL SYSTEM
Alternate courses
11.11.3.1 T IE SPACING FOR LOWER SEISMIC RISK
Lateral ties of at least 1/4 in. diameter (6.4 mm)

should encase the longitudinal bars or be placed in
the horizontal bed joints provided the ties are not more
than half the height of the mortar joint. Space ties not
more than 16 longitudinal bar diameters, 48 tie
diameters or the least dimension of the column. Figure
11.40 illustrates the general column tie requirements
FIGURE 11.37 Masonry columns using pilaster for SDC A, B and C.
units.
Alternate courses
Tie spacing
Ties at 16 bar diameters, 48 tie diameters, or least

dimension of column, whichever is less.
Alternate courses
FIGURE 11.40 Maximum tie spacing in

columns with lower seismic risk.
FIGURE 11.38 Masonry columns using

standard hollow unit.
11.11.4 NON-PROJECTING WALL COLUMNS
Table 11.8 Tie Spacing –16 bar diameters
Longitudinal Maximum Tie Columns that are contained within a masonry wall
Bar. No. Spacing, in. (mm) may benefit both the owner and the contractor. Wall-
3 6 (152) contained columns permit faster construction since
4 8 (203) there are no projections from the wall and no special
5 10 (254) units are required. The reinforcing steel must be tied in
6 12 (304) accordance with the code requirements.
7 14 (355)
8 16 (406) 12”minimum overlap
9 18 (457)
10 20 (508)
11 22 (559)
Table 11.9 Tie Spacing –48 tie diameters

Maximum Tie
Tie Bar. No. Tie in mortar joint
Spacing, inches (mm)
2 12 (304) 135° bend on tie
3 18 (457)
4 24 (610)
11.11.3.2 T IE SPACING FOR HIGHER SEISMIC RISK
Maximum tie spacing for SDC D and above is 8 FIGURE 11.42 Non-projecting wall brick
in. (203 mm) and the ties must be at least 3/8 in. (9.5 columns with ties in mortar joint.
mm) in diameter. Additionally, the ties must be
embedded in grout. Ties in grout space
Tie spacing
Ties at 8 in. (203 mm) maximum, with a minimum size
Stagger ties
FIGURE 11.43 Non-projecting wall brick

columns with ties in grout space.
of #3 tie for reinforcement.
Wall ties
Wall ties
FIGURE 11.41 Maximum tie spacing in

columns with higher seismic risk.
FIGURE 11.44 Non-projecting wall concrete
masonry wall columns.
11.11.5 PROJECTING WALL COLUMNS OR column capacity, columns called pilasters are often built
PILASTERS projecting from the face of the wall.
Heavily loaded girders which frame into a wall may Projecting pilasters also serve to stiffen the wall if
require substantial base plates in the column. In order adequately supported at the top and bottom. The wall
to provide a convenient girder seat and adequate between pilasters can then be designed to span
horizontally allowing very high walls to be built using
only nominal masonry thickness.
Lateral ties
Webs of pilaster units partially

removed to permit placing of
horizontal reinforcement
Horizontal bond beam

reinforcement
Place metal lath or wire screen

under and above bond beam
in partially grouted wall
FIGURE 11.45 Construction of reinforced concrete masonry pilaster with continuous bond beams.
Reinforcement in curved masonry wall. Reinforcement for masonry column.

CHAPTER
12
NATURAL STONE
12.1 GENERAL 12.2 TYPES OF STONE

Natural stone has been in extensive use for many Through the years, stone has been used as a
centuries as one of the most widely accessible building structural material and a finish material. Stone requires
materials available. Over long periods of time its considerable thickness. Solid stone is rarely used for
properties, applications, and behavior, constitute a structural purposes due to the increased cost of stone
story that is unbelievably complex. and installation labor. In today’ s modern construction,
stone is used in thin slabs for countertops, stair treads,
Stone is the primary building material of the earth’
s flooring, exterior and interior finish and various types
crust. Since the beginning of civilization, stone has of trim pieces in masonry construction.
stimulated the artistic sense and has appealed to man’ s
most primitive needs. Extraordinary stone sculptures, Table 12.1 lists the most common uses for granite,
pyramids and obelisks of early cultures reached marble, limestone, slate and sandstone.
ast onishing perf ection both in excel lence of
workmanship and in technique of stone transport. 12.2.1 RUBBLE AND ASHLAR STONE
The improvement in quarrying and finishing stone In buildings and residential construction, stone can
has made this building material recuperate popularity be used in two different ways. Stone may be laid in
among architects. Stone offers the architect a wide mortar, like brick or concrete block, to make walls,
variety of applications and unlimited combinations of arches, and vaults. This use may be structural or
textures and colors. architectural. Stone may also be purely an architectural
function, mechanically attached in large sheets as a
Rock is a geologic term that means solid and thin facing over the structural frame and walls of a
unconsolidated material in the earth’s crust, but small, building. This is known as a stone curtain wall.
quarried pieces of rock are called stone. This is a
material made from various types of naturally occurring In describing the appearance of field stone, there
rock. are two simple distinctions useful in classifying patterns
of stone masonry:
There are three classifications of rock: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic. The most common  Rubble masonry, which is composed of
types of stone for construction are: unsquared pieces of stone and
 Ashlar masonry, which is made up of squared
 Igneous rock (granite), pieces.
 Sedimentary rocks (sandstone, limestone, and Both rubble and ashlar masonry may be laid as
travertine), coursed stone masonry which has continuous
horizontal joint lines or as uncoursed or random which
 Metamorphic rocks (marble and slate). does not.
Several types of devices are commonly used for

Table 12.1 Stone Application this purpose, such as attaching a hoisting rope to the
Stone Type Uses sides or top of the stone block avoiding interference
Granite Exterior wall panels with the mortar joint. To avoid any uneven positioning
Interior finish panels of the stone due to the quicker drying and hardening of
Thresholds, flooring mortar at the face of the wall, mortar joints in ashlar
and stair treads work are usually raked out after setting the stones.
Base and trim After the mortar in a wall has cured, the masons return
Countertops to point the wall by filling the joints out to the face with
Water courses mortar and tooling to the desired profile. Stone is
Lintels
stronger and more weather resistant in the horizontal
Window sills
direction so rubble or ashlar masonry should be laid
Hearths
with the quarry bed or grain of the stone running in the
Sculpture
horizontal direction.
Chips for terrazzo
Marble Exterior wall panels
Some building stone, particularly marble and
Interior finish panels
Thresholds, flooring
limestone, deteriorate rapidly in the presence of acid.
and stair treads Stone application may be restricted in regions where
Base and trim the air is heavily polluted. Unlike clay brick, using acid
Tabletops for stone cleaning may not be a viable option. During
Toilet partitions construction, special care should be taken to keep
Hearths stonework clean. Also, the work should be covered
Window sills as much as possible. High standards of workmanship
Sculpture should be implemented and nonstaining mortars
Limestone Chips for terrazzo should be used. Masonry flashing must be nonstaining
Coping metal or plastic. Stonework should be cleaned with
Lintels mild soap, water, and a soft brush.
Sculptured trim
Slate Flooring and stair treads 12.2.2 STONE COURSING
Countertops
Roofing The coursing of stone is dependent on the type of
Sandstone Exterior panels stone. Rubble stone is used with little or no shaping.
Exterior paving Squared stone is a stone with slightly shaped edges
Flooring resulting in vertical joints. Ashlar is a highly shaped
stone. Also, ashlar may consists of thick pieces of
stone and therefore be referred to as cut stone.
The meaning of the terms are very general and there
can be some variation in usage even among those There are several methods used to place stones in
experienced in the field of stone masonry. a wall. These methods are classified into range
(coursed), broken range (semi-coursed) and random
The irregular shapes and sizes of the rubble stone (uncoursed). When stones are placed in uniform
require the mason to select each stone carefully to fit courses for the entire length of the wall it is called
the available space, and occasionally to trim a stone, range masonry. Stones are coursed for short distances
normally with a mason’ s hammer. Similar in many in broken range masonry. Stone coursing in random
ways to brickwork, ashlar stonework has unique masonry does not exist, therefore there are no aligned
problems. The stones must be lined and placed by a vertical joints. Figures 12.1, 12.2 and 12.3 show some
hoist when they are too heavy to lift manually. common stone wall patterns.
NATURAL STONE 237
12.2.2.1 RUBBLE STONE MASONRY PATTERNS 12.2.2.3 SPLIT STONE MASONRY HEIGHT PATTERN
Uncoursed Fieldstone
One-Height Pattern (Single Rise)
Uncoursed Ledge Rock
Two-Height Pattern
Uncoursed Roughly Square
FIGURE 12.1 Rubble stone patterns.
12.2.2.2 SPLIT STONE MASONRY PATTERNS

Three-Height Pattern
FIGURE 12.3 Split stone height patterns.
12.2.3 STONE FINISHES
There are a wide variety of available finishes for

Coursed Ashlar-Running Bond
the different types of stone used in construction. Each
type of stone has its own nomenclature. For example,
does a “ shot-ground”finish apply or give the same
finish as a “ shot-sawed” ? The nomenclature of
marble, granite and limestone are summarized in Table
12.2.
The selection of stone f inishes should be

Random Coursed Ashlar appropriate for the conditions under which they will be
used. Surfaces highly polished, for example, are not
appropriate for flooring or stairs where a small amount
of water will make the surface very slippery. In an
environment where dirt and pollution may collect and
be difficult to clean, rough finishes may not be
appropriate for exterior walls.
Random Broken Coursed Ashlar
FIGURE 12.2 Split stone masonry patterns.

Table 12.2 Stone Finishes

Granite Finishes
Polished Mirror gloss, with sharp reflections
Honed Dull sheen, without reflections
Fine-rubbed Smooth and free from scratches; no sheen
Rubbed Plane surface with occasional slight trails or scratches
Shot-ground Plane surface with pronounced circular markings or trails having no regular
pattern
Thermal (Flame) Plane surface with flame finish applied by mechanically controlled means to
ensure uniformity; surface coarseness varies, depending upon grain structure of
granite
Sandblasted, fine stipple Plane surface, slightly pebbled, with occasional slight trails or scratches
Sandblasted, coarse stipple Coarse plane surface produced by blasting with an abrasive; coarseness varies
with type of preparatory finish and grain structure of granite
Sawn Relatively plane surface, with texture ranging from wire sawn (a close
approximation of rubbed finish) to shot sawn, with scorings 3/32 inch (2.4 mm) in
depth; gang saws produce parallel scorings; rotary or circular saws make circular
scorings; shot-sawn surfaces are sandblasted to remove all rust stains and iron
particles
Marble Finishes
Polished Glossy surface which brings out the full color and character of the marble. (Not
recommended for floor finishes)
Honed Satin-smooth surface with little or no gloss (Recommended for commercial
floors)
Sandblasted Matte-textured surface with no gloss (Recommended for exterior use)
Abrasive Flat, nonreflective surface suitable for exterior use, stair treads, and other
nonslip surfaces
Wet-sand Smooth surface suitable for stair treads and other nonslip surfaces
Limestone Finishes
Smooth finish Machine finish producing a uniform honed finish; uses only select grade or
standard grade
Plucked Rough texture produced by rough planning the surface of the stone
Machine tooled Finish made by cutting parallel, concave grooves in stone with 4, 6, or 8 grooves
to the inch; depth of the grooves range from 1/32 to 1/16 inch (0.8 to 1.6 mm)
Chat-sawed Coarse, pebbled surface that closely resembles the appearance of sandblasting;
sometimes contains shallow saw marks or parallel scores; direction of score or
saw marks will be vertical and/or horizontal in the wall unless the direction is
specified
Shot-sawed Coarse, uneven finish ranging from a pebbled surface to one rippled with
irregular, roughly parallel grooves; steel shot used during gang-sawing rusts
during process, adding permanent brown tones to the natural color variations
Split face Rough, uneven, concave-convex finish produced by splitting action; limits stone
sizes to 1'-4" (406 mm) high 4'-0" (1,219 mm) long; available in ashlar or similar
stone veneer only
Rock face Similar to split face except that the face of the stone has been dressed by
machine or by hand to produced bold convex projection along the face of the
stone
NATURAL STONE 239
12.2.4 STONE CONSTRUCTION
Stone veneer supplied in thin slabs from 3/4 in. to

1
1 /4 in. (19.1 to 32.2 mm) thick can be used as cladding
over a structural support system. Improved cutting and
fabricating methods can be used to make very thin slabs
approximately 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) thick. For example, a
masonry or concrete wall could be the structural support
Mortar
system and the stone veneer is applied to the wall with
mastic. Butt Joint
Typical wire anchor
Steps, trim, coping, and band courses are types
of stone work that use cut stone, regularly called
dimension stone. Understanding the application of
stone to the backup system as veneer will facilitate a
practical design. The attaching of cut stone and stone
veneer to masonry, concrete and steel construction
should be with metal clamps and anchors. Some
common methods of anchoring and forming corner
joints are show in Figures 12.4. and 12.5.
3/4
”
R
Shim
Stainless steel Corner Cove
expansion bolt
Corrosion
resistant angle
Steel stud Corrosion

structural support resistant dowel
Stone veneer
Corner Block
Stone veneer
Steel stud
structural support
Two way cramp
strap anchor
FIGURE 12.5 Corner joints.
The space around the anchoring device between

Cement spot the back of the stone and the structural wall should be
surrounded with plaster to hold the stone away from
the wall. For exterior use, gypsum plaster is not
appropriate. Non-staining and non-shrinking portland
cement mortar should be used to fill the joints of the
FIGURE 12.4 Anchoring details. stone. Typical installation of stone veneer at the
parapet on a concrete frame building at the roof line is
shown in Figure 12.6.
Granite is an excellent choice for building exteriors

and interiors due to its natural properties. These
Coping anchor properties make granite one of the most durable
Stone coping building materials. Nonabsorbent and stain-resistant
granite requires low maintenance, and last longer than
Grout
other natural building materials. Designers and
Drip
Lateral anchor architects can enjoy the design freedom with deep
Counter flashing
between panels colors, rich textures and amazing visual depth that can
enhance any of their designed buildings.
Dovetail slot
Flashing cast in concrete
12.3.1.1 CHARACTERISTICS
Stone veneer
panel
Expansion
Flashing set Granite stone expands and contracts with

in reglet temperature change. Usually the amount of change
is minor and not problematic.
Concrete insert Weep holes

Weathering
Stone, in general, and granite, in particular, posses

non-porous characteristics providing superior weather
resistance when compared to other building materials.
Weathering and airborne chemicals are not normally
FIGURE 12.6 Parapet detail. issues of concern for granite.
In poli shed granite surf aces, f reeze/thaw

12.3 DIFFERENCES IN STONE weathering is unusual. Thermal finishes of granites
are slightly permeable and granite could suffer minor
Since the beginning of civilization, stone has been freeze/thaw weathering in the top quarter-inch (6.4
present in our building culture. Stone is a permanent, mm) of finish.
durable, solid material used for shelter. Also, it is the
strongest natural resource that withstands centuries. Permeability
Building designs can be affected by the distinctive Granite, although capable of absorbing moisture,
physical characteristics of every stone. The most is significantly less porous than other building stones.
common types of building stones are granite, marble, Granite is cut with a slurry of water and abrasive
limestone, travertine and sandstone. material. The moisture absorbed during fabrication
gives the granite a different color than in its dry state
12.3.1 GRANITE and occasionally, granite is shipped before it is
completely dried. Granite will return to its true color
Granite is an igneous rock and is made up of after drying. Once dry, rain and humidity will not
sev eral diff erent minerals such as f eldspars, normally penetrate the stone.
amphiboles, biotites and other mineral combinations,
each having a different hardness. However, granite 12.3.1.2 BUILDING APPLICATIONS
owes its hardness and density to the fact that it has
been solidified deep within the earth under extreme The requirements for each construction project are
pressure. For this reason, the chemical composition different and unique. To create stone pieces exactly
of granite is comparable to lava. The crust of the earth sized for the project, architects and engineers must
has changed with seismic activity, forcing veins of work closely with design craftsmen and stone setters.
granite to the surface. Glaciers scraped off layers of
dirt, sand and rock to expose granite formations. Modern quarrying and fabrication techniques
applied by stone producers have given architects a
wide variety of alternatives to consider when designing
with granite.
NATURAL STONE 241
Exterior The imagination of landscape architects to make
exterior settings, such as planters, benches, terraces
Enhancing the appearance with beautiful and and fountains, inviting and useful as well as beautiful
durable granite cladding is one of the best ways to is unlimited. Each building structure should be created
showcase a building. Designers may choose from a by designers that work directly with stone experts.
wide range of granite cladding systems. The Elaborate elements contain idividual pieces numbered
application of a granite cladding system with striking in the manufacturing process enabling correct field
exteriors is a distinctive process to each building. assembly. Landscape structures may be built with
Depending on the project and application, specific concrete or masonry backup and use granite as a
anchoring systems may be recommended by granite veneer.
producers.
12.3.1.3 MAINTENANCE
Interior
Acid rain and modern air pollution combined with
Granite, for interior design, can be shaped to the freeze/thaw cycles are eroding and staining marbles,
designer’ s requirements. The use of granite in lobbies, limestones and sandstones. The natural beauty of
fountains, executive offices and stylish bathrooms is structures can be damaged by these forces and the
unlimited. The architect or designer can have pieces structural integrity compromized. Granite is known to
of granite virtually any size or shape fabricated be the hardest and most moisture-resistant of all
particularly for the required building. Lobbies and building stones and most resistant to these destructive
atriums are open spaces where granite is used forces. Even granite, however, if subjected to staining
extremely well. Also, the use of granite makes unique agents, can lose luster due to dirt and other normal
fountains, benches and pilasters. Granite desks and forces in high-traffic areas.
coffee tables make executive offices and boardrooms
distinctive and elegant. Stylish bathrooms are created The high density of natural granite resists absorption
with beautiful, maintenance-f ree granite walls, of staining materials and in many situations granite
counters and vanities. surfaces are best left untreated with impregnating or
sealing agents. A mild solution of soap and water is
Landscaping enough to clean dirt from the granite surface. When
thermal-finished granite is expected to be in regular
Granite is popular in exterior landscape design due contact with stai ning agent s, an appropri ate
to its durability and beauty. Courtyards and gardens impregnator should be used to enhance stain
can be enhanced with granite paving, benches resistance. The surface texture or color of the granite
fountains and planters. should not be altered by the impregnators. As usual,
when applying an impregnator, a sample area of the
granite should be tested to assure that there will be no
detrimental affect to the color or texture.
Stain resistance can be increased with the use of

sealers. Sealers can change the texture and surface
of thermal-finished stone. Also, sealers can create
layeres that build up on the surface and are less
durable than the granite. In exterior applications,
sealers are not recommended since they can catch
moisture within the top layer of stone. During freeze/
thaw cycles, this condition may lead to surface cracks
and a blurring appearance. Prior to its general
application, any sealer should be pre-tested on the
granite stone in a variety of conditions.
The recommendation for cleaning granite surfaces

FIGURE 12.7 Exterior granite landscape. is to use a neutral detergent and water. Locations
subjected to tracking of outside dirt and grime, such
as high-traffic areas may require a stronger cleaner.
A polished preserver/restorer may be used for polished
and honed floors subject to heavy commercial traffic.
A list of granite maintenance tips is given in Table 12.3.
Table 12.3 Granite Maintenance Tips

Condition Cleaning Agent Application Method
General Construction Detergent and water Sponge or wipe on with rag.
Mortar Stains Phosphoric acid (Caution: Apply with rag. Rub thoroughly
etches metal) with fiber brush. Wash thoroughly
with clear water.
Paint Paint & varnish remover Rub on thoroughly with rag. Wash
with detergent and water. Wipe
dry.
New Oil and Grease Detergent and water for Minor Rub in thoroughly with sponge or
Stains stains; Naphtha gas rag. Wash off with detergent and
or pyrene for major stains water. Wipe dry.
Muriatic Acid Neutralize with caustic soda Add residue
Rust and Metal Stains Phosphoric acid compound Rub on thoroughly with rag or
sponge. Wash thoroughly with
water and wipe dry.
Old Oil & Grease Hydrogen peroxide & Plaster of Mix hydrogen peroxide and plaster
1
Stains Paris and apply in thick ( /2" +) patch.
Let cure for three hours. Remove
and wash with detergent and
water. Wipe dry.
Tar and Pitch Naphtha gas or pyrene Apply with rag. Rub thoroughly
with stiff brush. Wash off with
detergent and water. Wipe dry.
12.3.1.4 DETAILS
This section provides basic details and elevations

for a variety of exterior and interior granite applications. Stone coping
These details serve as typical examples from which Dowel
drawings may be developed for specific projects,
however, the designer must consider issues for the Concrete or masonry
specific application.
Anchor
Dowels Stone Stone
Anchor
Stone coping
(sloped for drain)
Dowel
Concrete or masonry
Anchor
Stone Stone
FIGURE 12.8 Steps. FIGURE 12.9 Coping.

NATURAL STONE 243
Split edge
Grout joint grout joint
Mortar
bed Mortar bed
Grout Anchor
Anchor
joint Stone Stone
Grout
joint Grout joint
Mortar bed Level surface
Stone
Pedestal Sloped slab

Sealant Dowel
Mortar bed
FIGURE 12.10 Base.

FIGURE 12.12 Paving.
Anchor
Steel truss
Anchor
Anchor
Clip angle
Stone Face of
granite
Concrete
Concrete Anchor
Strap anchor
Clip angle
Steel truss
FIGURE 12.13 Steel truss system.

Stone
FIGURE 12.11 Columns.

Clip angle
Anchor
Shim
Anchor
Clip angle Anchor
Leveling bolt
Face of Face of
granite Support granite
structure
Dowel
Anchor bolt
Clip angle
Clip angle
FIGURE 12.16 Steel clip system.
FIGURE 12.14 Clip system. Granite sill
Bond
breaker
Anchor
bolt
Face of
granite
Face of
Self taping
granite
metal screws
Precast
concrete
Masonry or
concrete
Kerf
Granite soffit
Continuous kerf
FIGURE 12.17 Granite faced precast.
FIGURE 12.15 Curtain wall system.

NATURAL STONE 245
Clip angle 12.3.2 MARBLE
Anchor bolt
Throughout the years, buildings with stone have
Shim
been used for artistic expression. Limited only by the
imagination of the designer who wants the artistic
features and permanence of the stone building, these
features are obtained through the assemblage of
essential pieces into a magnificent sculpture of a
building.
The crystalization of limestones or dolomites form

a metamorphic rock commonly called marble. All
calcareous rocks as well as some dolomitic and
serpentine rocks that are able to be polished are
commercially called marbles.
Face of
Dowel granite
Marble, with hundreds of varieties available and
each possessing varying physical characteristics, is a
Support product of nature. In the selection of marble, there is
structure Anchor nothing that can be done to change or modify the
bolt
conditions in which nature presents these varieties.
Therefore, size may become a limiting factor to
Clip angle consider.
12.3.2.1 APPLICATION
Anchor bolt
Marble has been successfully applied as an exterior
Granite soffit
veneer on various types of buildings. The wide variety
of colors, textures, patterns, and sizes provides a cost-
effective way for the designer to achieve a unique
FIGURE 12.18 Granite faced soffit. character to the structure.
In addition to dwellings, other buildings may require

use of marble in vast quantities. First and foremost
are commercial buildings, such as banks, premises
of important industrial companies and prominent
hotels.
For these buildings, a stone of high standing is

axiomatic. With hotels, marble expresses status and
great distinction which attracts the social elite.
This stone is also imperative, even though less

stringent, for public buildings, such as State
Departments, churches, hospitals, railway stations of
important cities, airports and other highly visible public
facilities.
For all of these buildings, no other material is more

appropriate than marble. Marble is particularly suitable
for outside walls in order to achieve the goal desired.
The choice of marble for an exterior application is made
on the basis of three fundamental criteria: durability,
color, and surface finish.
FIGURE 12.19 Stainless steel anchors.

FIGURE 12.21 Marble colors (salmon walls

and white entrance).
FIGURE 12.20 Marble entry.
Surface Finishes
12.3.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS The marble surface may be finished in a number

of ways. Smooth finishes emphasize color and veining,
Durability whereas rough finishes subdue the veining of
markings.
Durability is a characteristic of the material to
withstand climatological effects, resist atmospheric The desired finish bears relationship to final cost
agents, and endure attacks from pollutants. as the smoother, more highly reflective surfaces
require more finishing and consequently more time.
A distinction should be made between weathering The most economical finish for exterior use is the
and decay of marble. Not all changes by weathering abrasive finish.
agents are necessarily undesirable or harmful since
they do not always destroy or materially alter the natural Texture
integrity of the marble within a given length of time.
When exposed to the processes of weathering, all The term texture, as applied to marble, relates to
material must ultimately decompose or disintegrate. the size, degree of uniformity and arrangement of
For example, some changes in color may not materially constituent minerals. The main component of most
affect the integrity of the marble but may be desirable marbles are grains of crystalline calcite with definite
for architectural or aesthetic effects, giving an cleavage planes which, when broken, show bright
appearance of age. reflecting surfaces. In most marbles, however, the
grains are elongated in one direction by the folding
Color and applications of the beds.
Color is a particularly important feature in Strength

architectural design. Selection of color can be aided
by contacting the marble or stone suppliers as the most Marble, like many natural stones, varies in strength
reliable source of information. A local contractor may from quarry to quarry and even within a quarry. Marble
also be consulted to determine the availability of certain should be tested to determine the strength. The
colors and types of building stone in the area. strength of a marble, which is a measure of ability to
resist stresses, depends on many factors such as:
NATURAL STONE 247
•the degree of consistency, Seismic Considerations
•the rift and cleavage of the crystals, Marble is a very brittle material and cannot
withstand large deflections. Any deflections in a marble
•the interlocking of the crystals, and system must be minor or the deflections must occur
at the joints. In addition marble can be heavy
•the nature of any cementing materials present (dependent on thickness) which could induce higher
seismic forces. Seismic considerations require
Thermal Expansion engineering based on specific factors for each project
such as panel weight, wind load, back-up material,
The thermal expansion of marble is an important structural flexure and seismic conditions.
consideration since its coefficient varies from one
variety to another. This consderation is due to the 12.3.2.3 INTERIOR VENEER
marble use with different materials when forming large
units that are firmly attached. The quarries can provide With interior veneer applications, the aesthetic factor
information for thermal characteristics of any specific is significantly important, therefore, colored and veined
marble. marbles are usually used since they present many
decorative features.
Fire Resistance
In the architectural application of stone veneer,
Marbles, as any stone, are fire resistant. Heat there are many features that can be achieved
travels through marbles quite rapidly due to thermal depending on the type of material. One features is
conductivity. The fire resistance of marble can be the pattern of panel placement.
improved with the use of insulating material.
Veneer Patterns
Abrasion Resistance
Marble will lend i tself t o speci f ic pat tern
Marbles are recommended for floors and stairs, arrangements, such as side slip pattern and end slip
particularly when the Ha (abrasion hardness valve) is 10 pattern. The natural folds and veins found in marble
or more, due to wearing quality when exposed to create a distinctive marking trend throughout the stone
pedestrian traffic. The method for determining Ha is block that is necessary for a pattern.
contained in ASTM C 241, Standard Test Method for
Abrasion Resistance of Stone Subjected to Foot Traffic. Formal patterns require selectivity, which usually
increases the installed cost of the marble or stone
Translucency veneer.
One of the most interesting characterisctics of 12.3.2.4 INSTALLATION

marble stone is translucency. This attribute is not
possessed by all marble varieties. Translucency Anchors
depends on the following factors:
Based on specific factors, anchors should be
Crystal Structure - Marbles containing certain engineered separately for each project. The size of
crystal structure are able to transmit light. anchors depends upon materials, codes and physical
conditions of the structure. All anchor ties must be
Color - Marbles are more translucent with white made of corrosion-resistant metal, such as stainless
and lighter colors. steel, bronze and brass straps and copper. The type
of marble may dictate other anchor requirements. For
Thickness - When the thickness of the marble example, trade practices provide for a minimum of four
stone increases, the light transmission is reduced. anchors per piece of marble up to 12 square feet (1.1
m2) of surface area, and two for each additional 8
Surface Finish - Translucency is more visible in square feet (0.7 m2).
smooth finishes than in rough finishes.
Twp Way “
L”Strap
“
U”Cramp Strap “
Z”Cramp Strap Twisted Strap
Cramp Strap with Dowel
Dovetail Twisted Dovetail Two Dovetail Strap

Dovetail Strap Dovetail L-Strap
Two Way Strap Way Strap (with dowel)
Gripstay Dovetail Gripstay Two Gripstay Strap

Tee
“
L”Strap Dowel Strap Way Strap (with Dowel)
“
L”Bar or Eye Rod and Bar Strap (with
“
U”Bar “
Z”Bar Hooked Bolt Dowel Dowel)
Wire Tieback Wire Lewis Key Ring Lead Cinch Sleeve Type Expansion
(with Dowel) Tieback (Plug Anchor) Anchor bolt Anchor Bolt
Plain
Threaded
Spring Clip Relieving

Bent Rod Shim Dowels
(with Collar) Angle Clip
FIGURE 12.22 Typical standard anchors.
Relieving Angles and finishing of marble that can be executed by qualified

marble craftsmen.
All openings need relieving angles to support the
stone above. Additionally, relieving angles should be Materials on site or during transportation can be
placed at each story height or at a maximum of 20 ft broken and repair or patching of marbles may be
(6.1 m) vertical spacing. Angles must have the capacity necessary. The progress of the job can be maintained
to safely support the load of the stone veneer. when repairs are allowed to be made on site thus aiding
in the successful completion of the work. Repairs done
Field Repair at the site by qualified marble craftsmen will not change
the desired appearance or strength of the completed
During construction of any structure, changes are installation.
needed to accommodate other trades and design
revisions. These changes may require field fabrication
NATURAL STONE 249
Colored Grouts Backing Rods
There are a wide variety of colored grouting Modern construction practice uses backing rods
materials offered by many suppliers. Testing should placed between the marble veneer units with a caulking
be done to determine the acceptability between the sealant applied into the joint from the face side of the
colored joint filler and the stone before proceeding, since veneer (see Figures 12.24, 12.25 and 12.26).
some marbles are more porous than others. The
pigments contained in the colored grout should not stain
the stone.
Typical Joint Designs and Caulking

Face of
Joints between stone panels are a factor in the stone
design of successful building stone systems. This
detail is important since it must prevent stress
accumulation and provide relief of the stresses due to Waterproof
caulking
movement of the stone or the backup system. At the
same time it must also furnish a weather-tight seal to Backing
prevent water leakage through the joints. Joints can rod
be divided into normal joints and expansion/contraction
joints.
Normal joints are the ordinary joints between stone

panels, whereas expansion/contraction joints have the
specific duty of absorbing the expansion and
contraction movements of the structure of the building. FIGURE 12.24 Flush wall joint.
A normal joint may be capable of performing as an
expansion joint, but this quality only acts as a
redundancy in the system and is not to substitute for
the actual expansion joint.
When portland cement mortar is used to seal Face of stone

joints, it should be placed as late as possible in the Backing rod
construction process and after the joints have been
scraped clean and generously moistened.
Waterproof caulking Face of stone

Sealant
Filler strip or backing rod
Compressed Joint
Sealant
Filler strip or backing rod
Expanded Joint FIGURE 12.25 Butt joint.
FIGURE 12.23 Expansion and control joints.

3. It should be water, air and dust-proof

(impermeable);
Face of stone 4. It should neither stain nor corrode the stone or

adjacent material;
Backing rod
5. It should be plastic and not crack and should
maintain plasticity through time;
Waterproof 6. It should not be affected by chemical agents
caulking Face of stone which would normally be found in buildings,
such as mortar and cement alkalinity, or
maintenance substances;
7. It should be compatible with other fillers used
in the same joint.
8. Adhesion and stain tests are recommended.
9. Primers may be required.
The depth of the caulking material in the joint

should be between 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) and 3/8 in. (9.5 mm)
deep, or approximately half the joint width. Caulked
joints in marble veneer are usually smaller than those
found in regular brick or concrete block masonry.
Typical joints are 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) wide, and in some
FIGURE 12.26 Mitred joint. cases, such as interior marble veneer, only 1/8 in. (3.2
mm) wide. No caulked joint should be deeper than
An important feature in the determination of the the joint width.
joint sealant is the selection of the filler. The joint filler,
or backing rod, performs three functions: it controls Particular care must be taken to assure clean joints
the depth of the caulking sealant; if provides support for proper adhesion. Sealant application must be in
for the caulking sealant when compressed during accordance with manufacturer’ s recommendations. If
tooling; and it acts as a bond breaker for the sealant stone thickness and setting conditions allow, sealing
to prevent three-sided adhesion (three-sided adhesion the back and front of the joint (double sealing) is
can result in failure of the sealant). recommended.
Caulked waterproof joints are applied over joints To avoid possible smears in critical areas, tape can
that have backing rods inserted. The backing rods be used along the joint edges.
can be porous, called open cell, or the backing rod
can be non-porous, called closed cell, and are typically Gaskets, when used as joint fillers, are usually
made of polyetilene or polysteryne rope. extruded or pre-formed for joint; slight pressure will
compress the gasket for efficient water protection.
Caulking
Before applying the caulking sealant, all kerfs or
The best sealing is obtained with special caulking holes on the surface of the marble to which the sealant
materials called sealants. These are typically highly will be applied must be filled with a high-quality non-
plastic compounds, usually silicon or (poly)urethene. staining compatible sealant.
A good sealant should sati sf y t he f ollowing
requirements: The caulking or sealant application of marble stone
veneer is one of the final steps in cladding construction.
1. It must provide resistance, through time, to The sealant compound must be compatible with all
atm ospheric agents wi thout marked other units to perform correctly. Proper caulking of
alterations of physical and chemical qualities; the joints prevents moisture penetration and avoids
the development of high stress from any movement
2. It must give constant adherence to the of the marble veneer.
materials to which it is applied;
NATURAL STONE 251
Mortar and Sealant Joints Moisture flows through the natural faults and voids
in the stone at different rates, blocked off in some
Preventing the formation of stains on exterior areas, flowing readily through others, evaporating as it
veneered stone will assist in maintaining the aesthetic reaches the face of the stone. The problem can be
appeal of marble veneer. Cement used in mortar should aggravated by kerfs in the edge of the stone.
not contain noxious components, such as blast furnace
cements or a high alkaline portland cement. Also, the Lining kerfs with epoxy or polyurethane or applying
aggregate should be carefully washed and free of clay, a hydrophobic sealer or the use of a material that can
iron and salt. prevent water being transmitted from the kerf edge to
the face of the stone is effective in eliminating the damp
The compressive strength of the mortar used for appearance problem.
joint sealing must be less than the compressive
strength of the marble. This ensures that the mortar The visual effect of lining and sealing material on
will fail first, thus allowing time to correct and repair the behavior of the entire veneer should be evaluated
the cause of the failure before the marble can be prior to its use.
damaged. See Figure 12.27 for typical portland
cement mortar joints. Flashing
Condensation also produces moisture, therefore

water must be permitted to drain from the setting space
behind the stone by using properly designed weep
holes and flashing. Flashing can be flexible material
installed between the stone panel and the structure,
one end higher against the structure and turned with
the other end lower in the stone joint as shown in Figure
12.28.
Masonry or concrete
Concave Flush backup
(Tooled)
Reglet
V - joint Raked
(Tooled) (Tooled)
Flashing
Caulked joint
FIGURE 12.27 Typical portland cement
mortared joints.
FIGURE 12.28 Continuous waterproof flashing
(typical detail for concrete or masonry backup).
Epoxy Fill
Since the advent of thinner building stone, water Commonly used flashing materials are waterproof,
may penetrate stone veneer more rapidly than normally rubberized fabric, polyethylene or soft neoprene sheets
expected. Areas with dark, damp appearance of or soft, thin gauge stainless steel or copper flashings.
moisture may occur on the face of thin stone. The
darker area is the result of moisture in the stone. Flashing should be placed over all openings, lintels
and continuous support angles with 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) weep
holes spaced every 24 in. (610 mm) along the flashing,
even though the 2005 MSJC Code allows for 3/16 in. (4.8
mm) diameter weep holes spaced at 33 in. (838 mm) on
center.
Copings Drilled undercut

anchor hole
Moisture must be prevented from entering the top
of a stone wall. Many designers use copings for this
purpose. A coping is usually a stone slab laid over the
Install second Masonry or
top of a wall and designed to prevent water from entering
concrete
the wall system (see Figure 12.29).
Cement
spot
Drip (3/8”min. Stainless steel pins, /4”

1
both ways) 2 per stone

Install first
Drip (3/8”min. #8 brass, copper, or
both ways) stailess steel wire
Full mortar bed

Sealant
Continuous
metal flashing Masonry or
concrete
Impervious felt
Masonry or concrete
Cement
spot
FIGURE 12.29 Molded marble coping (typical

detail for concrete or masonry backup).
Anchor Details
FIGURE 12.30 Mitred joint corner.
Careful detailing of the anchoring system is
important. By considering different stone slabs and
Cement spot
how they are going to perform as a unit, the designer
can create an appealing and durable structure.
Face of veneer Masonry or
When developing anchor details, code requirements concrete
must be met. A common type of anchor system is U - cramp #8
known as “ wire tied”. In this system, the marble veneer wire anchor Cement spot
is attached to a structural support system through a
/4”to 3/8”
1
combination of wire ties and portland cement spots.
The wire ties resist the tension loads and the portland Face of veneer
cement spots transfer compression loads. All anchor Caulk
ties must be made of non-ferrous or stainless steel
corrosion-resistant metal. Aluminum wire is not Masonry or concrete
acceptable. All wire anchors must be embedded in
portland cement spots. Gypsum casting plaster can
be used for interior installation only. Face of veneer
Cement spot
U - cramp #8
wire anchor
Face of veneer
Cement spot
FIGURE 12.31 Corner detail.

NATURAL STONE 253
Non-ferrous 9 gauge wire (must be

Stone liner Cement spot
encased with mortar or plaster)
Steel stud
Face of stone
Shim Masonry or
concrete
Screw the channel

at each stud
Stone
FIGURE 12.34 L-strap anchor with dowel and

Channel mount to liners.
face of sheathing
Veneer can also be mechanically installed directly

to the building frame without using backup mortar or
plaster as illustrated in Figures 12.35.
Rigid back-up board
Face of stone Shim Masonry or

FIGURE 12.32 Stone veneer on steel studs. concrete
Anchor bolt
In addition to the wire tied system, slab marble
stone veneer can be anchored in a variety of methods.
Dowel L-
Stone veneer can be mechanically installed to backup strap
masonry or concrete with cement mortar or casting
plaster around the anchors, as shown in Figures 12.33
and 12.34.
Cement spot
FIGURE 12.35 L-strap anchor clip with dowel.
Masonry or
concrete
Masonry or
concrete
Cement spot
FIGURE 12.33 L-strap anchor with dowel.

As Figure 12.36 illustrates, thin slab marble stone

veneer can also be installed using woven wire mesh
and paper backup on steel frames or wood studs.
Wood studs
Shim
Face of stone
#9 gauge
copper wire
Screw at each
stud
Screw at each
stud
Channel mount to Wire reinforced

face of sheathing lathing
Wire reinforced lathing

Wood studs
Face of stone Anchored stone veneer on wood studs with wire
reinforced lathing system using a channel mount to
face of sheathing with #9 gauge copper wire anchor.
Steel studs
Face of stone
Self tapping
metal screw
Self tapping
metal screw
Wire
reinforced
lathing
Steel studs
Face of stone
Anchored stone veneer on steel studs with
wire reinforced lathing system using metal
strap and dowel anchor and grout spot
Concrete screw
Face of stone Masonry or

concrete
backup
Concrete
screw
Masonry or
concrete Wire
backup reinforced
lathing

Face of stone 1”min. air space
Anchored stone veneer on concrete with wire

reinforced lathing system using steel strap
and dowel system
FIGURE 12.36 Anchoring veneer to cement plaster.

NATURAL STONE 255
Marble stone panels can be mechanically anchored Figures 12.38 through 12.46 illustrate various other
to a grid system as shown in Figure 12.37. methods of anchoring marble stone veneer.
2”to 21/2”
Head support
Marble veneer
#8 non-ferrous
wire
Face of
Attaching clip Steel strut marble slab
Horizontal Head Support
Blindside with
gooseneck anchor
Attaching clip
Veneer joint Metal lath and scratch and

brown plaster coat. For interior,
Bearing tape 5
/8”drywall acceptable
Face of marble
Marble veneer veneer
Intermediate support
Marble liner glued
to back of marble
Horizontal Intermediate Support
Metal dowel
Attaching clip
Steel strut
Marble veneer
Soffit
Quirk corner
Marble veneer Bearing tape
Soffit furring
Horizontal Base Support channels 18”o.c.
FIGURE 12.37 Mechanical grid mounted Cement mortar

system. spots
Soffit
FIGURE 12.38 Attachment of marble veneer

to metal stud and plaster walls and soffits.
Soffit furring #8 non-ferrous wire anchor Soffit furring channel

channel
3
/16”diam. FIGURE 12.42 Bar strap with dowel soffit
hole
anchor.
FIGURE 12.39 Intermediate lace tie anchor for non-ferrous wire

overhead installation.
Marble liner epoxied
and doweled to marble
Non-ferrous dowel slab
Clip angle attached to furring
channel or equivalent
FIGURE 12.43 Wire soffit anchor and liner.
Soffit panel
fastened to
Marble liner concrete insert
epoxied and
dowelled to
marbled slab
FIGURE 12.40 Disk soffit anchor.
FIGURE 12.44 Soffit panel with marble liner.
Soffit furring channel

Cement spot
Marble
liner
Shelf angle
Masonry
U - cramp strap or
type anchor concrete
U - cramp #8
wire anchor
1
/4”minimum
FIGURE 12.41 Eye rod and dowel soffit anchor. FIGURE 12.45 U-cramp strap and marble liner
soffit anchor.
NATURAL STONE 257
Marble liner
Masonry or
concrete
Shelf angle Gypsum wallboard
(interior only)
Gypsum plaster
FIGURE 12.46 L-bar or hooked bolt soffit spot (interior only)
anchor. or cement mortar
The “spot and tie”method is usually the preferred

method used to install interior stone slab veneer. The
spot and tie method employs non-corrosive wire
anchors of brass or copper spaced a maximum of 24
in. (610 mm) on center around the perimeter of the
individual stone slabs. One end wire anchor is grouted FIGURE 12.49 Anchoring marble to wood stud
into a hole drilled in the edge of the stone and the (interior detail).
other end is bent and inserted into an inverted bell-
shaped hole in the backup wall. To ensure permanent
anchorage and alignment, cement mortar is used to
encase the anchor wires and at intermittent spots Masonry or
between the back of the slab and the backup wall concrete
(Figures 12.47 through 12.50).
Masonry or
concrete
Blind edge
anchor
Cement mortar spot Open edge anchor
FIGURE 12.47 Intermediate lace or belly tie

anchor. FIGURE 12.50 Connection of blind edge with
Masonry or open edge.
concrete
Marble stone may be attached using frames. A
framing system is nothing more than a rigid support
for more than one piece of slab stone that is then
attached to the building.
The variety of possible approaches to assembling

a framing system is so large that it is impossible to
fully describe, therefore, some typical framing systems
are shown with the following typical anchoring details.
Cement mortar spot
FIGURE 12.48 Open edge anchor detail.

Steel tube Shim

frame
Steel plate, Marble liner
welded (or
bolted) to steel Dowel
tube
Marble veneer
Resilient
bearing tape
Caulked
joint
Steel
tube Marble face
Continuous
aluminum Not serrated using
screw attached @
FIGURE 12.53 Extruded aluminum offset
extrusion anchor.
each stud
Steel
channel
Alternate stud
Face of
stone
Extruded
Special serrated aluminum
locking washer head
support
F IGURE 12.51 Frame with contin uous

Intermediate Caulked
aluminum anchors. joint
support
Neoprene shim
Resilient
bearing
Steel plate, welded tape
(or bolted) to steel
Marble face
tube
Resilient
bearing
tape
Caulked joint
Base
support
Resilient bearing tape

Extruded aluminum anchor
FIGURE 12.52 Extruded aluminum anchor with FIGURE 12.54 Continuous extruded aluminum
anchors in continuous slots cut in the stone.
bearing point.
NATURAL STONE 259
Relieving angle (attached to Depth of concrete varies according to required strength
structure, frame, or studs by bolting
or welding) 8-gage stainless steel
wire
Resilient bearing
tape (both sides)
Concrete
11/2”- 2”typical
Impervious
Extruded plastic or
aluminum membrane
intermediate
anchor
Varies
Non-continuous
slot
FIGURE 12.55 Intermediate anchor in non- Face of stone 3

/16”ø x 1”drilled
continuous slot. veneer holes
Stone liner (epoxied and

doweled to stone slab)
FIGURE 12.57 Pre-cast concrete liner with
stone veneer facing.
Masonry or
Face of
concrete
stone
Anchor bolt
Relieving angle
Base support
FIGURE 12.56 Non-continuous extruded

aluminum base support. FIGURE 12.58 Typical pre-cast concrete stone
anchors (sizes vary).
Another method of attaching marble stone slab
veneer is with concrete liners. This is simply a poured
concrete liner on the back of marble stone with No. 8 Polished Interior Marble
non-ferrous wire anchors or specialty stone anchors
connecting the concrete to the stone (Figure 12.57). Polished marble has a glossy surface that
The advantage of this system is the use of thinner accentuates color and reflects light. Newly installed
marble stone slabs. marble needs cleaning to remove excess grout and grout
smears. When colored grout is used, the pigments
12.3.2.5 MAINTENANCE contained in the grout can stain the marble. The excess
grout should be removed immediately after grouting with
Construction of any structure can be messy and soft towels, sponges or cheesecloth and using clean
usually leaves residues of mortar, grout, dirt and other water. A mild proprietary detergent cleaner such as,
contaminants on the newly installed marble. Marble, pH neutral, or slightly alkaline, should be used for dried-
like any other stone, needs regular maintenance on grout films. For construction dirt and other residues
cleaning and since marble is expensive, one should a mild degreaser approved for marble is the best option.
never risk damage by using homemade cleaners or
cleaners designed for other purposes.
Frequent mopping of floors and sponge washing First, wet marble surfaces with hot, clean water. A
of countertops is beneficial for keeping the polished mild household cleanser may be lightly sprinkled over
appearance in marble. Exercise caution when using the wet stone. Then, mop and rinse the marble surfaces
a scrubbing machine to avoid scratching the marble thoroughly with clean hot water using a scrubbing
surface. Normal cleaning products and acids are not motion and dry with mop or cloth.
recommended for marble.
In many cases, special interior floor marble areas
Typically, prev ention sav es time spent on should be protected where a polished finish is not
treatments and remedies, particularly since damage practical. Sealers, in this case, should be applied after
to marble is irreversible. the floor marble has been cleaned to reduce
maintenance. Also, sealers prevent staining around
Honed Interior Marble toilets and in food preparation areas such as
countertops.
Honed marble has a satin surface with relatively
little light reflection. Maintenance of honed interior For application the manufacturer’ s directions
marble follows the guidance for polished interior should be followed and sealers should only be applied
marble. to clean interior floor marble.
When honed marble is used as an exterior veneer, Exterior Marble

excess mortar must be removed to provide the
appearance of a finish product. Specialty cleaners can Exterior marble is exposed to the ravages of the
remove mortar and other contaminants without an environment elements and polluted water is perhaps
adverse effect on the stone. Care should be taken when the greatest enemy of marble stone. Marble is
using honed marble as traffic surfaces, since the susceptible to biological staining that occurs in moist
accumulation of liquids or other materials would result conditions.
safety hazards and staining. Raw acids on marble
stones are not recommended, therefore, use cleaners The cleaning of exterior marble should be performed
specifically designed for this purpose. When further by a qualified professional with equipment, resources
cleaning is needed, a professional should be consulted. and technical expertise to execute the cleaning work.
The use of a mild proprietary detergent cleaner that is
Floor Marble pH neutral or slightly alkaline is the best option.
Typically, the same practice of maintenance used 12.3.2.6 DETAILS

for polished and honed surfaces apply. Specific
questions or information on cleaning procedures This section provides basic details and elevations
should be referred to professionals. for a variety of exterior and interior marble applications.
These details serve as examples from which drawings
Floor marble subjected to traffic such as honed may be developed for specific projects.
finish floors, treads, and thresholds should be regularly
mopped or scrubbed in a manner that will not leave a
hazardous, slippery film.
NATURAL STONE 261
Marble paver Mortar or elastic

sealant joint
Cramp
Concrete slab Mortar bed
Flashing
Drip
Full Mortar Bed Bonded
Elastic sealant filled

Filler strip control joint
Marble paver Mortar bed
Concrete slab Vapor barrier

Full mortar
Expansion material bed
Flashing
Full Mortar Bed - Control Joint
Mortar spots Open joints for drainage
Marble paver Bricks or

plastic pods
Dowel and
eye bolt
Full mortar
Bricks or Drip
Concrete slab bed
plastic pods
Vapor barrier
Flashing
Corner Spots
FIGURE 12.59 Paving details. FIGURE 12.60 Coping details.

Shim
Bolt to steel
Bolt to steel framing, beams, clip framing,
angles, concrete inserts, etc. concrete inserts
or to face of
concrete
1
/4”min. /4”min.
1
Flat Strap Hangers
Shim
Angle attached to furring

channel or equivalent
Spacer
/4”min.
1
Joint sealant
Plug and Wedge Type Hangers
L-Type angle Support angle
/4”min.
1
Spline Type Hangers
FIGURE 12.61 Soffit details.

NATURAL STONE 263

and doweled to
marble veneer
Bend and shape Shim

Bolt to steel or if required
concrete inserts
Sealant and /4”min.

1
backer rod
Edge Type Hangers

and doweled to
marble veneer
Soffit panel fastened
to concrete insert
Shim
Sealant and
1
/4”min.
backer rod
Soffit Panels with Marble Liners
FIGURE 12.62 Soffit details.

Insert
Shim
Rod welded to clip angle
1
/4”x 3/4”bar welded
to clip angle (typ.)
Insert
Shim
Joint min. 1/4” Joint min. 1/4”
Concrete
L - strap dovetail anchor
dovetail
slot
L - strap dovetail in
vertical joint
Cement spot
Dovetail anchor inside

Insert of marble veneer Insert Rod welded to clip angle
Clip angle
Joint min. 1/4”

Shim Shim
vertical joint
1
/4”min.
Drip
Insert vertical joint
1
/4”x 3/4”bar welded
Insert
to clip angle Clip angle across
vertical joint
Joint min. 1/4”
Shim
Shim
L-strap dovetail anchor
Cement spot
Drip
FIGURE 12.63 Anchorage details.

NATURAL STONE 265
Cement spot
L-strap with dowel

Cement spot
U cramp bar anchor
Cement spot
Straps, or wire anchor Straps or wire anchor

Marble liner epoxied and
doweled to marble vener
Clip angle
Bent strap anchor
Wire anchor
Cement spot
Cement spot
Cement spot
Cement spot
Twisted strap anchor

Two way cramps strap
anchor
Cement spot

Dovetail L - strap anchor
Dovetail strap with dowel

Clip angle
Shim
Insert
Dovetail L - strap anchor

Cement spot
Cement spot
Dovetail L - strap anchors

inside of marble veneer Dovetail L - strap anchor
inside of marble veneer
Dovetail L - strap
Clip angle
Shim
Insert
Cement spot Dovetail L - strap anchor

inside of marble veneer
Cement spot
Two way dovetail

strap anchor Clip angle with dowel
Shim
Expansion shield
Cement spot
Cement spot

NATURAL STONE 267
1
/2”
Masonry or Bent strap anchored to
concrete marble veneer with
expansion shield and
1
/2” bolt
Drip
/4”
3
Marble veneer
Butt Joint
/4”
3
L - strap anchored to
Masonry or marble veneer with
concrete expansion shield and
bolt
Standard Reglet
U cramp strap anchor
Note: Stagger anchors
11/2” to clear each other
Marble veneer
Quirk Joint
/2”
1
Standard Reglet Masonry or

concrete U bar cramp in
Backer rod Backer rod
horizontal joints
/4”min.
1
/4”min.
1
3
/16”min.
Quirk Joint
Masonry or Bent two way strap

concrete anchor in vertical joint.
U cramp also required
at horizontal joints
Sealant Sealant
Compressed Joint Expanded Joint Marble veneer
Quirk Joint
FIGURE 12.66 Veneer details.
Masonry or concrete Masonry or concrete
Wire tie back anchors

Cement spot
Cement spot
Moulding plaster spots
Masonry or concrete
Masonry or concrete

Cement spot Cement spot
Masonry or concrete
Masonry or concrete
Metal feature strip
Drywall partition
Epoxy to base
Wire anchor
Thin set cement
Solid grout
FIGURE 12.67 Base details.

NATURAL STONE 269
Flooring Door Marble threshold

Stainless steel
Flooring
Masonry or dowel
concrete
Cement mortar setting bed
Vent tube Mortar Set Method

(plastic tube not
recommended)
Marble Marble threshold
flooring Door
Isolation joint
Shim
Flooring
Vent tube in
vertical joint at
/4”min.
intersection of
panels
1
Mortar setting bed over concrete
Sealant
Full Mortar Bed Method
Backer rod
Door Marble threshold

Flooring Thin bed cement
Relieving Flooring
angle
Thin Set Method

FIGURE 12.68 Cavity venting detail.
FIGURE 12.69 Threshold details.
Abrasive (non-slip) inserts
Marble treads
Marble treads
Dowel
Anchor clip
Mortar setting bed
FIGURE 12.70 Stair tread details.

Marble tile Marble tile

Marble tile
Mortar bed
Dry set cement
Mortar bed
Sub slab Reinforcement
Sub slab Membrane
Marble tile Marble tile Marble tile
Adhesive Adhesive
Mortar bed
Structurally
Reinforcement Sub slab
sound wood
Membrane subfloor
Setting Methods
FIGURE 12.71 Flooring details.

NATURAL STONE 271
12.3.3 LIMESTONE Select Grade - Fine to average-grained stone
containing a controlled minimum of the above
Limestone is considered clastic sedimentary characteristics.
stone. Some limestones are almost white in color and
are nearly pure calcium carbonate. Textures vary from Standard Grade - Fine to moderate large-grained stone
f ine to rough and f ossilif erous due to natural permitti ng an av erage amount of t he abov e
characteristics, which include f ossils or shell characteristics.
formations, spots, honeycomb formations and grain
formation changes. Many limestones can be finished Rustic Grade - Fine to very coarse-grained stone
in a number of ways such as polished, honed, smooth permitting an above-average amount of the above
and sawn. The color of this stone can be strongly characteristics.
affected by the amount of foreign ingredients. The
iron oxides make the yellows, pinks and reds while Variegated Grade - A mixture of selected, standard
blues, grays and blacks contain carbonaceous and rustic grades permitting buff and gray colors.
derivatives of organic matter. The potential chemical
activity must be considered when determining the 12.3.3.2 DISCOLORATION
compatibility of interfacing material.
Alkali Stain
In all types of buildings, limestone’ s quality of
endurance is well known and respected. Also, the A common problem in any new work is staining or
resistance to damage from the common accumulation discoloration on limestone and may occur when certain
of dirt and soil carried in city environments has been conditions exist. To avoid these conditions, proper
proven through more than a century of use. design and installation procedures should be
implemented.
On the stone’ s visible surfaces, however, there are
several factors which may create stains. Stains have This alkali stain is caused by alkali-charged
no structural effect on the stone and often, through moisture which penetrates the limestone from the back
the natural process of weathering, will either disappear or bottom of the stone. Stain cannot be produced by
or become less noticeable. moisture absorbed through the stone’ s exterior face.
One exception is when the ground moisture is
12.3.3.1 CLASSIFICATIONS absorbed by the stone’ s face below grade.
Based on granular texture and other natural Concrete walls, floors or finish grade (soil) can be
characteristics, limestone is classified in two colors sources of akali. The moisture may be excess water
and four grades. Specification of limestone should in mortar, rainwater, or moisture from soil. This moisture
identify the required color and grade as well as the picks up water-soluble free alkali from various sources
surface finish to be applied to the stone. as it migrates to an evaporation surface at the stone’ s
face above grade. The stain that appears at the surface
Color of the stone is related to the moisture moving through
the stone and dissolves small pieces of organic matter.
Buff color ranges from a light cream shade to a When this material moves to the face of the stone,
brown tinted buff. moisture evaporates and the alkali and organic matter
left at the surface of the stone appears in the form of
Gray color ranges from a light silver gray to shades stain.
of blue tinted gray.
Efflorescence
Grade
Efflorescence is the white, powdery scum that can
Limestone is formed by nature, thus, the limestone appear on the stone’ s surface after construction and
classifications are based on the degree of fineness depending on the type of salts can also be brown green
grain particles and other natural characteristics. or yellow. Stain and efflorescent are similar in many
ways even though the components are different.
Limestone is a natural stone that contains several Typically, efflorescence producing salts found in
noticeable calcite streaks or spots, fossils or shell masonry are sulfates of sodium, calcium, magnesium,
formations, pit holes, reedy formations, open texture iron and potassium.
streaks, honeycomb formations, iron spots, travertine-
like formations and grain formation changes.
Efflorescence is more soluble in water than stain, Appropriate tooling compacts the mortar against
therefore it is easier to remove. the sides of the stone and will improve the bond
between the mortar and the stone units.
Efflorescence problems can occur when water
penetrates the lower part of the material surface. 12.3.3.5 COLD WEATHER PROTECTION
Efflorescence can cause stresses on walls, which can
cause flaking or exfoliation. Protection of limestone during construction is
necessary if the outside temperature is 40º F or below.
Dampproofing treatments such as bituminous or In limestone, admixtures or anti-freezes should never
cementitious coatings can act as a moisture barrier be used to lower the freezing point of mortar. Cold
against groundwater and control or prev ent weather provisions for masonry construction are
efflorescence. Proper materials and details along with contained in Article 1.8 of the 2005 MSJC Specification.
quality construction also help to prevent eflorescence.
Limestone may be covered with felt paper,
12.3.3.3 ANCHORS tarpaulin, or polyethylene. Units may be protected in
a tent-like environment, which would allow auxiliary
Anchors are embedded in the limestone with heating. When using salamanders, care should be
mortar, sealant or other non-expansive, stable material taken to prevent smoke under the covering.
and should be stainless steel, or other non-corrosive
metal. Masonry veneer, by definition, is a non- Limestone should not be place on a snow or ice-
structural element. In addition to anchors, which give covered bed. Under this conditions bond cannot be
lateral support to the limestone veneer, supports developed between the mortar bed and the frozen
provide the bearing surface for the dead weight of the supporting surfaces.
stone. All supports f or l imestone shoul d be
manufactured from type A36 steel, 304 or 316 stainless 12.3.3.6 SEALANT SYSTEMS
steel or other corrosion resistant metal.
Sealants provide a moisture protective barrier
12.3.3.4 MORTAR AND POINTING similar to mortar systems. There are two types of
sealant systems, one-part and two-part. The common
Mortar consists of cementitious material and well one-part systems are the moisture-cure and air-cure
graded sand with sufficient fines. Mortar should be systems. Two-part systems use a catalyst or chemical
tested on limestone prior to construction to assure that to cure. The setting of mortar can be considered similar
it will not bleed into the stone, particularly when using to curing, but in the construction process, sealants
colored mortars. Mortar is used for many purposes must be handled differently since they are not intended
such as: to support weight.
•Bonding the units together Sealants are normally supported by a backer rod.
•Setting material A backer rod is placed in the joint to a predetermined
•Leveling the units depth. The sealant should not adhere to the backer
•Providing shear and compressive strength rod, but to the parallel surfaces only. Omitting the backer
•Sealing irrugularities of the stone rod from the system may contribute to premature failure.
Prior to the application of the joint sealant, the
A typical mortar mix of 1 part portland cement, 1 manufacturer may recommend a primer which must be
part hydrated lime, 6 parts sand aggregate, or a applied to the interior surfaces of the joint to assure
preblended mix, will provide adequate compressive adhesion.
strength (ability to support vertical loads), bond strength
(ability to resist eccentric or lateral loads), and durability 12.3.3.7 EXPANSION JOINTS
(weather resistance).
Expansion joints are used to accommodate
Mortar used in pointing should be a soft, not strong, increases in length in long runs of walls and consist of
mix. Any movement of the building can place a premolded filler and sealant compound. The
excessive stress on the edges of the stone and cause premolded filler should be adequately compressible to
chipping or spalling at the joints if a high compressive allow for structural and thermal differential movement
strength mortar is used. Add only enough water to flexible enough to return to the original shape. Caulking
make the mix workable. or compressible sealant should be completely elastic
and should be tooled to ensure maximum adhesion to
the contact surfaces.
NATURAL STONE 273
Typical examples of expansion joints:
Waterstop
Bondbreaker tape
Mortar
Sealant bead
Exterior Expansion Joints
3
/8”typ.
Column Expansion Joints

Normal Condition Waterstop
1
/2”typ.
Pilaster Expansion Joints

Cold Weather Condition
FIGURE 12.73 Expansion joints.
1
/4”typ. 12.3.3.8 CLEANING
Limestone is distributed as it comes from the last

process in the supplier’ s plant and surfaces or joints
may be covered with dust or saw slush. Exterior
Hot Weather Condition
applications of limestone may not require stone cleaning
prior to erection, therefore, the job installation progress
FIGURE 12.72 Joint sealant design. would not be affected. Interior application, however,
requires that stone be thoroughly cleaned prior to
installation. Once installed, interior stone should be
The expansion joint should be located at an offset protected from construction dust and other forms of
of a building, or where the junctions of the sections airborne or other debris.
contain a U, T or L shaped building. The number of
expansion joints depends on the horizontal surface of Pressure washing is a method considered most
the structure and placement between 150 and 200 feet effective and successful in cleaning limestone. A
(45.7 m and 61.0 m) may be adequate. standard hose can give the required pressure when this
method is used. The machine water-pressure should
be not more than 1,200 psi (8300 KPa), when scrubbing
action is required and delivered by a wide-angle nozzle
from a distance not closer than one foot (300 mm) to
the limestone surfaces. Cleaning the limestone with
water at a lower pressure and at a greater distance
may also be effective and more efficient.
There are other methods that may be used. The

use of these methods may be dictated by the limestone
ornamentation, the use of trim with other materials and
by jobsite dirt. Basic acceptable methods are hand- Flashing cap
scrubbing with fiber brushes, mild soap or detergent,
and clean water.
Acid solutions often used for cleaning or removing

smears from brick can burn and discolor limestone,
therefore, special care and protection should be provided
when limestone is used as a trim in brick walls. Prior
to cleaning the brick, plastic would be ideal to cover
the limestone or wetting the stone surface would be
Slip connection
the minimum protection required.
Expansion anchor
Usually, acids or chemicals methods are not Shim

required to clean limestone. Normal rough cleaners
will usually remove stubborn dirt or other strange Shim
material embedded in the limestone surfaces. Several
commercial cleaners are made specifically for Expansion anchor
limestone when more drastic methods are required.
12.3.3.9 DETAILS
This section provides basic details and elevations

for a variety of exterior and interior limestone applications.
These details serve as examples from which drawings
may be developed for specific projects.
Slip connection
Flashing cap Flashing cap
Flashing cap
Nuts for lateral

adjustment
Hook rod anchor Slotted holes

for expansion
bolts
Flashing cap Flashing cap
Rod anchor
Nuts for lateral

adjustment
Twisted strap
anchor FIGURE 12.75 Floor span.
FIGURE 12.74 Anchoring top panels.

NATURAL STONE 275
Adapter
channel
welded to
steel
1”min./2”
recommended
Grout anchor
in CMU
Stainless steel
split anchor
Bond beam
Adjustable
FIGURE 12.76 Steel or concrete frame anchor. FIGURE 12.77 Anchors at horizontal joints.
Dovetail
anchor
Grout CMU
Adjustable
insert
Weld
plate
FIGURE 12.79 Anchorage to concrete frame.
FIGURE 12.78 Limestone panels structurally

supported at vertical intervals.
NATURAL STONE 277
Flashing cap
Epoxied joint
Stainless steel
dowel
Wood cant
Masonry back-up
Epoxied joint
Soffit Drip
FIGURE 12.80 Floor slab detail.

FIGURE 12.82 Roof detail.
Compressible
Liner block or joint material
cleat
Setting bed
End adapter
welded to beam Sealant and
foam rod
Flashing
Adjustable
disc type
anchors for
lateral stability
of both panels
Inserts cast
into concrete
Shelf angle
Flashing
Strap anchor Setting bed Sealant and

with dovetail foam rod
end
Dovetail slot cast

into concrete
FIGURE 12.81 Bearing on concrete frame. FIGURE 12.83 Copings.

Flashing
Limestone panel Strap anchor Concrete

roof
Setting bed structure
Stone lintel
Drip Rake joint

Metal sash Setting pads
Head Standard strap anchor
Anchor
Anchor
Stone jamb bolt Limestone architrave
Caulk
Limestone facing
Jamb
FIGURE 12.85 Cornice detail.

Dowel at jamb
stones
12.3.4 TRAVERTINE
Limestone sill
Travertine is classified as chemical sedimentary
Drip rock and displays similar characteristics to limestone.
Flashing This variety of limestone is a product of chemical
Sill precipitation from cold lakes and streams, or hot springs.
The texture of travertine is created by the very porous
structure or cellularly layered, partly crystalline
Wood sash
limestones. Travertine voids are the channels left by
water once the flow has finished or evaporated.
Caulk Typically, travertines demonstrate a strong directional
veined appearance and corresponding directional
strength variations due to its formation by directional
Drip
flow.
There are a wide variety of colors of commercial

Sill travertines ranging from light cream and brown to
maroon. Often, dense varieties with contrast are
preferred for exterior applications. Travertine originating
in Colorado, Utah and Idaho may replicate the color
variations and coarser bedding associated with
traditional travertine.
Setting bed
Head
FIGURE 12.84 Window details.

NATURAL STONE 279
12.4 SUMMARY
12.4.1 STONE ANCHORAGE
The main function of stone anchorage is to laterally

support the stone. Stone anchorage also resists all
the changes of climate, such as wind and rain, without
deteriorating or inducing stress back into the stone.
The stone anchorage design principles are the same
everywhere and can be applied evenly if the anchorage
attaches the stone to cold-form metal, mullion. Based
on typical practices, structural designers are capable
of analyzing and member-sizing these common backup
systems independent of the stone.
F IGURE 12.86 Travertine (Getty Center One of the engineering design principles is to
museum). understand the mechanics of the anchor when
connected to the stone. This is the primary and
fundamental key to preventing anchorage failure.
12.3.5 SANDSTONE Understanding how anchorage can deform or move
to break the stone and accommodating these effects
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock made of rounded in the design will prevent anchorage failure. The proper
or angular grains of sand, cemented and compacted sequence in designing an anchorage system is to
together to form a solid mass. Sandstone varies in design the anchor to the stone first and then design
color from red to yellow to white based on the mixture the backup system.
of minerals. Sandstone is divided in siliceous (light
color, hardest and toughest to work with), calcareous The following steps are a suggested process for
(light gray color, easy to work with), and ferroginous an effective design anchorage:
(reddish-brown color, also readily worked).
1. The stone sizes and joint layouts, which are a
Sandstone is soft and easy to quarry and shape, product architect’ s design, are unchangeable.
and is also susceptible to erosion and deterioration Depending on the quarry deposi t, the
from air pollutants. Some commercial sandstone capabilities of the stone should be verified with
varieties are: the supplier since different colors and different
stone types have different maximum size
1. Quartzite, predominantly composed of quartz, limitations.
is a quartz sandstone or conglomerate.
Recrystallized metamorphosed quartz 2. Support points are to be determined from the
sandstone may also be called a quartzite. individual stone layout motivated by reducing
stone bending stress and at the same time
2. Bluestone is a hard, gray sandstone which increasing force distribution. Forces flow
splits easily into thin slabs. The stone is toward greatest resistance or where the
usually dark gray. backup is solid.
3. Brownstone is a sandstone that is very popular 3. Stone attachment systems should be designed
in the East part of the United States even considering installation difficulties and
though it is less durable than other stone. The probable backup systems. Anchor design
stone is brown or reddish-brown color. should consider anchor strength, factors of
4. Freestone is a sandstone which easily splits safety, probable failure planes and panel
into any desired direction. Also, due to support location reactions.
incomplete cementation of the sand grains,
this stone dresses easily. 4. Attach anchorage devices to base building
wherever possible and provide room for potential
base building differential movements. These
movements must be resolved in oversized joints
or laps. Never accept movements where the
anchorage device connects the stone.
5. The anchorage capacity should be verified by There are many sealers available and some do not
multiple tests of the actual anchorage. The have the ability to resist water penetration. These
anchorage fastener connection to the backup coatings lie on the surface of the stone and provide
should be duplicated in the anchor test only shine or varnish to the stone’
s surface.
apparatus. Revised anchor design if the
anchorage tests do not provide the capacities The process of removing stains from natural stone
needed. is complicated and warrents professional guidance.
Evidence frequently shows that when stone Marble floors may be resurfaced to bring back the
anchorage fails, rupture occurs where anchors are original shine. The process involves specialized
attached to brittle stone, not where the anchors are machinery and technical expertise. This type of
connected to the backup. Alternative or backup procedure can be expensive so a reputable refinisher
designs should always be re-evaluated as outlined for the project is advisable.
above for adequacy. Proper performance of the
stone’s supporting substrate is essential. Both the 12.4.3 MAINTENANCE
backup and base design should be rechecked for
adequacy to assure long-term system performance. One misperception is that natural stone is
maintenance free and resist the effects of time, however,
12.4.2 SEALING any contractor or building manager will disagree. The
maintainability of these natural products is one of the
Stone surfaces require careful maintenance to major elements that affect the practicality of bringing
protect them from stains and environmental pollutants. polished stone back into residential and commercial
Most stone requires little maintenance, which is simple buildings.
and economical.
Successful use of natural building stone in any
Stone floors should be cleaned with warm water residential or commercial projects is a result of correct
and a liquid soap that will not leave a residue. Cleaners mai ntenance procedures. The cont ractors,
containing acids or abrasive chemicals sould never manufacturers and distributors must educate the end-
be used on stone. Avoid spilling sugary or carbonated user for proper care, cleaning and maintenance of the
drinks as these may etch the surface of the stone and stone. Long lasting beauty and appearance of natural
remove the shine. The use of waxes on stone should stone will guarantee continued demand.
be avoided since waxes attract airborne dirt.
The best way to understand guidelines in stone
New stone floors, counters or cladding require the care is to look at each natural stone and determine
use of a quality penetrating sealer immediately after what is needed and what should be avoided.
installation. There are a wide variety of sealers
available, and a specialty stone cleaner should be 1. Natural stone is very susceptible to chemicals.
used. Regular maintenance can be easier if a Major threats are acids, salts, and alkalis.
professional initially seals the stone surface.
2. Natural stone needs a stone care system or
Granite’ s natural high density resists absorption of conditioning. The use of ordinary cleaners may
staining materials and requires little or no sealing. A be harmful to the stone. These products dry
specialty penetrating sealer may be used to increase out the stone and pull the life out of the stone.
stain resistance and will prevent absorption of liquids
and oils, which can darken the surface of the stone. 3. Natural stone needs regular cleaning. Damp
mopping will be enough to keep it looking good
Marble should be sealed since it is vulnerable to and to prevent dirt and soil from clogging pores.
staining. A quality penetrating sealer will prevent water
rings left by glasses placed on the marble surface. 4. Natural stone requires protection against water
penetration. Moisture is the main factor
Limestone is more resistant to staining due to its contributing to the decay of masonry. Moisture
unusual characteristics. However, when limestone is contains soluble salts from polluted rain water
exposed to air over a period of time will weather and or chemically treated tap water, melted ice,
become harder on the surface. A penetrating sealer is and adjacent masonry materials. The stone’ s
recommended to prevent staining. natural components react to moisture and
efflorescence.
NATURAL STONE 281
5. Natural stone should be stain-proofed. Even The stone will wear if left unprotected. Even
dense granite has a capillary structure, and an entrance mat helps in the protection of stone
can therefore stain. There are no stain removers floors.
that can successfully penetrate the fine pores
of the stone and stain, therefore, it is nearly 8. Natural stone surfaces must be slip-resistant.
impossible to completely remove deeply ADA regulations require a degree of slip
penetrated stains. In order not to permanently resistance which cannot be achieved with any
harm the stone, only very mild, non-acidic stain smooth natural stone.
removers should be applied.
9. Chemical cleaners may dam age the
6. Natural stone must breathe. Thus, sealers environment and personal safety. Users must
and maintenance products should not block be aware of possible property damage.
the pores of stone. Chemical cleaners such as acids and alkalines
can cause serious injury and health hazards.
7. In order to preserve the natural polish of stone, Carefully analyze Material Safety Data Sheets
natural stone surfaces must be protected and reject chemicals which endanger the
against foot abrasion and other wear and tear. environment.
STONE MONUMENTS OF GREAT BRITAIN
Leeds Castle.
Westminster Abbey.
Windsor Castle.
Windsor Castle. Bath Abbey.

CHAPTER
13
GLASS BLOCK
condensation. Panels of glass block remove drafts

13.1 GENERAL and assist to keep balanced comfort within the building.
A remarkable decrease of solar heat gain is offered
Glass blocks have been used over the years by by the solar reflective glass blocks. Glass block panels
design professionals for exceptional design flexibility reduce and help control noise transmission. The sound
in a wide range of applications. The combination of transmission loss through a glass block panel is 38
aesthetics and functional properties make glass block decibels, which is the average. Also, glass block
one of the favorite materials of architects, designers panels seal out flying dust and dirt.
and home builders.
13.1.4 SECURITY
13.1.1 DESIGN
Solid glass blocks are durable and extremely
The large range of varity patterns, styles, methods rugged. Glass block provides security without creating
of installation and sizes permit freedom of inspired a “ closed-in”feeling with its characteristics of
designs of the professional designer. Also, the pattern transparency and light transmission.
selection permits controlled transmission of light from
the outside or from room to room. To meet the Aggresive attacks by vandals can be resisted by
requirements of the design, light may be directed, solid glass blocks. The solid and regular glass block
diffused, reduced or reflected. Many glass blocks offer panels are fire resistant.
additional design opportunities due to the degree of
translucence or transparency. Regularly, in several 13.1.5 MAINTENANCE
applications, natural light and artificial light can be used
dramatically. Glass blocks require little care. There is nothing to
paint and they are easy to clean. A sporadic hosing on
13.1.2 ENERGY CONSERVATION exterior surfaces and a damp cloth cleaning on interior
surfaces are all that is required. Glass block panels
A partial vacuum is created within the unit when are air-tight because they are typically mortared into
the halves of a glass block are combined together. place.
This insulating capacity reduces heat gain or loss and
provides thermal benefit which can conserve energy. 13.1.6 CODE REQUIREMENTS
13.1.3 ENVIRONMENTAL The installation of glass block is accomplished

using type N or type S mortar. Standard glass block
Glass blocks help the designer create a more units are to be at least 37/8 in. (98 mm) specified
comf ortabl e env i ronment by control ling l ight thickness, thin hollow units 31/8 in. (79 mm) specified
transmission and glare. In high humidity areas, the thickness and thin solid units 3 in. (76 mm) specified
glass block insulation capacity may eliminate surface thickness.
70
60
Design Wind Pressure, psf 50
40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Area of Panel, sq. ft.
FIGURE 13.1 Glass masonry design wind load resistance.
Panel size is limited by the 2006 IBC based on Glass block panels must be reinforced with at least
wind pressure and absolute maximum dimensions and two 9 gauge W 1.7 (MW 11) in the horizontal bed joints
areas. Figure 13.1 provides limitation on panel size at intervals not exceeding 16 in. (406 mm). When joint
based on given wind pressure. reinforcement is lapped, the splices are to be at least 6
in. (152 mm).
When the design wind pressure does not exceed
20 psf (958 N/m2), glass block panels may be designed 13.1.7 INSTALLATION
using the criteria of Table 13.1 providing none of the
maximum values is exceeded Glass block panels give an attractive, air-tight,
light-transmitting panel that is completely finished on
Table 13.1 Maximum Glass Block Panel Size both sides. In one operation, preassembled panels
Unit Type can be set into openings. There is nothing to
Standard Thin Thin deteriorate and the glass blocks require little care.
Units Hollow Solid
Units Units
Exterior Walls
Area 144 85 100
sq. ft. sq. ft. sq. ft. 2
Height 20 ft. 10 ft. 10 ft.
Width 25 ft. 15 ft. 15 ft. 10 9
Interior Walls
Area 250 150 100 7 2
sq. ft. sq. ft. sq. ft.
Height 20 ft. 20 ft. 20 ft.
Width 25 ft. 25 ft. 25 ft. 8 6
11 5
Glass block panels must be laterally supported
against out-of-plane displacement. This can be 4
accomplished by providing panel anchors at the sides
3
and top of the glass block panels spaced not more
than 16 in. (406 mm) apart. Lateral support can also 1
be provided by using channel type restraints with the
glass block inset into the channels by at least 1 in.
(25.4 mm). Expansion joints of at least 3/8 in. (9.5 mm)
are also required at the ends and top of glass block
panels.
FIGURE 13.2 Glass block installation.
GLASS BLOCK 285
The standard installation of a glass block window
is shown in Figure 13.2.
13.2 TYPICAL GLASS BLOCK
DETAILS
1 Sill area, to be covered by mortar, shall first be covered
with heavy coat of asphalt emulsion.
13.2.1 HEAD DETAILS
2 Adhere expansion strips to jambs and head with asphalt
emulsion. Expansion strips must extend to sill.
3 When emulsion on the sill is dry, place full mortar bed.
Do not furrow the mortar.
Exterior
Interior
Finish
Finish
4 Set lower course of glass block units. All mortar joints
are full joints without furrows. Do not tap glass block
units into place with tools.
CMU lintel block
5 Install panel reinforcement in horizontal joints as follows:
a) Place 1/2 depth of mortar bed joint on top of glass
block. Expansion strip
Deflection
b) Press panel reinforcement into place.
c) Cover the panel reinforcement with the other 1/2 of
space
the mortar bed and trowel smooth. Do not furrow.
d) Panel reinforcement is to be continuous. Lap panel
reinforcement a minimum of 6", as required. Panel Anchor screw
reinforcement shall not bridge expansion joints.
Steel 2 x 2 x 14 (typ.)
6 Place full mortar bed on joints not requiring panel
1 inch min.
reinforcement. Do not furrow. Sealant and backer
rod
7 Repeat at each course.
Glass block unit
8 Strike joints smoothly while mortar is still plastic. Rake
out spaces to be caulked. Remove excess mortar from
the face of glass block and wipe dry. Tool joints smooth
and concave before mortar sets.
FIGURE 13.4 Cross-section of glass block head
9 AFTER the final mortar has SET, pack backer rod tightly joint at CMU wall.
between glass block and jambs & head. Leave room for
caulking.
10 Caulk panels per manufacturer.
11 Clean the glass block using sponge and clean water. Steel stud
Change water often. Do not use a wire brush. Buff with
cheesecloth.
Sheathing
Weather-resistant
membrane
Flashing
Panel anchor Tube steel
Steel lintel
Weep holes
Mortar Expansion
strip
Horizontal
reinforcement Steel channel
Glass Sealant and

block backer rod
unit
Glass block unit
FIGURE 13.5 Head - Glass block in steel stud

FIGURE 13.3 Glass block panel components. wall with brick veneer.
13.2.2 TYPICAL JAMB DETAILS

Glass block
Mortar
Exterior Finish 1 inch min.
Asphalt emulsion
Sealant and backer rod Interior finish
Glass block Precast conc.
sill
Sill anchor
Metal flashing
Horizontal reinforcement Steel tube
Steel 2 x 2 x 14 (typ.)
Anchor screw
Steel stud framing
CMU
Interior Finish
FIGURE 13.9 Sill - Glass block in steel stud
FIGURE 13.6 Jamb - Glass block in CMU wall. wall with brick veneer.
Brick Veneer 13.2.4 CONNECTION DETAIL

Air space
Building paper weatherproof membrane
Sealant
Exterior sheathing
Sealant and backer rod Horizontal

joint wire
reinforcement
Glass block
Tube Glass block
steel Horizontal wire joint Sealant
reinforcement Tie
Sealant Backer rod
Structural support member
Insulation
Plan View
Steel stud
FIGURE 13.10 Intermediate horizontal support
in multiple vertical panels.
FIGURE 13.7 Jamb - Glass block in steel stud
wall.
13.2.5 MISCELLANEOUS INTERIOR DETAILS
13.2.3 TYPICAL SILL DETAILS
Metal stud
Glass block
Gypsum board
Mortar Solid blocking
Asphalt emulsion
Sealant
Precast concrete Expansion strip

sill
Panel anchor
Interior finish Glass block
FIGURE 13.11 Head - glass block in partition.

FIGURE 13.8 Sill - Glass block in CMU wall.
GLASS BLOCK 287
Metal stud
Solid blocking 53/4” Glass corner block
Sealant
Mortar
Glass block
37/8”
53/4”
Panel anchor
1
/4”
Expansion strip
FIGURE 13.12 Jamb - Glass block in partition. Glass block
13.2.6 PANEL ANCHOR DETAILS

37/8”
PLAN VIEW
FIGURE 13.15 Glass block at corner.
Expansion
strip
Panel anchor
Expansion
Horizontal
strip
Sealant reinforcing
Mortar
Glass
45° block
block
Glass
Glass block
block
PLAN VIEW
FIGURE 13.13 New construction.

FIGURE 13.16 45glass block at corner.
73/4”
Mortar
Expansion
strip
37/8”
Panel anchor
Expansion
strip
1
/4”exp. bolts
two per anchor
Glass block
Glass Horizontal reinforcement
block Sealant
Bullnose finish
Glass
block PLAN VIEW
FIGURE 13.14 Existing construction. FIGURE 13.17 End block.

Minimum 9 gauge (W 1.7) longitudinal

and cross wires
6”min. lap
FIGURE 13.21 North Hollywood Police Station,

North Hollywood, California.
FIGURE 13.18 Glass block lap splice.
FIGURE 13.22 El Cerrito Middle School,

F IGURE 13.19 Norwalk Arts and Sport Corona, California.
Complex, Norwalk, California.
FIGURE 13.23 Employment Development

FIGURE 13.20 Metro Center Parking Garage, Department, Los Angeles, California.
Foster City, California.
CHAPTER
14
VENEER
14.1 GENERAL Details must be clear to assure that a moisture-

barrier veneer system will perform to prevent water
intrusion into the building and a moisture drainage
Veneers are architectural facade coverings on a
veneer system will effectively shed any anticipated
building and are non-structural. This means that
water penetration.
veneers require a structural element and lateral support
to keep them in place. Veneers may be laterally
supported by structural masonry, reinforced concrete,
wood, steel studs, or structural steel framing. These
structural elements are located behind the veneer and
are known as the structural backup or simply “ backup”
to the veneer. The type of backup would depend not
only on the initial cost of the installation, but also on
the structural and serviceability concerns of the project.
There are numerous methods that have been

developed to secure masonry veneer to a structural
backup. Building codes have adopted systems as they
evolved and became standardized. Currently the 2006
IBC recognizes two basic methods to install masonry
veneer. One method is called adhered veneer which
secures the masonry units to the structural backup
using a bonding material. The other method, anchored
veneer, attaches the masonry to the structural backup FIGURE 14.1 Anchor veneer using ties.
using mechanical fasteners called wall ties or anchors.
Any anchored veneer system with an intentional
These two systems are contained in the building airspace between the veneer facing and the structural
code with prescriptive requirements that allow use with backup is an example of a moisture drainage system.
little engineering design. However, the code also allows A quality veneer system will prevent the moisture from
the use of alternative engineered systems based on bridging the ties, thereby allowing water to gravitate to
engineering principles such as reinforced veneer, the bottom of the system and exit through intentionally
masonry panels and stone panels on a structural frame provided and functional weep holes.
backup.
In order to achieve a successful moisture drainage
The success of any veneer system depends on system, the components of flashing and weep holes
the proper design, selection of durable materials and must be present and care must be taken in the
quality construction. construction process for these elements to be
functional. Moisture must have a clear path to drain A rigid system deflects little. Since the backup
through the weep holes, which must be open for system deflects very little and the veneer is attached
passage of moisture to the exterior of the veneer. to the backup system, then veneer will have limited
deflection. The limited deflection of the veneer
The corners, which can be particularly susceptible reduces the possibility of water intrusion through
to seismic damage, can perform well if the designer flexural cracks in the veneer.
understands wall movements relative to each other.
Traditionally, structural masonry backup systems
The anchored attachment system must have the have been constructed with Concrete Masonry Units.
flexibility of allowing vertical and horizontal movement
relative to the backup system and at the same time be Clay brick, or hollow clay brick, can also be used
capable of transferring the lateral wind and seismic to support veneer. This is seldom considered due to
loads to the backup system for ultimate ground the increased cost. Instead, two wythes of brick with
distribution. one wythe being the veneer brick facing have been
used.
W hen properly designed and constructed, a
masonry veneer system will survive natural elements, Anchored veneer can easily be attached to structural
such as wind and earthquakes, with minimal or no masonry with a variety of wall ties or joint reinforcement.
damage. A prime advantage of this type of system is the ease in
which insulation can be placed in the cavity between
Masonry veneer systems can be constructed from the wythes of masonry. Moreover, when properly flashed
a variety of materials in a number of different ways. and drained with weepholes, the system can prevent
The designer can select systems and materials to water intrusion into the building.
achieve a desired look or texture.
Prior to placing the anchored veneer the structural
This chapter presents the constructability of the masonry backup must be waterproofed. Frequently,
most important materials and systems that are used this is done by painting the backup with bituminous tar
in masonry veneer. Manufacturers of each product or by covering with 30 pound (13.6 kg) felt. This added
should be consulted for more detailed information on measure helps mitigate the moisture penetration
specif ic products and installation procedures through the masonry.
associated with their products.
14.2 STRUCTURAL SUPPORT Seismically required horizontal

joint reinforcement
BACKUP MATERIALS Anchor ties
The structural support of a veneer system should Weatherproof membrane

have the same or very similar material properties as Reinforced structural
the veneer. The reason is compatibility. If the veneer masonry back-up
and the backup system respond in similar manners to
changes in the environment, then the tendency for
cracking, movement differences, and the build up of
secondary stresses are minimized. One of the best
and obvious ways to assure the compatibility of
material is to build the backup system of the same
material as the veneer.
14.2.1 STRUCTURAL MASONRY BACKUP

Brick veneer
An easy and rigid method to support veneer units
is with a structural masonry backup. If the veneer is 2”recommended air space
brick, then the backup can be made of the same
materials and there is little concern about dissimilar
material properties.
FIGURE 14.2 Structural masonry backup
system.
VENEER 291
When clay brick veneer is installed with a concrete
masonry backup, a provision to allow for differential Weatherproof membrane
Seismically required horizontal
movement between the materials must be included.
joint reinforcement
2”(50.8 mm) recommended
Clay masonry expands with moisture and air space
temperature over a long period of time while concrete
Reinforced
masonry shrinks and creeps. Accordingly, solidly concrete back-up
bonding clay masonry to concrete masonry is not
recommended except for small installations Dovetail
slot
A space or cavity should exist between the veneer
and the concrete masonry units. Wall ties, which allow
for minor differential movement between the materials,
are required. Expansion, shrinkage and isolation joints
should also be carefully located so that each material
can move relatively free of the other.
14.2.2 STRUCTURAL CONCRETE BACKUP

Dovetail anchor ties
Poured and precast reinforced concrete structures

are often veneered with masonry. A few items require
special attention to avoid problems with concrete
backup walls: FIGURE 14.3 Concrete backup system.
1. When the veneer is to be adhered to the

concrete, remove all form release agents 14.2.3 WOOD STUD BACKUP
(such as oil, wax or grease) or curing agents
that are present on the concrete. These Wood studs are used to backup masonry veneer
substances act as bond breakers and can primarily on residential structures and low rise
prevent the mortar from bonding to the commercial buildings. Multistory wood framed
concrete. If any such substances were used, buildings can be veneered but accommodations must
the surf ace of the concrete should be be provided to allow for lateral load support, vertical
sandblasted or water blasted until all such shrinkage and movement of the wood structure.
materials are removed.
For single story buildings, wood studs are typically
2. As with masonry backup systems, movement located at 16 in. (406 mm) on center although spacing
joints should be placed in the veneer at all of 24 in. (610 mm) may be used when the loads are
locations where movement joints occur in the small or when larger studs are utilized. Deflections of
concrete backup. the wood studs should be limited to no more than h/600
or h/720 to reduce cracking in the masonry veneer.
3. For anchored veneer, cast the wire ties, anchor
slots and other embedded items directly into Only quality (grade 2 or better), seasoned lumber
the concrete when practical. should be used. Wet and green lumber should not be
used since shrinkage due to drying may damage not
A dovetail tie system is shown in Figure 14.3. A only the veneer but also interior drywall and other
“dovetail slot”is embedded in the concrete and veneer surface treatments. Excessively warped, bowed or
ties are inserted into the dovetail slot. The dovetail damaged studs should also be rejected.
slot allows for vertical adjustment during construction,
as well as vertical expansion movement. Design of the wood stud backup system must
comply with either IBC Chapter 23 or the National
Design Specification by the National Forest Products
Association.
Plaster leveling course

Seismically required horizontal joint reinforcement
Paper backed metal lath Recommended 2”(50.8 mm) min. air space
weatherrproof membrane
Steel stud framing back-up
Wood stud Anchor ties
framing back-up
Batt insulation
Exterior sheathing
Brick
Thin brick veneer veneer
units Weep
holes
Thin set mortar
Building paper
with 6 in. (150
Weep screed mm) minimum lap
at base
Flashing
FIGURE 14.4 Wood stud backup system for Foundation

adhered veneer. Exterior Gypsum board
sheathing
Batt insulation
Recommended
14.2.4 STEEL STUD BACKUP 2 in. (50.8 mm) Steel studs
minimum air
Steel studs have been used to support veneer space
construction for several decades. Initially, flexible and Building paper with
light steel studs were used and little attention was paid Adjustable 6 in. (150 mm)
ties minimum lap
to properly waterproofing the veneer/steel stud system.
As a result of these initial practices, design changes
were quickly implemented and attention was given to
design and construction quality control thereby yielding
a reliable steel stud/veneer system. Weep Foundation
holes
Recommendations f rom the Brick Industry
Association, Technical Notes 28B, Brick Veneer / Steel Flashing
Stud Walls and Western States Clay Products
Association, Design Guide for Anchored Brick Veneer
over Steel Studs include:
1. The brick veneer/steel stud wall system should FIGURE 14.5 Steel stud backup system.
be detailed as a panel wall, or fully supported
at each story height by the structural frame 3. Use at least 18 gauge (1.2 mm) metal studs
through shelf angles. to allow for adequate screw thread grip.
However, the deflection criteria may require a
2. Limit the deflection of the steel studs to h/600
minimum of 16 gauge (1.5 mm) metal stud,
of the height of the stud backup when
except for lightly loaded and dry areas, such
considered alone as a full lateral design load.
as building interiors where 18 gauge (1.2 mm)
This ensures that the studs will be sufficiently
studs may be adequate.
stiff so that the veneer will be adequately
supported with only minor cracking from 4. Steel studs should be galvanized coated to
bending. conform to ASTM A 525, Grade G-90.
VENEER 293
5. Rigid sheathing should be securely fastened a simply supported beam where the maximum deflection
to both sides of studs. The sheathing must and moment would occur at the midspan.
be properly detailed and attached.
Shelf angles can also be supported by bolting
6. Horizontal bracing at mid-height for added
directly to the structural backup. This is particularly
stiffness is recommended.
advantageous since the angle size can be minimized
by installing bolts at a relatively close spacing, such
The design of the steel stud system should meet
as the stud spacing. This also reduces the overall
the requirements of either the IBC or the Metal Lath/
deflection of the angle so that only the deflection of
Steel Framing Association design criteria.
the projecting angle leg may be critical. Shelf angles
at floor levels must be supported in this manner so
14.3 SHELF ANGLES that the load from the angle is not transferred to the
veneer below.
The horizontal leg of the angle must extend to
support at least two-thirds of the veneer thickness. Avoid attaching heavily loaded shelf angles to steel
Angles must also support the veneer without excessive studs since the substantial bending moment created
deflection or rotation. Provide a more substantial angle by the large load and eccentricity could overstress the
or a built-up structural steel member if deflections relatively flexible studs. Any loads imposed upon the
exceed l/600 to l/720. studs must be considered in the design of the stud.
The deflection of the angle should be limited to When installing shelf angles, a clear space of at
the lesser of l/600 or 0.3 in. (7.5 mm) and the rotation least 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) must be left at the ends of each
of the edge of the shelf angle should not exceed 1/16 in. angle. This allows the steel angle to expand without
(1.6 mm). damaging the surrounding masonry.
Shelf angles over openings may be supported by Similarly, space should be provided between the
bearing on adjoining masonry, subject to building code ends of steel shelf angles at floor lines so each angle
provisions. In this case, the shelf angle would act as can expand and contract independently.
Steel stud
Building paper,
weatherproof
membrane
Concrete floor
Seismically required
Structural steel framing
horizontal joint
reinforcement
Exterior sheathing
Anchor ties
Recommended 2” (50.8 mm)
air space
Weep holes
Flashing
FIGURE 14.6 Bolted shelf angle support system.

Weatherproof membrane Veneer back-up system

Exterior sheathing
Continuous metal flashing Concrete floor
Angled weep holes Veneer Continuous reglet
Continuous
metal flashing
Wedge insert anchor
Caulking Recommended 2”
minimum air space
Backer rod
Compressible material Shelf angle
FIGURE 14.7 Metal flashing system.
14.4 FLASHING Flashing at lintel
In anchored masonry veneer, flashing is required

directly above all shelf angles, concrete foundations
and over door and window openings to interrupt the
downward flow of water.
CMU backing
Flashing must slope toward the exterior face of the
veneer so water can be shed through weep holes. To
prevent the expelled water from dripping down the face
of the masonry, flashing should extend beyond the face
and terminate in a drip edge. Otherwise water may re-
enter the masonry or cause staining. Brick veneer
Foundation
Flashing must be continuous along the length of
the veneer with sufficient lap joints to prevent moisture Flashing
from migrating under the flashing. Where flashing
terminates at the end of shelf angles, end dams must FIGURE 14.8 Adhesive flashing system.
be constructed to direct the flow of moisture outward.
Plastic membranes designed specifically for 14.5 WEEP HOLES

flashing are available. The membranes are thicker
than those previously manufactured and are reinforced
Weep holes are installed above flashing to allow
and resistant to ultraviolet light.
water to readily exit the masonry cavity.
Weep holes are typically placed at approximately

24 in. (610 mm) on center, although, the type of weep
holes and the particular weather conditions may alter
this spacing.
VENEER 295
Possibly, the easiest form of weep hole is the open
head joint. Water can readily drain out of the open Long term expansion
head joints which also serve as vents in the wall,
allowing air circulation through the cavity. To prevent
insects or vermin from entering the open head joints
Long term expansion

and infesting the cavity, vinyl vents, plastic grids or
sheet metal devices can be placed in the open head
joint to allow drainage and evaporation.
L2
L1
Expansion
joints
L1 + L2 Typical spacing between

expansion joints
L1 or L2 = 10 Ft. (3 m) Max.
FIGURE 14.9 Weep vent.
14.6 EXPANSION JOINTS FIGURE 14.10 Expansion joints at corners.
Any successful veneer system design will consider Discontinuities - When the veneer encounters any
expansion and contraction in the veneer system. discontinuity, a vertical expansion joint should be
provided. Examples are changes in height, thickness,
The need for vertical expansion joints depends on and presence of any large openings, dissimilar
the climate area in which the structure is located, materials or abutment to other building elements.
temperature change, type of structural frame and the
materials involved in construction. Spacing - W it h all v ariables taken i nto
consideration, maximum spacing of the vertical
Additional attention should be given to vertical expansion joints should be calculated. The spacing
expansion joints in the following areas: of the vertical expansion joints of clay masonry should
never exceed 30 ft (9.1 m), and a 20 ft (6.1 m)
Corners –In order to avoid buckling as depicted in maximum spacing is recommended.
Figure 14.10 some type of vertical expansion joint
should be placed in close proximity of the corner.
14.7 SYSTEM DETAIL
A vertical expansion joint can be placed at the
corner of the veneer and this may be accomplished
REQUIREMENTS
by following a continuous seam up through a series of
attached vertical and horizontal joints. Normally, this This section describes masonry veneer systems
method is cost prohibitive. in detail along with specific requirements contained in
the 2006 IBC and the 2005 MSJC Code. Sections
Alternately, the vertical expansion joint can be and details are provided which show the minimum code
placed within ten feet of the corner. The distance from requirements along with recommendations based on
the corner on the adjacent wall would be the maximum design principles and standard construction methods.
calculated space between joints, less the distance on
the adjacent wall (Figure 14.10).
Minimum thicknesses for various types of wall Typically, any veneer attached to a wood stud
coverings are contained in IBC Table 1405.2. The system or a cold-formed steel framing system is limited
given thicknesses are based on weather protection for to 30 feet (9.1 m) abov e the noncombustible
the material and application. Note that the requirement foundation. This height limitation is increased to 38
for adhered masonry veneer is only 0.25 in. (6.4 mm), feet (11.6 m) for a gable condition.
whereas the anchored masonry veneer must have a
minimum thickness of 2.625 in. (53.3 mm). This is The restriction on wood framing can be attributed
based on the concept that adhered veneer is applied to to fire safety. In the event of a fire, the veneer could
a system that already considers water management, collapse if the wood stud frame backup disintegrates
such as a plaster substrate. Anchored veneer, on the and a fall of a system in excess of 30 feet (9.1 m)
other hand is the first line of defense for moisture could be catastrophic. There are also considerations
penetration. The units must also be adequately thick of differential movement, that is, a wood frame backup
for the mason to place the units with stability. shrinks over a long period of time, whereas, a brick
cladding will expand over a long period of time.
IBC TABLE 1405.2 (Partial) Fire protection is considered in the noncombustible

MINIMUM THICKNESS OF WEATHER COVERINGS systems, and masonry veneer is not a hazard in a
moderate fire.
COVERING TYPE MINIMUM THICKNESS (IN)
Adhered masonry veneer 0.25
14.7.1.1 DEFINITIONS
Anchored masonry veneer 2.625
Marble slabs 1 IBC Chapter 14 contains definitions that are
Precast stone facing 0.625 specifically related to masonry veneer.
Stone (cast artificial) 1.5
Stone (natural) 2
Terra cotta (anchored) 1 IBC Section 1402.1 (Selected Definitions)
Terra cotta (adhered) 0.25 1402.1 The following words and terms shall, for the
purposes of this chapter and as used elsewhere in this
code, have the meaning shown herein.
14.7.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
IBC Chapter 14, Exterior Walls, includes ADHERED MASONRY VENEER. Veneer secured and
masonry and the associated prescriptive requirements. supported through the adhesion of an approved bonding
Additionally, IBC Chapter 14 references MSJC Code material applied to an approved backing.
Chapter 6 for other specific requirements associated ANCHORED MASONRY VENEER. Veneer secured
with masonry veneer. with approved mechanical fasteners to an approved
backing.
The MSJC requires that the veneer backing
system be able to resist water penetration. More BACKING. The wall or surface to which the veneer is
specifically, any sheathing must be covered with a secured.
water-resistant membrane, such as 15 or 30 pound felt,
unless the veneer backing uses water-resistant EXTERIOR WALL. A wall, bearing or nonbearing, that
sheathing with sealed joints. is used as an enclosing wall for a building, other than a
fire wall, and that has a slope of 60 degrees (1.05 rad) or
Anchored veneer requires flashing and weep holes greater with the horizontal plane.
at the base of the wall, or where any lintels support
the veneer above. Maximum spacing of the weep VENEER. A facing attached to a wall for the purpose of
holes is 33 in. (838 mm) which allows for four 8 in. providing ornamentation, protection or insulation, but not
(204 mm) long brick between weep holes, with an extra counted as adding strength to the wall.
inch for tolerance. The weep holes are to be a
minimum of 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) in diameter. If using a
plastic tube for a weep hole, the inside diameter of the Plain gypsum lath or gypsum board should never
tube must be 3/16 in. (4.8 mm). Alternate devices, such be used as an exterior material on the backup system.
as weep vents, are acceptable if they provide no less
passage area than the 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) diameter weep
hole.
VENEER 297
14.7.1.2 INSTALLATION Figure 14.11 shows a typical load flow from the
anchored veneer to the backup system. The veneer
The IBC contains prescriptive guidelines for the system supports only the weight of the veneer, which
installation of masonry veneer. The designer has the is transferred to the noncombustible foundation, or to
option of following the prescriptive guidelines, or to the backup system through the shelf angles.
design the masonry veneer in a manner acceptable to
the building official. The code requires that lateral loads, such as wind
and earthquake loads, be transferred to the backup
Stone veneer (2006 IBC Section 1405.6) and terra system through the attachments. In the case of
cotta (2006 IBC Section 1405.8) give prescriptive detail adhered veneer, the adhesive material applied to the
requirements. The code provisions of the IBC and back of the veneer transfers the loads. With anchored
MSJC allow for rational design, which means that the veneer, the load is transferred through mechanical
veneer can be designed by engineering calculations, systems such as wall ties or anchors.
notwithstanding the prescriptiv e requirements
contained in the code. An example of this is masonry In addition to lateral load transfer, consideration
veneer designed and constructed as reinforced must be given for differential movement between the
panelized systems. veneer and the backup system. This movement is
usually accommodated by the supports. Differential
Dimension stone, thin cut stone panels, typically movement is caused by many factors including
installed as cladding on high rise buildings, is not temperature changes, shrinkage, creep and deflection.
included in the provisions of the 2005 MSJC Code.
Dim ension stone system s should always be One guideline is that anchored veneer should be
engineered. designed to resist horizontal forces, such as wind or
earthquake, equal to twice the weight of the veneer.
As defined, veneers are not a structural part of This provision is taken from the Uniform Building Code
the building system. The veneer is only to hold its requirements and gives a good sense of quantification.
own weight and any lateral loading is to be transferred If a 4 in. (102 mm) nominally wide brick veneer system
to the backing. weighs 40 pounds per square foot (1.916 kg/m2) and
has one brick tie for every two square feet, then the
Surfaces to which veneer is attached shall be tie should be able to withstand 160 pounds (72,600 kg)
designed to support the additional vertical and lateral force in tension or compression. Careful attention must
loads imposed by the veneer. One important design be given to the entire system, especially the connection
aspect is the deflection of the backup system under of the metal tie to the veneer system on one side, and
imposed lateral loads. Excessive deflection may allow connection to the backup system on the other side.
cracking in the masonry veneer.
Lateral loads (wind, earthquake,
Shear stress bond 50 psi (345 kPa) or greater

etc.) transferred to back-up
system through veneer ties
veneer) supported by
Dead load (weight of
shelf angles
FIGURE 14.11 Load flow of anchored veneer

system to backup system.
FIGURE 14.12 Adhered veneer shear.
individual units are not to exceed 5 ft2. (0.46 m2) in area

2W and not more than 36 in. (914 mm) long in any face
2 W = Min. horizontal force resistance dimension. The unit weight is not to exceed 15 lb./ft2.
(73 kg/m2), which is the same as previous building code
requirements.
Section 1405.9.1 of the 2006 IBC limits interior

adhered veneer to a maximum self weight of 20 lbs/ft2
(98 kg/m2) and the deflection to l/600.
Consideration must be given to brick masonry veneer

expansion and the building contraction of the backing
system. If expansion tolerances are not part of the
design process, then veneer damage may result.
Adhered veneer is secured by adhesion of a

bonding material applied over solid backing. Masonry
units used in this application are limited to a weight of
15 lbs/ft2 (73 kg/m2). This code also requires that the
bond of an adhered veneer to its backing must be
designed to withstand a shearing stress of 50 psi (345
kPa).
14.7.2.1 T HIN BRICK

W
Thin brick veneer is increasingly popular in
W = Weight of veneer commercial, residential and do it yourself markets. The
decision to begin using this product was due to
marketing research which recognized remodeling and
F IGURE 14.13 An chored veneer fo rce re-veneering areas as substantial markets for a thin
clay veneer wall covering. Thin brick veneers are
resistance.
installed using a variety of procedures. Some of the
common methods include:
14.7.2 ADHERED VENEER 1. Adhering directly to CMU or Concrete.
Adhered veneer may be designed and installed 2. Adhering to Concrete Block Masonry or
without limitation to height and length; however, Concrete with surface preparation.
consideration must be given for brick expansion and 3. Adhering to a wood or metal stud system with
building contraction. The code language states that surface preparation.
the consideration is to control restrained differential
movement between the veneer and backing. 4. Placing into forms and cast integrally with
concrete.
In order to satisfy this requirement, adhered 5. Adhering to prefabricated panels, on the job site,
masonry veneer may be applied with vertical and or any other selected location.
horizontal expansion joints between sections. The
vertical distance between horizontal expansion joints
would likely be between floors, or approximately 10 ft. Thin brick varies in size, color and texture,
(3 m). The horizontal distance between vertical joints depending on the manufacturer. Common face
should be compatible with the building design and dimensions are approximately 21/2 in. (64 mm) by 75/8
ideally not exceed 15 to 20 ft. (4.6 to 6.1 m). in. (194 mm) with a thickness of about 7/16 in. (11 mm).
The thickness may be as much as 7/8 in. (22 mm),
There is also a unit size limitation imposed by 2005 which is preferred when a raked mortar joint is desired.
MSJC Code Section 6.3.2.1 which states that the
thickness of adhered units are not to exceed 25/8 in.
(66.7 mm). The section further requires that the
VENEER 299
Longer units of 111/2 in. (292 mm) are available and
extra consideration should be given to units of greater
thickness. Long thin brick veneer units may warp in
the firing process, which can cause difficulty for the
installer and dissatisfaction for the end user.
Thin brick can provide protection to the material

over which it is applied and functions as an architectural
wall covering. The texture of thin brick units depends
on the method of manufacture and the surface
treatment used prior to or after firing. The color also
depends on the chemical composition and firing
process that is used.
There are some advantages and disadvantages

of thin brick veneer:
Advantages of Thin Brick

1. Thin brick veneer is more durable than products FIGURE 14.14 Honeycomb stone sample.
such as wood, vinyl siding or aluminum.
14.7.2.3 TERRA COTTA
2. Installation is possible year-round.
Terra cotta comes in an infinite variety of shapes
3. Thin brick veneer can be applied by craftsmen
and sizes, and most units are anchored.
who are moderately skilled.
4. Prefabrication with thin brick veneer is easily Adhered terra cotta are thin masonry units, up to
and economically done. 11/4 inches (31.8 mm) in thickness, including back ribs.
The back ribs are necessary in order to provide a secure
5. Thin brick provides additional sound and fire
bond with the mortar.
resistance. Thin brick walls are lighter in weight
than conventional masonry veneer.
Adhered terra cotta should never be applied to
structural masonry since the masonry units will
significantly expand and contract during normal
Disadvantages of Thin Brick
moisture retention and drying cycles. A waterproof
1. The durability of thin brick may not be membrane should first be applied to the concrete
equivalent to conventional brick veneer. masonry surface, then an expanded metal lath wire
mesh and a scratch and brown coat of plaster applied
2. The structural properties of conventional brick
prior to the adhered installation of terra cotta.
veneer are not provided by thin brick veneer.
3. Conventional brick veneer has higher sound 14.7.2.4 ADHERED VENEER INSTALLATION
and fire resistance ratings than thin brick
Adhered masonry veneer is typically installed by
veneer.
one of two common methods. The traditional method
4. Conventional brick veneer provides greater is called the thick set method. More recently, the thin
thermal mass than thin brick veneer. set method has become quite popular and uses
advanced technology to address some of the traditional
shortcomings of adhered veneer installation.
14.7.2.2 HONEYCOMB STONE
The thick set method may be used on backing of
There is a product known as “Light Stone” made by
masonry, concrete, wood or steel stud framing. When
cutting stone to a thickness of about 5 mm, and
applied directly to concrete or masonry, the wire lath
attaching to aluminum honeycomb material. It can be
may be eliminated if the surface is heavily scarified or
made in panels as large as 5 ft (1.5 m) by 9 ft 4 in. (2.8
roughened by sandblasting or other means.
m). The total panel thickness is about 20 mm and the
panels are widely used in elevators, since the weight is
The thick set method may use a setting bed of 1/2
less than 3 pounds per square foot (15 kg/m2), thus
in. (12.7 mm) to 11/4 in. (31.8 mm) where the units are
having minimal affect on the capacity rating of the
pushed into the setting bed.
elevator.
The thin set method is more contemporary and uses

a latex additive in the thin set mortar. The setting bed
is typically 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) thick and set on a scratch/
brown coat of plaster backing.
Adhered terra cotta is installed by brushing a coat

of neat Portland cement and water onto the terra cotta
unit and a limited area of wall. The terra cotta unit
should be soaked prior to setting.
Then, spread half the mortar setting bed on the

wall and half on the terra cotta unit. Screed both mortar
No consideration made for
beds with a notched trowel. The total mortar setting difference in expansion - contraction
bed should be about 3/4 in. (19.1 mm) thick. between brick veneer and back-up
system
Firmly place the terra cotta unit on the mortar
setting bed and tap into place with a rubber mallet.
This should assure a full mortar setting bed. Finish
joints as appropriate. WRONG
F IGURE 14.16 Veneer bu ckl ing due to

Provisions are made for the different expansion of brick and creep/plastic flow of frame.
coefficients of expansion between the
materials. Apply the masonry veneer in
acoordance with manufacturers 12
recommendations and allow joints for ”(3
05
expansion where necessary. mm
12”(305 mm)
)
Maximum weight of 15
20”(508 mm)*
lbs./sq. ft2. (73 kg/m2)
Adhesive
Caulking for
expansion
Cement plaster coat
36
Proper joint allows the concrete backing structure to move, while ”(
0
the caulking compresses. No stresses are transferred to the ma- Sin .9 m
* Maximum dimension in gl
sonry veneer. e d ) ma
this configuration. Maxi- ime xim
ns u
mum dimensions and ion m
maximum area (720
FIGURE 14.15 Adhered veneer with provision square inches (0.46 m2)).
for expansion.
Adhered veneer units shall not exceed 25/8 in. (66.7 mm) in speci-
fied thickness, 36 in. (914 mm) in any face dimension, nor more
that 5 ft2 (0.46 m2) in total face area, and shall not weigh more than
15 lb/ft2 (73 kg/m2).
F IGURE 14.17 L imit o f adhered stone

dimensions and weight.
VENEER 301
Cement mortar of
14.7.3 ANCHORED VENEER
plaster 1/2”(12.7 mm) to
11/4”(31.8 mm) or 1/16” 2006 IBC Section 1405.5 references 2005 MSJC
(1.6 mm) latex set on Code Sections 6.1 and 6.2 for masonry veneer design
scratch/brown plaster.
Concrete and installation with some specific prescriptive
requirements for stone veneer, slab-type veneer, and
terra cotta.
All joints to be or
filled with excess Backing is defined as the wall or surface to which
mortar or grouted
the veneer is secured. The IBC has specific veneer
Concrete block
requirements including the materials permitted as the
Cleaned moistened backing to masonry veneer.
surfaces brushed with
neat cement paste or
Type S mortar applied Specific height and weight limitations apply for
to each face and units anchored masonry veneer under certain conditions.
lapped into place to
Wood stud
fill all the voids
For exterior masonry veneer supported by
preservative wood treated foundations, the height of
Adhered veneer or the veneer is limited to 18 ft (5.5 m). Also, exterior
masonry veneer not exceeding 40 lb/ft2 (195 kg/m2)
may be supported on wood construction and is limited
Metal stud to a height of 12 ft (3.7 m).
Cement plaster
on waterproof There is also a weight limitation for interior masonry
paper backed
wire lath
veneer of 40 lb./ft2. (195 kg/m2) when used as an interior
finish on wood framing.
Flashing
2005 MSJC Code Table 6.2.2.3.1 lists the maximum

Weep screed (at height for anchored veneer with backing of wood
slab or foundation) framing or cold formed steel framing as 30 ft. (9.14 m)
at the plate line and 38 ft. (11.58 m) at the top of a
VENEER BACKING gable. Movement joints allowing for vertical movement
directly under shelf angles should be installed.
FIGURE 14.18 Adhered veneer wall sections.
Anchored veneer with

Each
a backing of cold-
story
formed steel framing

should be supported
by noncombustible
Shelf angle supports attached construction for each
Each
story
to non-combustible corrosion story above the

cold-formed framing height limit
Non-combustible, non-
30’(9.1 m)
Maximum height
corrosive lintels over all for veneer
openings where veneer is supported by
not self spanning. Lintel foundation
deflections limited to l/600
Non-combustible Anchored brick

foundation veneer
FIGURE 14.19 Veneer system over 30 feet (9 m) in height with a backing of cold-formed steel
framing.
38’(11.6 m) for gable
30’(9.1 m)
Wood frame backup
Anchored brick
veneer system
Veneer supported by Waterproof sheathing
non-combustible base
FIGURE 14.20 Height limit of wood frame backup system.
Height limit from foundation Brick veneer units may be made of clay or
Height at plate, Height at gable, concrete. Clay brick is by far the most popular masonry
ft (m) ft, (m) material for veneer applications.
30 (9.14) 38 (11.58)
Provision made for different

Since there must be a provision for expansion and expansion/contraction of veneer
contraction at horizontal breaks, or more specifically, and back-up system by providing
expansion joint at underside of
directly under the ledger angles, airspace or a shelf angle
compressible expansion joint material must be
provided.
For openings, such as doors and windows, where

the veneer is not self spanning, noncombustible,
noncorrosive lintels shall be used and the deflection
Mortar bed
of the lintel shall not exceed l/600 or 0.3 in. (7.6 mm) of
the span under the full load of the veneer. This means
that for a 10 ft (3 m) opening, the deflection shall not
exceed 0.2 in. (5 mm).
Figures 14.21 shows an example of an expansion

joint that will accommodate vertical movement and Flashing
Figure 14.22 depicts what could happen if vertical Caulking
movement joint is improperly detailed or constructed. Backer rod
Expansion filler
The area and length of anchored veneer walls shall Steel shelf angle
be unlimited, except as required to control expansion
and contraction. This is implied in the 2005 MSJC RIGHT
Code Section 6.1.5.3, General Design Requirements,
which states “ Design and detail the veneer to FIGURE 14.21 Anchored veneer with provision
accommodate differential movement” . for expansion.
VENEER 303
Brick veneer is commonly used over wood and
metal stud framing. Flexible metal anchors permit
horizontal and vertical movement parallel to the plane
of the wall and at the same time resistance to tension
and compression forces in the direction perpendicular
to the wall.
The veneer system must transfer lateral loads to

the backing and metal anchors with their mechanical
fasteners can be the weakest component of the veneer
system. According to 2005 MSJC Code Section 6.2.2.4
Brick damage due to lack of anchored veneer units should be at least 25/8 in. (66.7
expansion joint under shelf angle. mm) in thickness.
Adequate consideration must be
given for difference in expansion/
contraction between veneer
Anchored brick veneer construction consists of a
system and back-up system. nominal 3 in. (76.2 mm) or 4 in. (102 mm) thick exterior
brick wythe tied to a backup system with metal ties in
such a way that a 1 in. (25.4 mm) minimum clear space
is provided between the veneer and the backup
system. The brick veneer is supported on the
WRONG foundation and should not carry any vertical loads,
other than the weight of the veneer.
F IGURE 14.22 Anch or veneer w ith no
provision for expansion.
Seismic required
No.9 gauge (3.76 Corrosion resistant
Metal stud back-up system mm) wire or equiva- anchors at least 0.3-
lent. Maximum stud inc hes (0.8 mm
spacing at 16”(406 thick by 7/8 inches
mm) o.c . Butt (22 mm) wide
Installation fill splices in wire per-
Weatherproof mitted, but 4”(102
sheathing mm) lap rec om-
mended
Required 1”(25.4 mm) In high Seismic Design
Ma
minimum air space 16 x. st Categories the tie must
”( ud have lip to engage the
40 sp
6 m ac horizontal joint
m) ing
o.c reinforcement
.
Ties spaced to anchor not

more than 2 square feet (0.2
m2) of wall area and not
spaced more than 16-inches
(406 mm) apart horizontally
Brick veneer 5”(127 mm)
maximum
Weep holes
Building paper with 6 in. (152
mm) minimum lap
Flashing
Foundation
FIGURE 14.23 Seismic anchored veneer tie system.

Some properties of brick veneer are:
Durability –Consideration must be given to five

important elements that affect the durability of brick
veneer, namely, the height of the brick veneer, the
stiffness of the backing, the tie system, and the type of
brick and type of mortar used.
Fire resistance –Typical anchored brick veneer

walls (4 in. (102 mm)) have a fire rating of up to 2 hours
(2006 IBC Table 720.1(2), Row 1).
Water resistance –Anchored brick veneer walls

are drainage type walls. Walls of this type, which
include cavity walls, are recommended where maximum
resistance to rain and other water penetration is desired.
Careful consideration must be given to the design and
construction that permits water drainage.
Insulation –Brick veneer walls can easily be

designed to obtain an energy efficient building
environment in any type of weather condition.
Acoustics –Brick veneer walls reduce sound

transmission. The mass reduces sound transmission
by absorbing the energy of the sound vibration.
14.7.3.1 STONE VENEER
The application of stone as a cladding in FIGURE 14.24 Stone veneer.

construction is a continually evolving process. Stone
was first used for shelter because it formed the walls of IBC Section 1405.6
caves in which early man took refuge from the ravages
1405.6 Stone veneer. Stone veneer units not exceeding
of the elements.
10 inches (254 mm) in thickness shall be anchored directly
to masonry, concrete or to stud construction by one of
Some features of stone construction include natural
the following methods:
beauty, the subliminal feeling of security and strength
that it creates. There are two basic types of natural 1. With concrete or masonry backing, anchor ties
stone veneer: shall be not less than 0.1055-inch (2.68 mm)
corrosion-resistant wire, or approved equal, formed
1. Rubble or cut stone laid in mortar, and beyond the base of the backing. The legs of the
loops shall be not less than 6 inches (152 mm) in
2 Thin 10 mm to 30 mm stone slabs mechan- length bent at right angles and laid in the mortar
ically or adhesively attached. joint, and spaced so that the eyes or loops are 12
inches (305 mm) maximum on center (o.c.) in both
Most low-rise residential and small commercial directions. There shall be provided not less than a
buildings use mortar for the installation of stone. 0.1055-inch (2.68 mm) corrosion-resistant wire tie,
or approved equal, threaded through the exposed
Stone veneer may be applied by using the following loops for every 2 square feet (0.2 m2) of stone
methods as described in 2006 IBC Section 1405.6. veneer. This tie shall be a loop having legs not less
than 15 inches (381 mm) in length bent so that it
will lie in the stone veneer mortar joint. The last 2
inches (51 mm) of each wire leg shall have a right-
angle bend. One-inch (25 mm) minimum thickness
of cement grout shall be placed between the
backing and the stone veneer.
VENEER 305
Anchor tie, corrosion
resistant wire, minimum
0.1055-inch gauge (2.68
Veneer ties, corrosion resistant wire, minimum 0.1055- Anchor tie, corrosion resistant wire, mm), formed as exposed
inch gauge (2.68 mm), threaded thru exposed anchor minimum 0.1055-inch gauge (2.68 eye extending 12 inch
tie loops and with legs of minimum 15”(381 mm) length mm), formed as exposed eye extending (305 mm) maximum on
bent at right angles, laid in stone veneer mortar joint, 12 inch (305 mm) maximum on center center beyond backing
end bent in 2”(51 mm) angle beyond backing face with legs of face with legs of minimum
minimum 6”(152 mm) length bent at 6”(152 mm) length bent at
right angles, laid in mortar joint. right angles, laid in mortar
joint.
Concrete Veneer ties, corrosion
0.1055-inch gauge (2.68
mm), threaded thru exposed
anchore tie loops and with
legs of minimum 15”(381
mm) length bent at right
angles, laid in stone veneer
mortar joint, end bent in 2”
(51 mm) angle
Concrete back-up
Ties spaced to anchor not
more than 2 square feet (0.2
m2) of wall area and not
spaced more than 16-inches 1”(25.4 mm) min.
(406 mm) apart horizontally cement grout
10”(254 mm) max.

Stone veneer veneer
10”(254 mm) maximum

Non-combustible
Recommended 1”(25.4 foundation
mm) minimum
FIGURE 14.25 Anchored system with concrete back-up.
2. With stud backing, a 2-inch by 2-inch (51 by 51 The two methods contained in 2006 IBC Section
mm) 0.0625-inch (1.59 mm) corrosion-resistant 1405.6 are known as “ wired tied”anchored veneer
wire mesh with two layers of waterproofed paper systems. Figures 14.25 and 14.26 demonstrate the
backing in accordance with Section 1403.3 shall systems.
be applied directly to wood studs spaced a
maximum of 16 inches (406 mm) o.c. On studs, Figure 14.28 shows the periphery dowels which
the mesh shall be attached with 2-inch-long (51 may be required by the Code. These anchors are to be
mm) corrosion-resistant steel wire furring nails at connected to the backing by wire or ties.
4 inches (102 mm) o.c. providing a minimum
1.125-inch (29 mm) penetration into each stud and As with any anchored veneer system, ties must
with 8d common nails at 8 inches (203 mm) o.c. be capable of resisting tension and compression
into top and bottom plates or with equivalent wire forces. Since there is no mortar spot bedding
ties. There shall be not less than a 0.1055-inch requirement, the tie must resist the force, or the system
(2.68 mm) corrosion-resistant wire, or approved can be designed to place spot bedded mortar to
equal, looped through the mesh for every 2 square accommodate compressive forces.
feet (0.2 m2) of stone veneer. This tie shall be a
loop having legs not less than 15 inches (381 mm)
in length, so bent that it will lie in the stone veneer
mortar joint. The last 2 inches (51 mm) of each
wire leg shall have a right-angle bend. One-inch
(25 mm) minimum thickness of cement grout shall
be placed between the backing and the stone
veneer.
Reinforcement, not less than 2”x 2”x 16 gauge

(51 mm x 51 mm x 1.57 mm) galvanized wire
mesh, 2 ply waterproofed paper-backed,
anchored to wood studs with 2”(51 mm)
galvanized steel wire furring nails at 4”(102
Studs at max. mm) o.c., and at top and bottom with not less
16”o.c. than 8d common wire nails at 8”(203 mm) o.c.
or anchor to steel studs with equivalent wire
ties.
Min. 11/8”(28.6 mm)

penetration
Veneer ties, corrosion Wood stud back-up

0.1055-inch gauge (2.68
mm), threaded thru
1”(25 mm) min.
exposed anchor tie
cement grout
loops and with legs of
minimum 15”(381 mm)
length bent at right 10”(254 mm)
angles, laid in stone max. veneer
veneer mortar joint, end
bent in 2”(51 mm)
Stone veneer angle
Ties spaced to anchor not more than 2 Non-combustible

square feet (0.2 m2) of wall area and not foundation
spaced more than 16-inches (406 mm)
apart horizontally
FIGURE 14.26 “Wired tied”anchored veneer system, wood stud backup with wire mesh and
waterproof paper.
IBC Section 1405.7

1405.7 Slab-type veneer. Slab-type veneer units not
exceeding 2 inches (51 mm) in thickness shall be anchored
directly to masonry, concrete or stud construction. For
veneer units of marble, travertine, granite or other stone
units of slab form ties of corrosion-resistant dowels in
drilled holes located in the middle third of the edge of
the units spaced a maximum of 24 inches (610 mm) apart
around the periphery of each unit with not less than four
ties per veneer unit. Units shall not exceed 20 square feet
(1.9 m2) in area. If the dowels are not tight fitting, the
holes shall be drilled not more than 0.063 inch (1.6 mm)
larger in diameter than the dowel, with the hole
countersunk to a diameter and depth equal to twice the
diameter of the dowel in order to provide a tight-fitting
key of cement mortar at the dowel locations when the
mortar in the joint has set. Veneer ties shall be corrosion-
FIGURE 14.27 Typical anchored stone veneer resistant metal capable of resisting, in tension or
application. compression, a force equal to two times the weight of the
attached veneer. If made of sheet metal, veneer ties shall
be not smaller in area than 0.0336 by 1 inch (0.853 by 25
mm) or, if made of wire, not smaller in diameter than
0.1483-inch (3.76 mm) wire.
VENEER 307
9 Gauge (3.76 mm) min.
d
24
ma ”(61 d + 0.63”max.
xim 0 m
um m)
/4”to 1”
24”(610 mm)
3
maximum 1
/3 t
t (maximum 2”(51 mm))
Maximum panel size 20

square feet (1.9 m2 )
FIGURE 14.28 Anchored veneer doweling for 2 inch (51 mm) stone.
14.7.3.2 BLOCK VENEER, CONCRETE UNITS Quite often, however, the application of block
veneer may be impractical. Alternatively, a wider
structural block may be used to achieve both a desired
Block veneer can be processed with quality control
surf ace appearance and a structural element
standards that allow color and texture variations are
potentially yielding a substantial cost savings.
similar to clay brick. Since the manufacturing process
does not require the high firing temperatures associated
Block veneer may not be as readily available as
with clay products, block veneer is cost competitive.
clay brick veneer units, especially in the smaller, more
traditional, clay brick sizes.
Block veneer can also be made into a variety of
textures, such as smooth, slumped or adobe faced,
As with any product, communication between the
split faced and fluted.
design team and the developer is the key in selecting
the most appropriate product to satisfy the end user,
while maintaining an efficient cost approach.
14.8 TYPICAL DETAILS

The following details are presented as a few of the Each project should be designed on its own merit
design possibilities of a veneer system. using details most beneficial for the application.
14.8.1 ROOF/PARAPET DETAILS
Horizontal and
Continuous metal coping
vertical reinforcement
Sealant
Sealant
Counter flashing
Metal tie
Dovetail slot and anchor
1”(25.4 mm) minimum air space
Steel stud
Insulation
Self-tapping corrosion-
resistant metal screw
Interior finish Weatherproof sheathing
FIGURE 14.29 Brick parapet on concrete frame building.
Roofing
Gravel-stop fascia
Dovetail anchor
Sealant
Adjustable anchor
Steel stud Brick veneer
Self-tapping corrosion- Adjustable wire tie

Insulation Weatherproof sheathing

Interior finish
FIGURE 14.30 Roof detail without parapet.

VENEER 309
Roofing
/8”(3 mm) min. air space

1
Wood plate
Wood studs Weatherproof sheathing
Insulation Brick veneer
Metal tie
8d nail
Interior finish
FIGURE 14.31 Sloped wood roof detail.
Floor or roof slab Drip (typical)
8”(203 mm) CMU bond beam Sealant joint
Joint reinforcement
@ 16”(406 mm) o.c.
8”(203 mm) CMU 4”(102 mm) face brick
FIGURE 14.32 Slab roof detail.

14.8.2 SHELF ANGLE/FLASHING DETAILS
Reglet
Flashing
8”(203 mm) max. Weep holes
Elastic joint sealant
below shelf angle
Adjustable wire tie
FIGURE 14.33 Flashing at shelf angle.
Lip brick
1”(25.4 mm)
Caulking minimum air
space
Reglet
Flashing
8”(203 mm) max.
Compressible
material Elastic joint sealant
Backer rod Compressible material

below shelf angle
Adjustable wire tie
FIGURE 14.34 Flashing one brick above shelf angle.

VENEER 311

Flashing
Lipped or lintel brick
Weep holes
Caulking
Steel shelf angle

or bent plate
4”(102 mm) face brick
Embedded anchor bolt
8”(203 mm) CMU
FIGURE 14.35 Shelf angle anchored to CMU backup.
Weatherproof sheathing
Tie
Steel stud back-up
Brick veneer
Building paper
Flashing
Steel angle
Weep holes
Sealant
Insulation Backer rod
Open head joint @ 4’(1.2

m) o.c. for air circulation
FIGURE 14.36 Shelf angle at concrete support, steel stud backup.

Variation from specified

position in plan
Adjustable anchor
Alternate position of flashing
with weep holes shifted
upward one brick
Weep holes @ 24”

(610 mm) o.c.
Shims
Sealant
Backer rod
Face of beam
or slab
Clear for vertical
movement or provide
compressible material
FIGURE 14.37 Shelf angle anchored to beam or slab.

8”(203 mm) CMU
1”(25.4 mm) minimum air space Joint reinforcement @

16”(406 mm) o.c.
Flashing
Single or double 8”(203
mm) CMU bond beam lintel
Weep holes
Steel angle
FIGURE 14.38 Shelf angle anchored to CMU backup.

VENEER 313
14.8.3 SILL AND JAMB DETAILS
Metal studs
Interior finish Self-tapping corrosion

Metal casement window resistant metal screw
1”(25.4 mm) minimum
air space
Horizontal joint reinforcement

as seismically required
Brick sill Weatherproof sheathing
Caulking or sealant Metal ties
Building paper
PLAN VIEW
FIGURE 14.39 Window jamb, steel studs/brick veneer.
8d nail
Interior finish Wood stud
Metal ties
Brick veneer
Brick sill
Caulking or sealant as seismically required
1”(25.4 mm) minimum air space Building paper
PLAN VIEW
FIGURE 14.40 Window jamb, wood studs/brick veneer.

Weatherproof sheathing Brick ties
Steel stud Brick veneer
Insulation
Building paper
Interior finish
Flashing
Weep holes @ 24”

(610 mm) o.c. max.
Sealant
Steel angle lintel
FIGURE 14.41 Window/door soffit steel studs/brick veneer.

Building paper
Brick ties Flashing
Weep holes @ 24”

(610 mm) o.c. max.
Sealant and backer rod
FIGURE 14.42 Window soffit, wood studs/brick veneer.

VENEER 315
Double hung
wood window
Caulking or sealant
Weatherproof sheathing Weep holes @

24”(610 mm) o.c.
Insulation
Flashing
Brick veneer
FIGURE 14.43 Window sill, wood studs/brick veneer.
Wood stool Caulking or sealant
Brick sill
Channel
Weep holes @
24”(610 mm) o.c.
Flashing
Metal ties
FIGURE 14.44 Window sill, steel studs/brick veneer.

14.8.4 FLOOR CONNECTION DETAILS
Interior finish
Insulation
Brick veneer
8d nail
Metal tie
Wood studs
Building paper
Flashing
Weep holes @ 24”(610 mm) o.c.
Finish grade
Anchor bolt
Waterproof membrane
FIGURE 14.45 Floor connection detail.
Building paper
8d nail
Interior finish
Wood studs Metal tie
Flashing
Finish grade
Anchor bolt
Waterproof
Solid grouted collar joint membrane
FIGURE 14.46 Floor connection detail.

VENEER 317
14.8.5 WALL BASE DETAILS
Interior finish 4”(102 mm) brick veneer

Steel stud as seismically required
Building paper
Insulation
Vapor barrier
Wall ties
Bond
Concrete floor break
slab
Weep holes @ 24”(610 mm) o.c. max.
Vapor barrier
Fill cavity w/mortar or grout up
to underside of flashing
4”to 6”(102 mm to 152
mm) capillary water barrier
Waterproof
membrane Building paper
Reinforced concrete
foundation wall and footing
Flashing
FIGURE 14.47 Base of wall detail, concrete footing, steel stud backup.

8”(203 mm) CMU

@ 16”(406 mm) o.c.
W eatherproof membrane
Expansion
joint material
Concrete floor slab Flashing
Weep holes
Grade
Grout fill
Vapor barrier
4”to 6”(102 mm to 152 mm)

capillary water barrier Waterproof membrane
Concrete foundation
FIGURE 14.48 Base of wall detail, concrete footing, CMU backup.

VENEER 319

8”(203 mm) CMU

@ 16”(406 mm) o.c.
Expansion Flashing
joint material
Concrete floor slab

Weep holes
Grout fill
Waterproof membrane
Vapor barrier
4”to 6”(102 mm to 152 mm)

capillary water barrier
CMU foundation
Concrete footing
Alternate bars
FIGURE 14.49 Base of wall detail, concrete footing CMU below grade, CMU backup.
Self-tapping corrosion-resistant screw Brick veneer
Metal stud Wall tie
Insulation
Flashing
Interior finish
Finish grade
Full collar joint
Concrete grade beam
FIGURE 14.50 Base of wall detail, concrete footing, steel stud backup.
Interior sheathing W eatherproof membrane
Adjustable wire tie
Insulation
Brick veneer
Steel stud
Weep holes
Flashing
FIGURE 14.51 Base of wall detail, concrete footing/slab, steel stud backup.
VENEER 321
14.8.6 EXPANSION JOINT DETAILS
Alternate position of flashing with

weep holes shifted upward one brick

max. or leave out head joint mortar
Sealant
Backer rod
FIGURE 14.52 Horizontal expansion joint at shelf angle.
Backer rod No mortar behind back-up material
1
/2 W or
/2”typ.
1
Exterior face W
of veneer Sealant
FIGURE 14.53 Plan view of vertical expansion joint.
Joint free of all material

except for backer rod and Stop longitudinal wire at all
sealant brick expanion joints
Brick expansion joint Exterior face of 4”(102 mm)

brick veneer
FIGURE 14.54 Plan view of horizontal reinforcement at expansion joint.

Control joint key Stop longitudinal wires

at all control joints
Vertical wall reinforcement Interior face of CMU wall
1”(25.4 mm)
minimum air space
Exterior face veneer Stop longitudinal wires

at all control joints
Backer rod
1
/2 W or
W Sealant
1
/2”typ.
FIGURE 14.55 Vertical expansion joint detail with CMU backup/brick veneer.
VENEER 323
14.8.7 SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Friction-fit
metal coping
Sealant
Sealant
Horizontal
reinforcement
Counter flashing 1”(25.4 mm) minimum air space
Metal tie
Dovetail anchor
Vertical
reinforcement
Steel stud
Brick veneer
Insulation
Flashing
Interior finish
Weep holes (above

Head windows)
Steel angle
Sealant
Sealant
Weep holes
Steel stud
Brick sill
resistant metal screws
Adjustable wire tie
FIGURE 14.56 Veneer system.

Roofing
Gravel stop fascia
Dovetail anchor
Sealant
Adjustable anchor
Steel stud Weatherproof sheathing
Self-tapping corrosion- Brick veneer

Insulation Adjustable wire tie
Flashing
Interior finish Weep holes (above windows)
Head
Steel angle
Sealant
Sealant
Brick sill
Steel stud
Insulation
Weep holes
Flashing
FIGURE 14.57 Veneer system.

CHAPTER
15
SPECIAL TOPICS
such as below grade. In exposed masonry, making

15.1 GENERAL the masonry impervious is impractical. Exposed
masonry, however can be quite resistant to water
The capacity to understand the entire process of penetration.
design and construction without separating one from
the other is the secret of a good design. With masonry By limiting the moisture that can penetrate masonry,
materials an expert designer is one who f ully the mass may be sufficient to prevent penetration
understands and is concerned with the construction through the wall. A drainage system may also be used
advantages, features, and limitations of masonry in partially grouted and ungrouted masonry allowing the
materials from which the designs are produced. When moisture to gravitate to the base of the wall and exit
the advantages are exploited and the limitations are through weep holes.
taken into account, the result is invariably a successful
project. The overall goal is mitigatation of water penetration.
That is reducing the detrimental effect of water
Each construction material has speci f ic penetrating into a masonry system. The reduction
characteristics that can be economically incorporated occurs by a combination of waterproofing, when
in buildings if recognized and used intelligently. applicable, and water resistance.
This chapter provides information on topics that The term “ shelter”is defined as something that
significantly impact the performance and show the covers or provides protection from the elements. A
benefits of masonry. This is significant since regulatory leaky building is, by definition, not shelter.
issues are more stringent for fire protection, noise
control and energy efficiency. A thorough understanding of the performance of
masonry and the issues relating to moisture
15.2 MOISTURE RESISTANCE penetration will help in designing masonry buildings
that successfully resist moisture penetration.
The term “ waterproof”usually means complete Moisture resistance involves many detail parts of
resistance to water penetration. Masonry, by its nature, a building. Examples include walls above grade, walls
is porous and complete resistance cannot occur unless below grade, roof and floor building elements.
the masonry is coated with an impermeable membrane,
such as bituminous coating. Coating masonry with a Providing moisture resistant walls requires that a
substance defeats the purpose of using masonry. The number of items must be considered before the
coating can change the color and texture of masonry. application of any coating takes place.
Masonry walls may be coated in non-visual locations,
9. The proper waterproofing material must be

Sheet metal cap. Provide for expansion selected for the masonry unit used. Porous
and contraction of metal cap with a slip
blocks may cost considerably more to
joint. Secure to wall and seal with
caulking. waterproof.
10. The proper application method should be
3”Minimum from recommended by the manufacturer for the
top of masonry
particular type of wall surface for the applied
Caulking material.
Roofing material mopped to back of

11. Should shrinkage cracks appear before or
parapet. Extend to top of masonry. after the application of the waterproofing,
special corrective steps must be taken to seal
Parapet wall them. The average clear waterproofing
material will not protect anything other than
Cant strip microscopic cracks.
15.2.1 WHAT IS WATERPROOF
Water penetration in concrete masonry occurs in

two ways: actively and passively. The passive capillary
action of water into the small cement pores occurs
when liquid water comes in the contact with the
concrete surface under little or no pressure.
Capillary penetration usually involves small volumes

of water that move slowly through concrete and causes
relatively few problems. This is especially true if the
concrete is very dense and well compacted.
FIGURE 15.1 Detail of wall cap and parapet
flashing. Active water penetration occurs as a result of
slight to moderate water pressure on concrete surfaces
which contain larger openings than the cement gel
1. Exterior door frames must be placed in the pores. Common sources of active water penetration
masonry walls in a manner that will permit are high water tables, running or ponded water,
proper caulking. sprinklers and wind-driven rain. The larger openings
2. Window frames must be properly installed and may be a result of deficiencies in materials and/or
caulked. workmanship, or may also be due to external factors,
such as ground settlement.
3. Cold joints or control joints require proper
caulking that will allow for movement. The term “ waterproof ”technically means
4. Connections between masonry and dissimilar impervious, or a total barrier to moisture infiltration. In
materials need to be waterproofed. practice, however, “ waterproof”is commonly used to
describe coatings used to make surfaces weather-tight
5. Proper detail ing and construction of to a reasonable degree of confidence and usually
architectural features such as vertical scores, includes the clear water-repellents used on masonry.
horizontal scores, reveals and recesses is
essential. 15.2.2 MOISTURE MIGRATION CONTROL
6. Parapet walls should have metal caps to
prevent the entrance of moisture at the top of The decision to use a clear water repellent
walls. treatment on concrete masonry will typically be the
result of a series of design considerations. In some
7. Where the roof attaches to the walls, flashings cases it will be a decision made by the owner based
must be properly caulked and the wall must on previous successful applications. It could also be
be waterproofed from the capping down to the based on a specific desired appearance by the
flashing. designer, the owner, or both, such as the use of a tan
8. Mortar joints must be free of beeholes. The colored concrete masonry split faced block to provide
joint must be properly tooled to make the a distinctive appearance and both texture and color.
mortar as dense as possible.
SPECIAL TOPICS 327
There must be a decision to build a masonry construction, water repellent treatments, and
building, or to use masonry as a primary part of the treatment at joints should be discussed along with
exterior and closure of the building. Next, the the expected results and testing procedures.
appearance of the concrete masonry must become in
a integral part of the appearance of the building, such 4. Encourage the use of samples and mock-ups of
as integral color, special aggregates, or texture. Finally, masonry construction with the proposed water
a clear water repellent treatment must also be included. repellent treatments. Test the mock-ups for water
repellency. Mock-up panels should be a minimum
Selecting concrete masonry as an integral part of 4 foot by 4 foot panel and testing should be for at
the buildings appearance provides numerous benefits least two hours. Control joints and joint sealants
for the designer and the owner. Where the gray color should be included in the mock-up. Tests should
of standard cementitious products might provide a cold be based on the Navy Hose Stream test or similar
appearance, use of integral colors and of special hose stream test.
aggregat es gi v es concrete m asonry a warm
appearance. The multitude of concrete masonry 5. Specify the use of full shoved head and bed joints
textures available provides an infinite variety of and v erif y through the use of t hird party
possibilities for building design. Surprisingly, the cost inspections.
is typically competitive with other types of construction
for many buildings. 6. Specify double struck joints for exterior masonry
construction. Require beeholes visible from 5 to
Applying a clear water repellent treatment to 10 feet to be filled by a qualified mason prior to
concrete masonry can maintain the appearance of the application of the water repellent treatment.
concrete masonry wall providing protection from water
intrusion. Most clear water repellent treatments will 7. Fill cracks which exceed 0.02 inches in width with
keep the concrete masonry looking cleaner longer mortar by a qualified mason or with joint sealer by
since a lower permeability prevents dirt from being a qualified applicator.
drawn into the concrete masonry with the water.
8. Apply water repellent treatments in strict
Mortar joints in the wall are also a potential route accordance with the manufacturer’
s installation
for moisture entry. Full head and bed joints are required instructions and recommendation by a trained
for solid units. Hollow units must be mortared for the experience applicator.
depth of the face shell. The use of open-end units in
solid grouted masonry improves resistance to moisture 9. Field test the masonry walls after the water repellent
migration. Properly spaced control joints minimize the treatment has cured to assure water repellency.
potential for cracking. Certain types of mortar joints,
such as concave and V type joints are significantly 10. Require a five year material and labor warranty
more weather resistant than other types of joints. from the manufacturer and the applicator through
the general contractor.
The following guidelines are useful for the designer
in developing a program addressing moisture issues 15.2.3 MOISTURE INTRUSION
in masonry walls:
Moisture may enter a masonry wall through porous
1. Pay particular attention to the design phase of the masonry units, mortar joints, hairline cracks, shrinkage
project. Limit horizontal projections, sills, and tops cracks, parapet details, door and window details or at
of walls and waterproof those required by project any structural break in the wall face. Wind-driven rain
designed with elastomeric coatings. Give special is of particular concern as the wind can blow water into
attention to the design of parapets. hairline cracks in the wall and over a period of time
may penetrate the masonry units and mortar. Vapor
2. Cross-reference the appropriate specification in condensation is another potential source of water entry.
Division 4 on masonry construction with related
specifications in Division 7 on the water repellent
treatments.
3. Specify pre-installation meetings to familiarize all

parties with the intended methods for prevention
of water penetration. The masonry materials,
Sealant
Dovetail metal
anchor Caulking
15° min.
Concrete or Flashing turned Metal counter flashing installed in
stone sill up beyond end of mortar joint. See detail
1 in. (25 mm) min. sill Caulking

Flashing Flashing
Weep holes
Roofing membrane extend up
and under flashing
Cant strip
Sealant
15° min.
Wood or steel See Figure
frame 15.5
Weep holes
1 in. (25 mm) min.
Flashing
FIGURE 15.2 Sill flashing detail.

FIGURE 15.4 Detail of flashing and roofing
connection with a high wall.
Airspace
1”Min.
Caulking
Wall ties
Metal counter flashing
installed in bed joint.
Flashing
6”min.
Weep holes
Interior Side
Exterior Side
Steel angles
Caulking
Wall ties
Flashing
Flashing
Cant strip
Roofing material
Weep holes
Steel angles
FIGURE 15.5 Detail of metal flashing for high

FIGURE 15.3 Lintel flashing detail. wall.
SPECIAL TOPICS 329
15.2.3.1 OPENINGS both its liquid and its gaseous states. Water from rain
and from sprinklers is kept out, while water vapor is
Although water penetration results from the also both kept out and kept in the system. Water
existence of an opening through the shell of a structure, repellents are supposed to keep water out while still
these openings may be a result of improper or allowing water vapor to escape the system.
inadequate design and/or construction practices. The
following are types of openings as related to the degree Clear water repellent treatments are intended to be
of water penetration. clear. However, the term ‘ clear’does allow some
variance. Some clear treatments may not change the
Cracks are a major source of leakage. Moving appearance of the masonry or the difference can only
cracks such as those resulting from expansion and be detected by water beading on the surface rather
contract ion with temperature changes or than being absorbed into the unit. Other clear
continuing settlement can be sealed with an treatments may darken the surface or result in a glossy
elastomeric sealant and coating system or low appearance on the masonry. These characteristics can
pressure epoxy injection. Stationary cracks may be easily recognized on samples. Yellowing with age,
be due to loss of bond of mortar in earthquake not typically evident on samples, should also be
movements. Hairline cracks may be sealed with considered during the selection of materials.
a clear water-repellent coating, depending on
manufacturer’ s recommendations. Larger cracks Clear water repellent treatments can also be
must be filled with mortar or caulking before they described by the location of the treatment in the
are coated. finished system. Terms commonly used include film-
forming, penetrating and integral water repellent
Holes may be a result of unfilled or improper treatments.
mortar joints. These holes are usually referred to
as beeholes and may be a cause of leakage. Most Those treatments described as film-forming prevent
beeholes must be pointed with new mortar and water intrusion by coating or covering the surface of
tooled. Small holes can be sealed with mastic the masonry system. Penetrating type treatments are
coating or block fillers. drawn in to the masonry system and fill the voids (or
more correctly, line the pores) within the system rather
Pores are normal in concrete and vary in size. than coat the surface.
Cement gel pores are so small and inconsequential
except for the very slow passive moisture migration. Integral water repellent materials are added during
Larger pores may occur in concrete block since the manufacturing of the masonry units and during the
the block mix is usually made with less water. mixing of the mortar. Integral water repellent materials
Properly tooled mortar joints are free of larger pores are not normally added to grout since the water is not
and do not contribute to leakage under normal expected to reach a depth in the wall that would require
conditions. the grout to be a moisture penetrating barrier.
Permeability is the rate at which a liquid will pass Resin type is often the most direct way to identify
through a porous surface at constant pressure. This types of water repellent treatments. Few in the
is an important concept for masonry materials when construction industry have sufficient training and
dealing with clear water-repellent sealers. Several education in resin chemistry to do more than recognize
factors may cause excessive permeability such as low terms and possibly relate them to a family of types of
cement content, gap gradation of aggregate or materials such as petrochemical organic and silica
insufficient fine aggregates and dry mix design. based materials.
15.2.4 WATER REPELLENT TYPES A listing of commonly used terms referenced in

manufacturer’ s literature would include:
Lists of clear water repellent treatments are
constantly growing. Several possible classification  Acrylics
methods exist including performance, characteristics,  Stearates
and resin types.  Silicone
 Siliconate
Performance classification of clearwater report  Silicates
treatments includes using the term water repellent  Silanes
treatments rather than waterproof coating. Technically  Siloxanes
a waterproof coating seals a material from water in
Proper selection may be the first concern when Siliconate. A water based form of silicone,
reviewing and discussing proper clear water repellent siliconates are very alkaline and most siliconates
treatments for masonry. Discussions relating to presently available do not reflect the active siliconate
whether they are monomeric or polymeric resins and solids content which in most cases is only 50% of the
whether they are suspended or dissolved in solvents total weight of the solids. The remaining weight of
can become exasperating. solids is either sodium or potassium hydroxide, which
is why they are so alkaline.
Relating the characteristics to the resin types can
be helpful. Acrylics, stearates, and some silicone water Silicates. Alkali silicates are water-based alkaline
repellent treatments typically form a film on the surface solutions which harden and densify cementitious
of the masonry system. They can also be used to materials.
produce a higher sheen or ’gloss’ appearance. They
can also be used to darken or intensify colors and Silanes. Typically penetrating types sealers,
aggregates within the masonry units. silanes are technically alkyltrialkoxysilanes which is
defined as ‘a monomeric organosilicon compound with
Silanes and siloxanes are typically penetrating- an unhydrolyzaple siliconcarbon bond’. The silanes
type water repellent treatments which react with silicate form a water repellent treatment by chemically bonding
minerals in the concrete masonry units and mortar. with the siliceous minerals in the concrete masonry
The natural alkalinity of cementitious products typically system. Other terms for silane are alkylalkoxy silane
acts as the catalyst for the reaction, along with the and alkytrialkoxy silane. Common carriers include
moisture in the materials. Some silanes and siloxanes alcohol and mineral spirits, but some forms are used
include catalysts in the treatment to promote or extend with water as the solvent.
the reaction.
Siloxanes. Another form of penetrating sealer,
A general description of common language is siloxanes are variations of the alkylalkoxysiloxanes
helpful. Variations in chemistry and combinations of which are oligomerous. They chemically bond to
materials cause generalizations to be only moderately silicate materials in concrete masonry. Variations
useful in identification and selection. The following include polysiloxane, oligomeric siloxane, modified
information may prove helpful in identifying families of polysiloxane, organosiloxane, oligomeric
materials and providing information on the basic resin organosiloxane, and combinations of various siloxanes
types. and silanes.
Acrylics. Acrylic resins are polymers and Blends. As noted in several of the resin type
copolymers. They form a film on the surface. descriptions, different types of resins are often
Variations in chemistry of acrylics allow various forms combined to improve the characteristics of the final
from solids, to elastomerics, to liquids. They are clear, water report treatment.
and can be used with a wide variety of solvents,
including water. Acrylic emulsions are typically water- 15.2.5 SURFACE TREATMENTS
based; acrylic solutions are typically solvent-based.
In addition to providing clear surface treatments
Stearates. Stearate residents are based on stearic on the masonry wall other options for providing surface
acids that form a ‘soap’ in the masonry pores. Originally treatments are available. The disadvantage of using
used as film formers, later chemistries of the stearates these materials is the requirements of periodic
have been marketed as penetrating treatments and as maintenance. For example, when a coating is chapped
integral water repellent treatments. Common terms or damaged it must be repaired to maintain aesthetic
include aluminum stearates and modified aluminum quality.
stearates. The solvents are typically mineral spirits.
Listed below are a number of different treatments
Silicones. Silicones are polymerized resins which that may be applied to masonry walls.
are referred to as organopoly-siloxanes. Variations in
the size and shape of the silicone polymer resin can Paints. Specialty paints are available for masonry.
vary whether the mineral is a film forming or penetration Paint provides color uniformity which may be
type water repellent treatment. There are silicone aesthetically pleasing when new. Once applied,
emulsions but most use mineral spirits or other organic removal of paint may be difficult if return to the natural
solvents. surface of masonry is desired. Types of paint that can
be used for masonry walls include latex paints,
elastomeric paints, and alkyd paints. Each has
favorable characteristics for the designer to consider.
SPECIAL TOPICS 331
Types of paint that are not recommended for can generally be secure that the same product can be
masonry applications are epoxy paints, rubber paints expected to perform as well in similar conditions.
and oil-based paints. These products form an Changes in technology and in regulations, particulary
impervious surface and do not allow the masonry walls limitations on volatile organic compounds (VOC), can
to breathe. Moisture trapped in a wall can be cause manufacturers to change formulations. Variations
problematic. in conditions can also cause previous experience to be
less applicable. In such cases it is appropriate to
Block fillers are used to fill small voids and surface research potential options. There are some important
irregularities. Block fillers are recommended when questions which should be considered during the
porous concrete masonry is to be painted. Block fillers research.
are extremely advantageous in minimizing moisture
penetration. The project, manufacturer’ s literature and local
manufacturer representatives are key sources of
15.2.6 INTEGRAL WATER REPELLENTS research information regarding the appropriate
application of products. Manufactures are the first to
As an alternate to surface applied water repellent realize the danger in reputation where products prove
coatings the designer may wish to consider specifying unsuitable for specific known applications.
integral water repellent additives to the concrete block
and mortar. Addition of this product does not change The following list of questions should provide a
the color or texture of the concrete block or mortar. uniform approach to research which can be used for
comparison of various products.
When using integral water repellents there is no
need to include the product in the masonry grout since, 1. What are the manufacturers recommend
under ideal conditions, moisture should not reach the applications?
grout. Diff erent resins hav e different appropriate
applications. The natural porosity of concrete
The designer must also be aware that the masonry masonry may be inappropriate for some forms of
units will not absorb moisture as traditional masonry water repellent treatments. Manufacturers will
walls do. This is significant for grouted masonry since typically note whether or not concrete masonry is
there is excess water in grout which traditionally an appropriate substrate.
dissipates into the masonry units. The use of integral
water repellents cause hydrostatic pressure in the grout 2. Is the product intended to be a surface or
which forces water into the masonry unit and mortar. penetrating sealer?
Occasionally the water will bleed to the exterior of the The products are clearly formulated as either a
wall through a path of least resistance. surface film or penetrating type, although some
might be classified as a little of both. Where not
Product manufacturers should be consulted on the clearly identified, the product is probably a surface
compatibility issues relating to integral water repellents sealer.
and grouted masonry.
3. How many coats recommended?
15.2.7 CONSIDERATION IN SELECTION Differences in formulations make it important to
understand the manufactures recommendations
Concrete masonry construction is hydrophilic by regarding application, particulary the appropriate
nature; without some form of protection, water moves number of coats and the coverage rate in square
through the natural porosity of the masonry units and feet per gallon. Timing between coats is also
mortar. The water can then find ways into the structure important to the application of the system. Some
and potentially damage interior finishes and materials. materials require a sufficient time for the masonry
Additionally, in areas where freeze-thaw conditions exist, to absorb the initial coat prior to reapplication.
water in the masonry system can expand and damage
the system. 4. Can the treatment be reapplied?
Some forms of water repellent treatments create
There is no specific correct approach to the a water barrier which subsequent coats of the
selection of appropriate clear water repellent same material may not be able to penetrate.
treatments for concrete masonry. Experience is Information regarding application of additional
typically the easiest means of finding an appropriate coats should be determined prior to the selection
material. Those who have successfully utilized products of the material.
5. Can the treatment be coated? Such limitations may only be a concern in heavily
Whether or not the treatment is compatible with populated areas. In other cases, such as
other treatments and coatings might also prove California, the limitations may extend to the
important in the long-term. A new building owner manufacturing of the product as well as sale and
might want a new color and want the masonry to use.
be painted. Repeated vandalism might require
addition of anti-graffiti coatings. The treatment might 10. What are the long-term expectations?
not prove successful for some unknown reason. Since water repellent treatments are going through
Knowing whether or not the water repellent a period of constant change, both in chemistry and
treatment can be retreated, painted, or coated can in limitations on VOC, information on what happens
be useful in making early decisions. over time is only assumption and speculation.
Where treatments have existed without change, it
6. What are the effects of weather during and might be appropriate to ask for the location of
immediately after application? some of the older applications along with
The manufacturer may have advice on what to do recommendations of owners, architects, and
if it rains during or right after the application. contractors who have used the products in the
Recommendations usually list conditions required past.
prior to application, such as requiring a clean, dry
substrate. Typically there are limitations on Warranties can be beneficial in comparing the
weather conditions including minimum and relative quality of one manufacture to another. Quite
maximum temperatures. often a warranty is simply used as a sales tool and is
only as good as the company behind a warranty. A
7. Are there any potential adverse effects such reputable company will stand behind their product
as chemical reaction with adjacent materials? regardless of warranties.
Water repellent treatments on concrete masonry
will be in contact with the same materials in contact 15.2.8 INTERIOR MOISTURE CONTROL
with the concrete masonry; joint sealers (silicones,
polyurethanes, polysulfides, acrylics); windows Interior moisture control would not be complete
and doors (aluminum, wood, steel, bronze) metal without some information on water protection. If there
flashings (copper, galvanized steel, stainless steel, were ever an issue that cannot be code “ quantified”, it
aluminum) and other siding materials (concrete, would be interior moisture control. Water develops on
brick, metals, wood, plastics, stucco). the surface where the temperature is at the condensation
point and is dependent on the micro-climates of an area.
Other material such as glass and landscaping may The buildup of condensation can be mitigated by placing
not be immediately adjacent, but could also be a vapor barrier on the proper side of a wall. Thus, if
affected by water repellent treatments due to wind, regionalized micro-climate varies the code could require
overspray, and run-off. Paint on any adjacent the vapor barrier on the wrong side of the wall. In some
surface and nearby materials could also be areas it may be best not to have a vapor barrier at all.
affected.
Interior moisture in the form of condensation can
8. Are there any special limitations on damage the building components and create occupant
application? discomfort. To confirm code requirements, a vapor
Limitation should include materials that should not analysis is highly recommended. A vapor analysis
be coated. Maximum porosity and minimum should be performed to determine the potential for
permeability requirements might be important. condensation so that appropriate placement and choice
Temperature limitations and moisture content at of insulation and air and vapor barriers can be made.
time of application might be critical to the water
repellent treatment. Types of aggregate in concrete 15.2.9 OTHER CRITICAL ELEMENTS
masonry may also have some bearing on success.
A significant portion of this chapter has focused
9. Are there any known local limitations on use? on surface treatments relating to moisture penetration
Federal, state and local limitations on volatile in masonry walls. Moisture can also migrate into the
organic compounds (VOC) might limit the wall from a variety of other sources including tops of
availability of some otherwise excellent water walls, perimeters of windows and doors, through
repellent treatments in certain areas. expansion and control joints and through other wall
penetrations.
SPECIAL TOPICS 333
15.2.9.1 WALL CAPS 15.2.9.2 MOVEMENT JOINTS
One area for moisture penetration in masonry walls Movement joints are provided in masonry structures
is at the top of the wall. Moisture can enter the top of and properly accommodate moisture and temperature
a wall and will gravitate down any imperfections in the fluctuation. Shrinkage and temperature hairline cracks
system until it exits, usually on the face of the wall. can develop allowing water passage into masonry. As
When the tops of masonry walls are properly designed a general rule, control joints should be placed in
and constructed moisture migration in these areas can concrete masonry every 25 feet but not more than 11/2
be minimized or totally eliminated. times the wall height. In clay brick masonry, expansion
joints should be placed at intervals not exceeding 30
In descending order of performance, the following feet for walls without openings. Ideally, expansion joints
top of wall finishes are the most widely recognized in and clay brick masonry should be spaced closer to 20
design and construction of masonry walls. foot intervals. Additionally, leakage can occur at
movement joints through cracked, unbonded or
1. Sheet metal caps — Sheet-metal caps are by far misapplied caulks and sealants. In order to keep the
the preferred method of finishing the tops of control and expansion joints functional, proper and
masonry walls. A properly designed and installed routine maintenance is required.
sheet m etal cap system wil l prov ide an
impermeable and durable finish. Most designers
are reluctant to specify sheet-metal caps since
proper design and installation require the sheet
metal cap to project vertically down the wall for a
few inches.
2. Precast concrete copings — Precast concrete

copings are extremely dense units and can be
managed and installed in 4 foot lengths. This 1 1 2 2
greatly reduces the number of mortar joints on the
top of the wall, thereby reducing the area of
moisture penetration.
3. Masonry copings — Copings using masonry units FIGURE 15.7 Elevation of masonry wall with
are not recommended. The masonry units are not
control or shrinkage joint and abutting into another
impermeable to moisture and there are a number
wall.
of mortar joints along the top of the wall. Use of
this system may be acceptable if through wall
flashing is installed immediately below the cap units. Sealant
1
/2 W or
Through wall flashing is problematic in seismic W /2”typ.
1
regions since a positive attachment is required. Backer rod
4. Mortar copings — Mortar copings should always

be avoided. This type of cap will always crack,
allowing moisture access into the masonry wall.
Sealant /8”
3
Backer rod
Epoxy or non-
shrink grout
/2”
1
Slope cap
/2”
1
Drip edge
Flashing
Caulking
Backer rod Sealant
Section 1-1
FIGURE 15.6 Typical drip edge on precast FIGURE 15.8 Plan view of masonry wall control
concrete wall cap. joint.
Sealant 1
15.2.9.4 WINDOWS AND DOORS
W /2 W or
/2”typ.
1
Backer rod One often overlooked critical element is the
interface between masonry and sills or jambs of
windows and doors. Historically, masonry walls were
thicker and more forgiving on the issue of moisture
penetration, but with thinner masonry walls, careful
Sealant
3
/8” attention must be given to detailing these interfaces.
/2”
Flashing is the primary barrier with sealants (caulk)
1
closing the open crack of the interface. Sealants alone
should never be relied upon for the moisture barrier at
Backer rod the interface.
/2”
Sheathing Interior finish

1
Sealant 8d nails Wood frame

W ood wi nd ow
studs
Section 2-2
F IGURE 15.9 Masonry/co ncrete w all

intersection.
15.2.9.3 HORIZONTAL SURFACES

Metal
Horizontal surfaces contribute to the potential of ties
Caulking or sealant
water penetration. Ledges and sills are particularly Building paper
susceptible as water may penetrate the top of mortar Recommended 2”(50.8 mm)
joints and cause cracking and spalling. All projections, min. air space
ledges and sills should be sloped, or a sloped flashing
should be provided. Jamb (Plan view)
Driving rains may

penetrate bed
joint and vertical
head joints Wood frame
wi nd ow
Caulking or
sealant
Weep holes Batt insulation

@ 24”(610
Inappropriate Ledge Detail
mm) o.c.
Flashing Metal ties
Mortar
Sloped flashing
Sill
Sealant
FIGURE 15.11 Flashing at window sill/jamb,
wood studs/brick veneer.
Weather Resistant Ledge Detail
FIGURE 15.10 Ledge detail.

SPECIAL TOPICS 335
15.2.9.5 WALL PENETRATIONS The Navy Hose Stream Test uses a 5/8" (15.9 mm)
hose and requires the water to be directed to where the
Wall openings are often overlooked as areas stream is falling on the surface of the test panel
contributing to leaks in masonry walls. Penetrations simulating rain.
for plumbing, electrical and other types of openings
should be flashed above the opening and properly A field test developed by the International Union
caulked around the opening. Maintenance of the of Testing and Research Laboratories for Materials and
sealant on a periodic basis is required for continued Structures (RILEM), is also referred to as the tube test.
performance.
The Construction Technology Laboratories, Inc.
15.2.10 INSPECTIONS (CTL) developed a test similar to the RILEM Tube Test.
The CTL test, however, uses portable equipment to
Careful attention to detail by the treatment develop higher pressures than those used in the
applicators is critical to the success of the project. The RILEM Test. The higher test pressures allow for an
best way to assure proper application is to have accelerated field test.
periodic inspections which can establish that proper
materials, quantities, and application methods are used. Navy Hose Stream Test. The Navy developed a
hose stream field test for testing concrete masonry
The level of quality control of any masonry job can walls resistance to water penetration. The Navy test
be provided by special inspection (third party individuals uses a 5/8" (15.9 mm) hose with a spray nozzle. The
not connected with the contractor, subcontractor, or nozzle is located ten feet (3 m) from the wall and aimed
manufacturer). This third party inspectors should be upward so the water strikes the wall at a 45 degree
knowledgeable in quality control requirements and will downward angle as shown in Figure 15.12.
often have other quality control responsibilities on the
project. Special inspectors, typically hired by owner, This test is performed on an actual section of the
will review the contract requirements, attend pre- building approximately twenty days after the application
installation meetings, observe mock-up construction of the water repellent treatment. The water is allowed
and testing and develop check lists to verify compliance. to run continuously for three hours.
The special inspector should periodically observe If the inside face of the masonry wall shows traces
application of the water repellent treatment and verify of moisture, additional coats of the water repellent
compliance with information included on the check list. treatment are required and the test must be repeated.
Where variations from the contract documents are
observed, they will typically be noted and given to the RILEM Test No. 11.4, RILEM Tube Test. Another
owner and contractor. field test used was developed by the International
Union of Testing and Research Laboratories for
15.2.11 TESTING Materials and Structures (RILEM). A vertical plastic
or glass tube with graduated markings is adhered to a
Tests allow comparison of products and systems. masonry wall with putt y (see Fi gure 15.13).
Several tests are available relating to clear water Permeability is measured based on the change of
repellent treatments for masonry. Some relate to water level in the tube caused by the absorption of the
individual components in masonry construction, such water into the masonry system.
as ASTM C 140 Standard Test Methods for Sampling
and Testing Concrete Masonry Units and Related Units. Although the RILEM test provides an inexpensive
Others are intended to test complete masonry systems, method for determining water penetration into the
such as ASTM E 514 Standard Test Method for Water concrete masonry system, the results must be based
Penetration and Leakage Through Masonry and the Navy with caution. The test is based on a measurement
Hose Stream Test. Still others, like the RILEM tube from only a small area where the tube is located.
test and the CTL Accelerated Field Test provide
information on small segments of the construction.
.
10 ft
45o Fan spray nozzle

Fan spray nozzle rotated view
Garden hose
FIGURE 15.12 Navy hose stream test.
Fire resistance is determined by a series of fire

tests conducted in accordance with the ASTM E 119,
Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building
Construction and Materials. These fire tests require
that a wall specimen be subjected to fire having the
time/temperature curve as shown in Figure 15.14.
RILEM
tube
Putty 2400
-1200
Concrete masonry wall 2000

-1000
Procedure:
1. Adhere RILEM tube to wall surface with putty. Press firmly to
1600
ensure full adhesion. -800
2. Fill the tube with water to zero (0) graduation mark at the top
of the tube. Note: It has been estimated that when filled to
1200
Temperature, °F
this level, the water pressure on the wall is 0.14 psi which
Temperature, °C
-600
translates into a dynamic wind speed of 88.5 mph.
3. At predetermined time intervals such as 1, 2, 5, and 10
minutes measure the depth the water level has dropped. 800 -400
FIGURE 15.13 RILEM test. 400 -200
-0
15.3 FIRE RESISTANCE 0
0 2 4 6 8
Time, h
Masonry walls should be both structurally sound
and fire resistant. Masonry walls excel in resisting the
passage of heat or flames and can also be used to FIGURE 15.14 The ASTM E 119 standard time/
effectively contain most fires. temperature curve.
SPECIAL TOPICS 337
15.3.1 FIRE RATINGS thickness is the actual thickness of the unit or wall.
However, for hollow clay or concrete units, the wall is
Table 15.1 shows fire resistance from 2006 IBC considered as either ungrouted or solid grouted (partial
Table 720.1(2), Rated Fire-Resistance Periods for grouted walls are considered as ungrouted).
Various Walls and Partitions. This table provides a
classification of masonry walls based on the required As an alternative to 2006 IBC Table 720.1(2) fire-
wall thickness for a specified fire rating time. resistive construction may be approved by the building
official based on evidence submitted showing that the
The specified wall thickness for masonry shown in construction meets the required f ire-resistiv e
2006 IBC Table 720.1(2) is the equivalent solid classification.
thickness. For solid clay units, the equivalent solid
TABLE 15.1 Rated Fire-Resistance Periods for Various Walls and Partitions1, p
MINMUM FINISHED
b
THICKNESS FACE-TO-FACE
ITEM (inches)
MATERIAL NUMBER CONSTRUCTION 4 hour 3 hour 2 hour 1 hour
c
1-1.1 Solid brick of clay or shale 6 4.9 3.8 2.7
1-1.2 Hollow brick, not filled 5.0 4.3 3.4 2.3
Hollow brick unit wall, grout or filled with perlite
1-1.3 6.6 5.5 4.4 3.0
vermiculite or expanded shale aggregate.
1. Brick of clay 4”nominal thick units at least 75 percent solid backed
3
or shale with a hat-shaped metal furring channel /4" thick
formed from 0.021”sheet metal attached to the brick d
1-2.1 1 - - 5 -
wall on 24”centers with approved fasteners, and /2"
Type X gypsum wallboard attached to the metal furring
strips with 1”-long Type S screws spaced 8”on center.
2. Combination 2-1.1 4”solid brick and 4”tile (at least 40 percent solid) - 8 - -
of clay brick
and load-
bearing 2-1.2 4”solid brick and 8”tile (at least 40 percent solid) 12 - - -
hollow clay
tile
f, g
3-1.1 Expanded slag or pumice. 4.7 4.0 3.2 2.1
3. Concrete f, g
3-1.2 Expanded clay, shale or slate. 5.1 4.4 3.6 2.6
masonry f
units 3-1.3 Limestone, cinders or air-cooled slag. 5.9 5.0 4.0 2.7
f, g
3-1.4 Calcareous or siliceous gravel. 6.2 5.3 4.2 2.8
For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 square inch = 645.2 mm2, 1 cubic foot = 0.0283 m3.
1. 2006 IBC Table 720.1(2) –(partial)

b. Thickness shown for brick and clay tile are nominal thicknesses unless plastered, in which case thicknesses are net. Thickness
shown for concrete masonry and clay masonry is equivalent thickness defined in Section 721.3.1 for concrete masonry and Section
721.4.1.1 for clay masonry. W here all cells are solid grouted or filled with silicone-treated perlite loose-fill insulation; vermiculite
loose-fill insulation; or expanded clay, shale or slate lightweight aggregate, the equivalent thickness shall be the thickness of the
block or brick using specified dimensions as defined in Chapter 21. Equivalent thickness may also include the thickness of applied
plaster and lath or gypsum wallboard, where specified.
c. For units in which the net cross-sectional area of cored brick in any plane parallel to the surface containing the cores is at least 75
percent of the gross cross-sectional area measured in the same plane.
d. Shall be used for nonbearing purpose only.
f. The fire-resistance time period for concrete masonry units meeting the equivalent thickness required for a 2-hour fire-resistance
rating in Item 3, and having a thickness of not less than 75/8 inches is 4 hours when cores which are not grouted are filled with
silicone-treated perlite loose-fill insulation; vermiculite loose-fill insulation; or expanded clay, shale or slate lightweight aggregate,
sand or slag having a maximum particle size of 3/8 inch.
g. The fire-resistance rating of concrete masonry units composed of a combination of aggregate types or where plaster is applied
directly to the concrete masonry shall be determined in accordance with ACI 216.1/TMS 0216. Lightweight aggregates shall have a
maximum combined density of 65 pounds per cubic foot.
p. NCMA TEK 5-8A, shall be permitted for the design of fire walls.
15.3.2 FIRE RATINGS OF BRICK VENEER  Masonry will not burn. Brick and concrete block
WALLS masonry serve as a barrier to fire like no other
material.
Tables in the IBC show that brick and block  Masonry will not fuel the fire and can often prevent
masonry are significantly resistant to fire. The use of the spread of fire to adjacent properties.
masonry shows a responsible approach in the  During and after fire, masonry homes will retain
balanced occupancy vs. risk design. One other structural integrity.
significant advantage is that masonry provides passive
 Masonry will not produce toxic gas or smoke.
fire protection, that is, masonry will always resist fire,
where as active systems rely on other means of  Masonry reduces fire loss.
effectiveness. For example, if there is no water  Masonry works full time without electricity, water
pressure, fire sprinklers will not work. supply or maintenance.
Fire ratings may be cumulative. An ungrouted 8 in. 15.3.4 FIRE SAFETY FACTS
(203 mm) pumice concrete block (face shell thickness
11/4 in. (31.8 mm) each) will provide a fire rating of 1 Below are safety tips to assist in limiting the
hour. When a 4 in. (102 mm) solid clay brick is added dangers of a potential fire.
as a veneer another 2 hours of fire rating is achieved for
a total 3 hour fire rating. 1. Fire Retardant Roofing Materials - Fire retardant
roofing materials prevent fires from starting as a
15.3.3 FIRE SAFETY ENVIRONMENTS result of fire rain of flammable embers. Also, these
materials reduce the contribution to fire storms
Fire is one of the most devastating forces which that spread rapidly to other structures and areas.
plagues California homeowners as evidenced by the
wildfires of 1993 in Laguna Beach, Malibu and Altadena Use more than the minimum retardancy in several
that claimed four lives and over 1,000 structures. But hazardous areas. Instead of the slow burning
fires of this type along the wildland/urban interface composition, or the so-called fire retardant roof
zones are not unusual in California. In 1961, 537 coverings, use clay or concrete roofing materials.
structures were destroyed in the Bel-Air fire. In 1970, The fire retardancy of other coverings is only a
a series of wildfires over a two week period destroyed relative degree of slower burning. In the event
722 structures throughout the state and claimed 14 the supports are flammable, the heavier clay and
lives. More recently, there were the 1990 Painted concrete roof coverings will also reduce flying
Caves fire in Santa Barbara County that claimed 641 embers.
structures and the 1991 Oakland Hills fire that
destroyed 3,400 dwellings and killed 25 people. 2. Vents - To prevent passage of embers, place non-
flammable mesh over openings such as roof vents
Most building codes permit residential construction and chimney openings.
to be built solely of combustible materials with few 3. Eave Hazards: Eliminate projecting eaves or cover
exceptions. When residential buildings are built with the underside with fire-resistive material such as
combustible materials, they just add fuel to the fire. properly installed plaster.
The American dream is to own a home, unfortunately,
critical land shortages have caused suburban areas 4. Fire-Resistive Walls: Fire-resistive walls are
to be constructed on dense hillsides. The next logical fundamental, especially those facing possible fire
step is to take the necessary precautions to ensure a approach areas such as vegetation slopes. The
safe family environment. fire-resistive walls may be code-rated fire
endurance masonry walls of one hour or more.
A fire-safe environment can be easily constructed This fire-resistant construction is not only excellent
using non-combustible materials. Masonry is a for new masonry surfaces of desired patterns and
material available for increasing the survival rate in a textures, but also covers, enhances and protects
fire. Reports from previous wildland fire area coverage old flammable surfaces such as wood siding.
found that masonry construction often resisted
rampaging fire, while combustible construction, such When structures are close together, this method
as wood, went up in smoke. Masonry foundations, is important where there is a high risk of the fire
chimneys and walls withstood the fires, standing as jumping from one structure to another.
monuments to the barren landscape of ashes and
rubble which were once thriving communities. What
lessons we can learn from this?
SPECIAL TOPICS 339
2
1 2
13 10 10
10 10 3
6 6
4
5
10 10 10
6 6
7
8 8
9 11 9
10
12
12
1. Roof 8. Plants
2. Vents 9. Garden walls and Curbs
3. Eaves 10. Sprinklers
4. Walls 11. Stand-By Power
5. Overhangs 12. Water Storage
6. Windows 13. Housekeeping
7. 30’ clear
FIGURE 15.15 Building a fire safe environment.
5. Overhangs: Fire-resistive materials should be fuel load and hence stop the up rushing
used to enclose the undersides of balconies and conflagration. These walls are also barriers in lieu
decks at slopes. of sandbags for diverting mud flows after the fire.
6. Dual Pane Fire Windows, Glass Doors and 10. Sprinklers: The use of sprinklers systems for all
Shutters: Windows of this type offer added fire sides of structure will help moisten grass and
protection and shutters may be permanent for vegetation which could provide fuel for the fire.
quick closure or may be stored for quick placement Also for protection of vacant structures, sprinklers
in case of impeding fire. Draperies and curtains would have special potential benefits.
should also be of a fire retardant material.
11. Stand-by Power: Install a generator (diesel or
7. 30' Clearance: The structure should be free of gasoline-driven) to drive a water pump for use of
flammable vegetation or weeds for 30 feet (9.1 swimming pool water or other water sources. In
m). This can be accomplished by the installation the event of a power failure, the generator may
of sand bedded masonry paving which is then also be a stand-by source for lights, stove,
economical, easily installed and adjusted to any refrigerator/freezer and security.
surface or change as desired. Beautiful and
12. Water Storage: Tank storage may be installed
colorful patterns and surfaces may be achieved
which may be connected to provide fire water
for enhancement of aesthetics or use.
storage or as a reserve for those times when water
8. Plants: Fire-resistant plants such as rosemary, service may be interrupted. Of course, there
African daisy or periwinkle should be used in fire should be adequate hoses and outlets available
hazardous areas. for usage. Water from swimming pools can be
used if a small pump and connection is available.
9. Garden Walls & Curbs: The use of masonry walls
and curbs at the tops of slopes will provide several 13. Housekeeping: Flammable bushes, tree
benefits, such as a flame barrier to resist the trimmings, brush and close proximity untrimmed
furnace-like blast of a fire roaring up a slope or to trees are hazardous invitations for disaster and
assure safe back-firing down the slope to remove should be properly trimmed and cleared away.
15.3.5 FIRE RESISTANCE RATINGS

Concrete masonry columns, beams, lintels and Caulking
steel columns protected by masonry are assemblies Gasket
covered with “ masonry” . Also, under fire exposure
Backer rod
conditions, construction and material requirements
include design to assure structural performance.
Methods of calculation account for the added fire
resistance contributed by the effect of plaster, drywall
finishes and cores filled with grout or certain loose-fill
materials. Figures 15.16 and 15.17 illustrate control
joints in fire resistant concrete masonry walls.
Air space 1”min. with a

Wythe (R2) factor (A1) of 0.03
/2”max. control joint

1
width
Caulking
Ceramic fiber
blanket
Backer rod
Wythe (R1)
The fire resistance of this wall can be calculated using the

equation:
R = (R10.59 + R20.59 + ..... + Rn0.59 + A1)1.7 so,

R = (40.59 + 1.250.59 + 0.03)1.7
R = (2.27 + 1.14 + 0.03)1.7
R = (3.44)1.7 = 8.16 hours (round off to 8 hours)
R1 = Fire resistance rating of wythe 1

R2 = Fire resistance rating of wythe 2
A1 = Air space factor = 0.03 (National Bureau of Standards) /2”max. control joint
1
width
FIGURE 15.16 Fire resistance of multi-wythe
masonry wall. Bond breaker Sealant and backer
15.4 NOISE CONTROL

Grout key
Masonry walls are excellent in resisting the
passage of noise from one side of the wall to the other. 4 Hour Fire Resistance Rating
This is effectively done two different ways. Sound Mortar
insulation is a reduction factor in decibels for noise (1/2”minimum depth) Sealant and backer
that travels from one room to another. Additionally,
the mass of masonry absorbs sound which further
reduces noise and mit igates echoes and
reverberations.
4 Hour Fire Resistance Rating
Sound intensity is measured in decibels (Db),
which is a logarithmic scale. Interestingly, the human
ear perceives sound logarithmically. For each 10 FIGURE 15.17 Control joints for fire resistant
decibel increase in scale, the noise doubles in loudness concrete masonry assemblies.
as illustrated in Table 15.2.
SPECIAL TOPICS 341
Table 15.2 Sound Level in Decibels
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
W hisper
Quiet Conversation
Soft Radio, TV
Private Office
Ideal house sound level Average Conversation

Average Radio, TV
Busy Street
Printing Press
Truck Traffic
Subway
Motorcycle
Siren
Artillery Fire
Jet Takeoff
Acoustics is important to the functioning of Selection of the correct materials ensures that
environment from auditoriums, concert halls and movie noise transmission from one room to another is kept
theaters to the residential environment. The need to to reasonable levels. Noise has more of an influence
control noise in other environments, such as open to the occupant’
s comfort than heating or cooling levels.
offices and churches has also been extensively Any structure should hold regular noise to acceptable
recognized. levels. When noise cannot be eliminated or reduced,
the buil ding must f unction to prev ent sound
A quiet environment will increase productivity in transmission. Sound absorption reduces the level of
an office and will aid in recovery when in a hospital. sound generated in a room while sound transmission
Hotel and motel travelers prefer the privacy of peaceful prevention reduces the amount of sound that is carried
accommodations. Noisy voices and loud background from one area to another.
music will have a negative effect on business in
restaurants and other public places of business. 15.4.1 MASONRY SOUND TRANSMISSION
Banks, stores and government institutions recognize CLASS (STC)
the advantage of conducting business in reduced noise
surroundings. Masonry is particularly well suited to the
requirements of noise control in multi-family structures.
Designers have the responsibility to plan a Concrete block or brick wall assemblies provide a
functional and safe environment. In order to function density of material with the noise reduction values
for the specified purpose, interior space requires needed to minimize annoyance and comply with
acoustic attention. The high level of noise in residential recognized and required standards. Sound
applications can be attributed to extensive use of glass transmission ratings are achieved with masonry
and other reflective surfaces, along with the increased construction for the reduction of noise from freeways,
number of electronic devices, such as larger television rapid transit and freight rail systems, aircraft operations
sets, more sophisticated radios and hand-held and industrial activity. Sound rated masonry wall
electronic devices, and the design of smaller rooms systems tested by application of standardized
with lower ceilings. Architects, developers and laboratory procedures are available to the design
contractors know that a successful result of noise professional for combating these exterior noise
control is due to acoustics. sources, as well as undesirable sounds which may be
experienced between units in multi-family housing.
Figure 15.18 shows the variation of sound ratings

to wall weight. Increasing the weights of the wall
typically improves the STC value in accordance with
the accepted “ Mass Law”sound transmission
characteristics.
STC vs. wall weight for single-wythe painted

or plastered block walls Sound level meter, exterior
noise measurement
Sound transmission class
60
50
40
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Sound
Wall weight - pounds per sq. ft. level meter,
interior noise
measurement
FIGURE 15.18 STC vs. wall weight.
This section addresses the question of masonry

wall design as needed to provide the isolation from
exterior noise and the insulation of sound between
living units.
15.4.2 ISOLATION VS. INSULATION
The distinction between isolation and insulation FIGURE 15.19 Isolation; difference between
as they relate to Standards can be described as follows: the exterior and interior noise level measurements.
Isolation of interior spaces from exterior sources 15.4.3 INSULATION BY STC

is measured by positioning one sound level gauge in
the room of concern to another directly outside. The The 2006 International Building Code requires a
difference in sound level measured by each instrument controlled noise environment to common interior walls,
is a direct measure of the isolation provided by the partitions and floor/ceiling assemblies between
building. The difference depends on that portion of dwelling units and adjacent public areas such as stairs,
the sound energy which entered the room and was halls, corridors and other service areas. 2006 IBC
not absorbed by the interior furnishings, carpeting, Section 1207 states that these elements shall have an
drapes and walls, as well as the sound transmission STC rating of not less than 50, or 45 when field tested.
loss through the exterior walls, roof, windows, doors
and vents. When considering sound isolation the 15.4.4 STC VALUES OF MASONRY WALLS
sound absorption provided by the interior space is an
important part of the reduction between the interior A typical sampling of masonry wall systems with
and exterior noise levels. associated STC ratings are listed in Table 15.3. A
significant number of masonry wall systems posses
Insulation refers to the amount of sound protection an STC rating of 50 or greater making them code
required in party walls and floor/ceiling assemblies. compliant.
This sound protection is provided by known material
ratings and the installation of materials complying with
those ratings. Sound transmission loss values due to
insulation are independent of sound isolation
referenced above. The noise insulation characteristics
of the materials separating the units is specified, not
the noise reduction between the units.
SPECIAL TOPICS 343
TABLE 15.3 STC Values of Masonry Walls
WALL WEIGHT
THICKNESS STC WALL DESCRIPTION OF WALL TEST
(inches) lbs./sq.ft.
4 Hollow Concrete Block, Unplastered, Ungrouted
40 Lightweight Units, Unpainted 18.0 KAL 359-1-66
41 Normal Weight Units, Painted Both Sides (2 Coats) 26.5 TL 67-99
4 Hollow Concrete Block, Painted Both Sides (2 Coats)
43 Lightweight Units, Ungrouted 22.0 KAL 1379-5-72
44 Normal Weight Units, Ungrouted 29.0 KAL 1379-3-72
4 Hollow Concrete Block, Plastered Both Sides, Ungrouted
44 Normal Weight Units 34.8 TL 67-102
3
4 45 Face Brick Wall: 3 /4" Thick 38.7 TL 67-70
1
4 Hollow Concrete Block, /2" Gypsum Board on Resilient
Channels Each Side
47 Lightweight Blocks, Ungrouted 26.0 KAL 1379-4-72
48 Normal Weight Blocks, Ungrouted 32.0 KAL 1379-2-72
4 48 Hollow Concrete Block, Plastered Both Sides, Ungrouted 30.0 KAL 359-7-66
5
4 50 Brick Wall, Brick 3 /8" Thick 42.4 TL 69-283
½" Sand Plaster, on One Face
6 44 Hollow Concrete Block, Unpainted, Unplastered, Ungrouted 21.0 KAL 359-4-66
6 Hollow Concrete Block, Painted Both Side (2 Coats)
46 Lightweight Blocks, Ungrouted 28.0 KAL 933-2-70
48 Normal Weight Blocks, Ungrouted 39.0 KAL 1379-1-72
6 53 Hollow Concrete Block, 2 Coats Paint One Side 27.0 KAL 359-6-66
1
/2" Gypsum Board on Resilient Channel Other Side
8 45 Hollow Concrete Block, Unpainted, Unplasterd, Ungrouted 36.0 KAL 359-3-66
8 48 Hollow Concrete Block, Painted Both Sides, 2 Coats, Ungrouted 33.5 TL 67-61
8 49 Hollow Concrete Block, Unpainted, Unplasterd, Ungrouted 42.8 KAL 1144-2-71
8 50 Hollow Concrete Block, Exterior Wall Painted Outside (2 Coats) 45.6 TL 67-93
Gypsum Board on Furring Strips Inside, Ungrouted
8 50 Face Brick and Structural Clay Tile Composite 63.8 TL 67-65
Brick Dimensions: 3¾" Thick
Tile Dimensions: 4" Thick
8 51 Hollow Concrete Block, Cells Filled with Zonolite, Unpainted 39.6 KAL 1144-4-71
8 52 Solid Face Brick 83.3 TL 67-68
1 3 1
Brick Dimensions: 2 /4" x 3 /4" x 8 /4"
8 52 Hollow Concrete Block, Normal Weight Block, 53.0 KAL 1144-3-71
Ungrouted, Unpainted
8 53 Solid Brick Wall; Wall 9¼" Thick 86.7 TL 69-287
1
/2" Gypsum Board on Furring Strips One Side
8 55 Hollow Concrete Block, Lightweight Block, Solid 73.0 KAL 1023-3-71
Grouted, Painted Both Sides (2 Coats), Reinforced
8 56 Hollow Concrete Lightweight, Ungrouted 40.4 KAL 933-1-70
5
/8" Gypsum Board on Resilient Channels One Side
Lightweight Block
8 Hollow Concrete Lightweight Block, Solid Grouted, Reinforced
1
56 /2" Gypsum Plaster Both Sides 79.0 KAL 1023-9-71
1
60 /2" Gypsum Board on Resilient Channels, Both Sides 77.0 KAL 1023-3-71
1
10 59 Reinforced Brick Masonry, Solid Grouted, Wall 9 /2" 94.2 TL 70-6
1 5 5
Thick, Brick Dimensions: 2 /2" x 3 /8" x 7 /8"
12 55 Solid Concrete Block, Unpainted, Unplastered 121.0 NGC 3002
5
12 58 Solid Concrete, /8" Gypsum Board on Resilient 124.0 NGC 3003
Channels, One Side
SOURCES OF DATA:
KAL: Kodaras Acoustical Lab, Elmhurst, New York
TL: Riverbank Acoustical Lab, Geneva, Illinois
NGC; National Gypsum Company, Buffalo, New York
15.4.5 SOUND ABSORPTION AND NOISE TABLE 15.5 Noise Reduction Coefficients (NRC)
REDUCTION of Selected Materials
MATERIAL NRC
Sound is absorbed by any surface that dissipates

Brick, Unglazed .04
sound energy by converting it to heat. If the surfaces Unglazed, painted .02
of a room were capable of absorbing all sound
generated within a room, they would have a sound Carpet, Heavy or Concrete .30
absorption coefficient of 1.0. If only 50% of the sound on 40 oz. pad or foam rubber .55
were absorbed, the coefficient would be 0.50. A
Concrete Block, coarse .40
commonly used measure of sound absorption is the medium .35
Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC), determined by fine .30
measuring the sound absorption coefficient at various painted .10
frequencies and using the average. Table 15.4
provides an example of how the Noise Reduction Concrete Floor .01
Coefficient is determined. Asphalt Tile Floor on Concrete .03
Wood Floor .08

TABLE 15.4 Determination of Noise Reduction
Coefficients Marble or Glazed Tile .01
Glass, Single strength window .12

Sound Absorption Coefficient
Heavy plate, large panes .04
Frequency (cps) 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 NRC
Coefficient 22 62 85 70 65 58 .70 Gypsum Wall Board on 2" x 4" Studs .07
Gypsum Wall Board on Concrete .03

Numerical Average
Typical coefficients of a ceiling system Plaster on Brick or Concrete Blocks .03
Plywood Paneling on Furring Strips .13

An estimate of the average sound absorption, or Drapes, Light Fabric, 10 oz./sq. yd. .14
average NRC, in a room may be determined by Medium Fabric, 14 oz./sq. yd. .40
multiplying the NRC value of each material in the room Heavy Fabric, 18 oz. yd. .55
by surface area, summing values and dividing the sum
by the total surface area of the room. Table 15.5
provides a sampling of NRC values for selected
materials.
15.4.6 FLANKING PATH CONTROL Garage “

B”
The transmission of sound from one room to

another may occur through separating partitions, Garage “ A”
windows, doors, convenience outlets, common (source room)
ventilation and plumbing systems. These additional
‘sound leaks’are commonly called flanking paths.
When required to demonstrate compliance with the
code requirements, all sound transmission from the Partition
source room to the receiver room shall be considered Bedroom “ B”
(receiver room)
to be transmitted through the test partition. The
implication is clear; a sound rated party wall could be
selected which meets the requirements of the code,
however, the flanking paths could easily reduce the
effectiveness and the completed building placed in a
category of non-compliance. Figure 15.20 depicts a
room where t he f lanki ng paths ov ertake the
effectiveness of the partition wall.
FIGURE 15.20 Flanking paths between source
room and receiver room.
SPECIAL TOPICS 345
Masonry provides a uniform wall assembly from Many states erect highway sound barriers to help
floor to ceiling and avoids the potential sound leaks of reduce noise. These barriers are constructed from a
other material types. The design professional is variety of materials; masonry, wood, metal, precast
assured that all joints and intersections from floor to concrete panels, plastic and earth. But tests indicat
ceiling are sealed without the need for additional that masonry materials provide a higher insertion loss
acoustic sealants or any excessive on-site inspection. than wood at a distance of 65 feet behind the barriers.
However, the potential flanking paths around the wall Insertion loss is the logarithmic difference in the
assembly through the windows and doors will impact reduction of noise measured in decibels averaged over
the effective noise reduction. the full spectrum of frequencies.
15.4.7 IMPACT NOISE CONTROL Traffic noise largely depends on three factors:
In addition to the STC limitations, Section 1207.3  The volume of traffic

of the 2006 International Building Code also requires  The speed of traffic
that the Impact Insulation Class be rated at not less  The vehicular makeup of traffic (an area used
than 50 when tested in accordance with ASTM E 492, frequently by trucks will have higher noise
Standard Test Method for Laboratory Measurement of levels).
Impact Sound Transmission Through Floor-Ceiling
Assemblies Using the Tapping Machine. Compliance The noise problem is also aggravated by road
with this requirement is generally assured when the surfaces, inclines and faulty vehicle equipment.
floor separating the upper and lower rooms is carpeted
or covered with a cushion backed material. Many strategies have been developed to reduce
traffic noise. The noise problem has been addressed
implementing motor vehicle regulation, land use control
and highway planning. These controls have drawbacks
Tapping machine
and traffic growth over time inevitably outstrips any
effectiveness of these controls.
To be effective, material used in the construction

of noise barriers should have characteristics that
induce noise reduction through sound transmission
resistance and sound absorption. The material must
be strong and durable to maintain effectiveness as a
noise deterrent and should offer an aesthetic appeal
Floor ceiling Sound level
assembly meter and third that will uphold the image of the surrounding
octave band neighborhoods. Masonry provides it all.
analyzer
Noise barriers made of concrete masonry block or
FIGURE 15.21 Impact sound transmission structural clay brick utilize sound reflection, diffraction
measurement. and absorption to create an effective barrier system.
Their mass or density keeps traffic noise normally
disturbing to the human ear from passing through.
15.4.8 TRAFFIC NOISE
Sound waves, when reflected, bounce away from the
receiver and back toward the source. The rough surface
As the United States highway system continues
of split faced block provides an additional benefit of
to expand to meet the needs of a growing population,
weakening the sound waves by scattering the sound
interstate and secondary connector roads are cutting
waves in a random manner.
paths through once quiet settings. Although these
modern highways contribute to the growth and economy
The sound waves, through sound absorption, are
of the communities they serve, they also promote noise
deadened within the masonry wall, especially when
pollution.
constructed with sound absorbing units. Therefore, for
those living and working close to highways, masonry
Increasi ng numbers of cars, trucks, and
provides the best overall protection from noise.
motorcycles are using the roads and affecting
neighborhoods across the country. Noise levels are
increased by the every day traffic, creating problems
and reducing the quality of life for those affected by
the excessive noise.
Noise barrier walls built of concrete masonry block

b
are rapidly constructed as a hand laid unit-by-unit Actual wall width
system. Scaled to the human environment, they offer Cement mortar cap or
designers a wide range of colors, textures and patterns. other as desired
The masonry noise barrier system can be used for
private residential or public highway projects and Bond beam
industrial and commercial projects requiring noise
abatement.
Wall height
The combination of masonry units, mortar and grout
with steel reinforcing bars provides a wall with structural
integrity. The engineered design determines location
and spacing of the reinforcement. The wall may be
supported on a foundation below grade or on deflection
barriers. The design forces of wind pressure and
earthquake force can be resisted by this structural
system. Vertical reinforcement
A complete solid wall system can be achieved when

concrete masonry blocks are bonded together with
mortar and grout locking each individual unit.
Throughout the wall there are no gaps to allow the Jersey barrier Dowels
transmission of unwanted noise and if damage occurs
repairs can be made to isolated sections of the wall,
reducing costs, thus increasing long term investment
value.
3”clr.
Typical dimensions
b
Actual wall width FIGURE 15.23 Concrete masonry block noise
Cement mortar cap or barrier wall (double mat steel).
other as desired
Bond beam 15.4.8.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Concrete and clay masonry materials are preferred

d = W/2 since they resist the passage of sound waves. Also,
masonry is resistant to small holes and gaps, which
could increase the sound passing, worsening the noise
problem in a particular area.
Wall height
Wall
91 dBA
Sound waves
75 dBA
Dowels
#3 bars 12”o.c.
3”clr.
Typical dimensions
FIGURE 15.22 Concrete masonry block noise FIGURE 15.24 Sound transmission.
barrier wall.
SPECIAL TOPICS 347
Masonry noise barrier walls reflect sound waves
away from the receiver back toward the noise source.
A potential problem can be created when sound waves
reflected off a barrier could be redirected to another
area. Two of the most important properties of the
masonry construction material are the ability to absorb
waves and the surface texture.
Wall
Trucks/cars
Sound waves
FIGURE 15.27 Masonry freeway sound wall.
Materials used in a barrier wall system will be

subject to vandalism and graffiti. Masonry materials are
durable and can be cleaned. Cleaning may involve
sandblasting or other acceptable means by the
regulatory agency. When damaged, such as by traffic,
F IGURE 15.25 So und refl ecti on and repairs are simple and cost effective.
absorption.
Masonry materials used in noise barrier wall
construction facilitate compatibility with the aesthetic
The visual impression the highway gives is due to requirements of the community. Masonry fences can
the significant components of masonry noise barriers. easily harmonize with the surrounding stores and
Designs with the wide range of colors and textures of residences.
concrete masonry create a structure in harmony with
the highway. Masonry barriers can also be seen as a
dynamic whole from a vehicle in motion and as a
stationary form from residences and sidewalks nearby.
FIGURE 15.28 Masonry/concrete freeway

sound wall.
Strength and fire resistance are additional benefits

offered by masonry materials. Masonry separates
homes and business structures from brush fires and
FIGURE 15.26 Masonry freeway sound wall. other highway hazards. Masonry fire ratings can exceed
four hours, therefore, many designers specify the use
The ideal noise wall system is one which provides of masonry walls between residential units.
a high level of noise reduction at a low construction
cost. Materials should be available locally to reduce
shipping costs and be environmentally friendly.
15.4.8.2 VISUAL CONSIDERATIONS
Noise barrier walls along a freeway dominate the

visual environment adjacent to roadways. Walls can
be as high as 25 ft (7.6 m) above the road surface and
normally thousands of feet long. Visual consideration
of surrounding features should be evaluated when noise
barriers higher than 16 ft (4.9 m) are required. High
walls can have an unattractive impact on the
surrounding area and can give the driver a claustrophobic
feeling. The designer should reduce the visual impact
of the noise barrier wall for safety reasons. Motorists
should pass the barrier walls with little or no visual
disruption. The drivers attention should be on the road
ahead and adjacent traffic conditions. This can be
achieved by doing one or more of several things.
FIGURE 15.29 Masonry highway barriers
The line of a low noise barrier wall should reflect materials, colors and textures.
similar lines of the surrounding environment. In rolling
terrain, for example, a straight line will draw attention
to that line. In flat terrain, however, where the horizon 15.5 SOLAR ENERGY
is visible, a straight line in a noise barrier wall may not
appear to be visually dominant. Pilasters, as vertical 15.5.1 INTRODUCTION
lines placed along relatively low walls, are recommended
to achieve visual balance. Shrubbery can also be used Architecture in the twenty f irst century is
to soften the transition between the ground and the characterized by emphasis on technologies such as
noise barrier wall. The wall should step back to open energy conservation and innovative construction
up the view for the driver wherever possible. Practically, materials and techniques. In the construction industry,
however, this can only be accomplished in rolling or materials such as plastics and synthetics now replace
hilly terrain. An appropriate wall may vary in height as wood and clay. To satisfy comfort requirements, there
a reflection of the city’ s profile, particularly in an urban is an existing dependence on mechanical control of
environment where the horizon is created of different the indoor environment rather than use of seasonal
heights of buildings. climatic and other natural resources. Interior
environments rely on complicated mechanical systems
Changes in height and location of the wall could be which require a ‘ tight’building with well-sealed doors
another way to reduce the visual impact on the and windows. Power and equipment failures may cause
environment. The monotony of a straight wall can be disruption of the controlled interior environment.
broken with offsets and create pockets which can be Traditional, but effective, design and construction
used as areas for change in texture, color or wall techniques have given way to high tech and less
height. The same visual interest can be created with forgiving building systems.
a serpentine wall. In addition, both types of walls have
the advantage of being more resistant to seismic and New interest in dependable passive solar heating
wind forces than their straight counterparts due to the and cooling systems is becoming increasingly popular.
geometry used. These passive solar systems are simple and require
little or no maintenance. In addition, these systems
Noise barrier walls should not begin or end abruptly do not contaminate since they require no outside energy
regardless of shape. The wall termination should taper contribution. Solar energy is conveniently distributed
down and angle away from the roadway if no natural throughout t he world, theref ore, ex pensiv e
hills or berms are available for this purpose. This is not transportation and distribution networks of energy are
only aesthetically pleasing, but it is also functional. eliminated.
The amount of noise traveling around the end of the
wall as a result of approaching traffic can efficiently be Architects, builders and contractors do not always
reduced by this transition. make use of information available concerning passive
systems since the application is technical and time-
consuming. Information must lead to the necessary
degree of accuracy at each stage of a building’
s design
to be useful. As the design moves from the schematic
SPECIAL TOPICS 349
stage through detailed drawings and models and finally structure. Southern exposure with adequate windows
to construction documents the degree of accuracy must will improve the effectiveness of a solar system and
increase. The building will change many times before produce sufficient heat to distribute to the entire
a design is complete, therefore, it makes no sense to building.
perform extensive heat loss and gain calculations at
early design stages. Another factor to consider when taking advantage
of solar heat is room placement. For residential
15.5.2 PRINCIPLES structures, living and family rooms are ideally located
on the south side while bedrooms, bathrooms and
Solar technologies use sunlight to become solar laundry rooms are ideally located on the north side.
energy when the sun’ s rays are transferred to a medium Whenever possible, the garage should be placed on
that has the capacity or ability to provide useful heat, the north, northeast or northwest side of the home.
light, electricity and cooling systems. Solar energy An effective barrier for insulating the living areas from
reduces utility costs, saves energy and produces clean cold exterior elements is the garage.
energy. The earth, in many areas, receives about 60%
direct sunlight each year while in very clear areas up to 15.5.4 ENERGY SYSTEMS
80% of the annual sunlight is available for use as solar
energy. Air and objects become heated when the sun’ s When planning and developing a solar energy
rays reach the earth. Concrete, which is a dense system, a commitment to energy conservation is
material, can absorb more heat than less dense essential. The user must compare the additional cost
materials such as wood. The dense materials absorb with the long term savings and realize that the savings
and store solar energy during the day. The stored energy can only be gained when the commitment to solar
is released in the form of heat during the night. Glass conservation is fulfilled.
is one of the materials that absorbs solar radiation while
transmitting light. Solar heating is possible due, in part, With proper planning, solar systems may provide
to this concept. Solar radiation enters a structure heat from the sun with little or no involvement. This is
through a glass panel and warms the surface of the an ideal form of passive solar energy. The minimal
building’s interior. The radiation is absorbed by the glass effort makes the long term investment worthwhile.
and keeps the heat inside the building. Solar energy is When a substantial amount of heat energy is required,
also used to heat water. active solar systems may be required. The active
systems may be automatic requiring little or no
Solar energy systems are classified as active, participation for the operation, however, maintenance
passive, or a combination of active and passive. Active should be performed on a periodic basis to assure
systems use mechanical devices for absorbing, storing continued operation of the system. There are passive
and using solar heat. Passive systems absorb, store, solar systems that may require periodic attention. A
and use solar heat without the assistance of mechanical mechanical shade that blocks the rays of the summer
devices. sun must be adjusted to allow for the penetration of
the winter sun rays. On winter mornings, the ideal
15.5.3 DESIGN configuration is to allow the maximum sunlight into the
structure, but in the early evenings, shutters or drapes
Solar energy is an economical alternative to fossil should be closed to keep as much heat as possible in
fuel. There are several energy facts that contribute to the structure.
the effective use of solar energy. Designing and
constructing a building with energy efficient techniques 15.5.5 BUILDING CODES
and properly insulating the building to reduce heat loss
and air infiltration is the primary goal of energy efficiency. Building permits are typically required for the
installation of active solar systems or for the
In combination with solar heat, an alternative heating construction of passive solar systems. Additionally,
system is often used as a backup system. The amount installations may require plumbing and electrical
of heat, if any, required from a backup system will permits. The requirements for solar system installations
depend on the demand and capacity of the solar system. should be reviewed with local building officials. Local
In order to provide maximum efficiency and comfort, zoning ordinances during the initial planning process
both systems should be professionally engineered. must be checked to determine the feasibility of the
installation. Dwelling height restrictions in many areas
The optimum orientation for solar application in the is one example. In this case, a different approach or a
Northern hemisphere is the south elevation of the variance to the restriction should be considered if the
planned solar system encroaches upon this zoning rule.
15.5.6 ROOF OVERHANG Example:
The design of roof overhang can shield a major Calculate the recommended southern overhang for
glass area from the heat of the summer sun and also a location at 32latitude and provide for a 6' - 8" sliding
allow the lower winter sun to help warm the structure glass door height.
since the suns angle changes from season to season,
lower on the horizon in the winter and higher in the
6' - 8" (Glass Door Height)
summer. A properly designed roof overhang can aid Overhang (OH) 
in the effective use of the sun’
s heat as illustrated in 5.2 ( F at 32o latitude)
Figure 15.30.
6.6
OH  1.3 1' - 4"
5.2
Summer sun For a more northerly latitude the overhang

recommendation would be greater . For example a
44latitude calculation with 6' - 8" window height would
Overhang be:
Winter sun
6' - 8"
OH  2' - 9"
2.4
The effects of the summer and winter sun on the 2'

- 9" overhang calculation for the 44latitude is illustrated
FIGURE 15.30 Effective overhang. in Figure 15.31. The summer heat is blocked while the
heat from the winter sun is allowed to enter.
The f ol lowing f ormula can be used when
calculating an overhang that will provide shading on
the longest day of the year at noon.
2’- 9”
Window/Sil l Height
Overhang (OH) 
F
W indow
W indow
height
2’- 9”
height
This formula divides the window height by a factor

determined in relationship to the latitude of the structure.
North Latitude F
28 8.4
Summer sun Winter sun
32 5.2
36 3.8
40 3.0 FIGURE 15.31 Effect of overhang on summer
44 2.4 and winter sun.
48 2.0
52 1.7 A porch cover, trellis or awning are ways of overhang
56 1.4 protection that serve the same function as the extension
of the roof structure. In architectural design there is a
great deal of flexibility that will provide the same function.
Mechanical devices provide alternate methods of
shading from summer heat and exposing the window
areas to winter sun. These movable devices require
that the occupant should be aware of the need for shade
or heat at different times of the year. Some shading
options are shown in Figures 15.32 - 15.34.
SPECIAL TOPICS 351
Passive solar heating can be incorporated easily
into plans with very little increase in costs and almost
no change in construction methods or personnel. A
passive solar buildings, is attractive at a time when
energy costs continue to rise.
Thousands of building with passive solar heating

exist in every part of the country and there is nothing
strange-looking about them since passive solar design
adapts comfortably to all architectural styles.
15.5.7.1 PRINCIPLES
FIGURE 15.32 Drop shade. To obtain heating and cooling benefits from the
free energy available in the natural environment,
passive solar systems depend on the smart design
and organization of the spaces in a building and the
careful selection of building materials. Passive solar
designs depend on two basic material properties:
1. Certain materials, such as masonry, have the

ability to store large amounts of heat and
release that heat slowly into habitable spaces.
2. Glass and many glazing materials have the

ability to transmit light (solar radiation) but to
Summer sun Winter sun remain opaque to heat (thermal radiation).
The light strikes objects and surfaces within
the building interior and is transformed into
FIGURE 15.33 Sliding shade. heat. Since the glazing is opaque to this form
of radiation, this radiant heat is prevented from
passing back out through the windows.
Anyone who has opened the door to a car that
has been sitting in the sun with the windows
closed on a hot summer day can feel this
phenomenon.
15.5.7.2 ACTIVE SOLAR HEATING
The sun’ s heat is collected by all solar systems,

stored and finally this stored heat is recovered when
and where is needed. These three tasks are performed
by the active solar heating systems with collector
panels, pipes, pumps, water tanks, heat exchangers
FIGURE 15.34 Awning shade. and other equipment which can be costly to install and
maintain.
15.5.7 PASSIVE SOLAR ENERGY
15.5.7.3 PASSIVE SOLAR HEATING
Energy from the sun comes in a variety of forms.
Heat and light can be sensed simply by sitting on a In pure passive solar heating systems, the building
beach on a bright summer day. Other forms of solar is the collector and the windows, walls and floors are
radiation are less easily perceived and often requires the storage areas. The radiation, conduction and
specilized equipment. However, all solar radiation convection are the natural heat flow forces that make
travels through space in waves. The solar radiation is the system work, rather than energy-using moving parts.
classified by the length of these waves (the shortest is
less than a million of an inch, the longest more than a
thousands yards). The solar spectrum is the grand
aggregate of the sun’ s radiation.
15.5.7.4 HYBRID SOLAR HEATING 15.5.9 PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS

Hybrid passive solar systems include simple Five simple systems are very effective and
devices such as small blowers, dampers and fans that economical when building passive solar capacity into
help circulate collected heat throughout the building. a structure:
15.5.8 PASSIVE SOLAR BASICS  Direct Gain

 Thermal Storage Wall
Passive solar heating was observed and followed  Attached Sunspace
thousands of years ago by the American Indians and  Convective Loop
was based on common sense principles. These  Thermal Storage Roof
principles are being rediscovered and applied with new
technology. These essential and simple features can 15.5.9.1 DIRECT GAIN
be seen in and around any passive solar application.
Designed primarily to be used for heating, direct
15.5.8.1 SHAPE AND ORIENTATION gain systems are most effective in areas with mild or
moderate winter climates. The collection, absorption
The basic passive solar structure shape is and storage of solar energy in a direct gain system
rectangular, with the long axis oriented in an east-west occurs directly within the habitable space. The
direction and (wall areas faces south) to catch the structure becomes the passive solar system as a result
maximum winter sunlight. of intelligent planning and minor modifications in
standard building practice. During the design of the
building attention must be given to questions of space
planning, privacy, natural lighting, glare, overheating
Summer sun
and fading and deterioration of fabrics exposed to
direct sunlight.
Winter sun
Fundamental elements for storing the sun’ s heat
are the south-facing window areas (preferably double-
glazed) and the brick walls and floors (at least 4 in.
W [102 mm] thick) . Sunlight heats the exposed masonry
when entering through the glazing, which slowly
releases the stored heat to the interior of the structure.
S N
Greater glass collection area increases and
exposes even more interior for greater thermal storage
when skylights are added.
E
The direct gain passive solar system is simple and
economical and supplies a large amount of heat very
FIGURE 15.35 Sun altitude - summer and rapidly.
winter.
Winter
sunlight
The large areas of windows and/or glass allowing
sunlight into the interior should be at the south elevation
of the structure since the solar collector is the south
facing wall. Windows on east and west walls should
be limited, with little or no window area on the north
wall.
15.5.8.2 T HERMAL STORAGE/RETRIEVAL
The sunlight transmitted through the south-facing

glazing is absorbed and stored by interior brick walls,
brick fireplaces and floors. The natural forces of
conduction, radiation and convection moves stored heat
out to the habitable spaces. FIGURE 15.36 Increased building window
surface using clerestory and skylight.
SPECIAL TOPICS 353
15.5.9.2 T HERMAL STORAGE WALL
Designed primarily for space heating, thermal

storage wall systems can also be used in certain
climate conditions to provide cooling. For heating they
are most effective in areas with moderate or severe
winters. For cooling, they are best suited to areas
with high daily temperature swings.
The key elements are south-facing glass placed

2 to 4 in. (50.8 to 102 mm) outside of a solid brick wall
that is 10 to 18 in. (254 to 457 mm) thick. To aid heat
circulation the wall may have vents at the top and
bottom.
South facing glass walls collect the winter sun rays

heating the brick storage wall by conduction. Heat is
spread out to interior habitable spaces. In walls with FIGURE 15.38 Attached sunspace.
vents, cooler air is allowed to circulate through the
lower vent and is heated as it rises through the space 15.5.9.4 CONVECTIVE LOOP
between the glass and the brick. The heated air
passes through the vent at the top of the wall into the The convective loop is a heating type system that
interior. To prevent heat loss, wall vents can be closed is more efficient in areas with moderate to severe
at night. winters. This system is based on the principle that air
will rise when heated.
The thermal storage wall system shows smaller
temperature fluctuations and achieves lower maximum The convective loop collector admits sunlight during
temperatures than the direct gain system and may the heating season which, in turn, strikes an absorber
require a greater initial investment. surface and is converted to heat. In the space between
the absorber surface and the collector this heat is
transmitted to the air.
Insulated
Winter Projected ceiling
sunlight overhang The lowest point in the system collects the heat.
Then, the heated air rises up, passing out through a
Massive brick
storage wall duct located at the top of the absorber. This warm air
can go straight into the habitable spaces or it can be
Thermal stored in the storage area, such as a rock bed, and
convective loop
Radiated heat
used to provide heat as required as shown on Figure
15.39.
Vents (T & B)
South-facing Insulated
double glazing north wall
FIGURE 15.37 Vented thermal storage wall

system. Heated air
rises up
15.5.9.3 ATTACHED SUNSPACE
Sunspaces are designed for passive solar gain and

are “ attached”to the south side of the structure. Collector
Attached sunspaces are effective in areas with moderate
to severe winter climates and are designed primarily to Storage area
Absorber
be used for heating. When the sunspaces work as
greenhouses, they are referred as “ solar greenhouses”
or “attached greenhouses”to diferentiate them from the FIGURE 15.39 Convective loop.
standard, “ non-solar”varieties which are generally not
as well constructed and detailed.
The convective loop system is ideally constructed 15.5.10 MASONRY AND THE SUN
on the south elevation of the structure, or can be a
separate structure placed in front of and below the In passive solar heating systems the texture of
first floor. The heat flow is by natural means in any surface makes masonry a logical partner with the sun.
design. In this system and in the typical active hot air One of the advantages of masonry is the permanent
systems, no fans or pumps are required. color will not fade or degrade in direct sunlight or high
heat. Also, masonry requires no painting and little or
15.5.9.5 T HERMAL STORAGE ROOF no maintenance. The character and beauty of living
spaces is enhanced by the exposed brick or block on
Typically, masonry or water is the storage mass in the interior of a structure in addition to serving the
a thermal storage roof system located on the roof of a passive solar purpose.
structure. The roof decking, metal or concrete,
supports this mass and also serves as the ceiling for For example, masonry contains a combination of
the space below. This storage roof provides the physical qualities for top performance in passive solar
efficient and even transfer of heat from the mass systems. These attributes are:
above. The thermal storage roofs can provide effective
heating and cooling, and are appropriate passive  Conductivity
systems for desert climates due to the location and  Absorptivity
operation of the storage component.  Specific heat
 Emissivity
Thermal storage roofs do not require a collector  Mass
component. The storage component is exposed to
the sky and heated by direct radiation from the sun. The attributes of mass cannot be exaggerated.
This heat is stored and slowly transferred through the Masonry walls or floors are an efficient storage
ceiling deck to the living spaces below as illustrated in medium, absorbing and holding heat. Also, it is a
Figure 15.40. moderator of temperature preventing overheating and
keeping a comfortable environment as heat is released
into living spaces. The reason lies in the nature of
masonry: it absorbs the sun’s heat slowly and releases
it slowly. Masonry mass is at the heart of passive solar
efficiency.
FIGURE 15.40 Thermal storage roof.

CHAPTER
16
UNIT CONVERSIONS
ENGLISH/METRIC CONVERSION
Unit Exact Conversion Approximate Conversion
Length
1
1 mile 1.609344 kilometers 1.6 km or 1 /2 km
1 yard 0.9144 meter 0.9 m or 1 meter
1
1 foot 0.3048 meter 0.3 m or /3 meter
1
1 inch 25.40 millimeters 25 mm or /40 meter
Area
2
1 acre 4,046.856 square meters 4000 m
1 2 2
1 square foot 0.0929 square meters /10 m or 1000 cm
2 2
1 square inch 645.2 square millimeters 6 cm or 650 mm
Volume
3 3
1 cubic yard 0.7646 cubic meter or /4 m or
764.56 liters 750 liters
1 3
1 cubic foot 0.0283 cubic meter or /35 m or
3 3
1 cubic inch 16.387 cubic centimeters 16 cm or 16,000 mm
3
1 gallon 3,785.4 cubic centimeters or 4,000 cm or
3
1 quart 946.35 cubic centimeters or 1,000 cm or
0.94635 liter 1 liter
Speed
1
1 mile per hour 1.609344 kilometers per hour 1.6 km/h or 1 /2 km/h
1
1 foot per second 0.3048 meter per second 0.3 m/s or /3 m/s
Weight or Mass
1 ounce 28.35 grams 30 grams
1
1 pound 0.45359 kilogram or 453 grams /2 kg or 500 g
1 kip 453.59 kilograms 500 kg or 0.5 Mg
1 Ton (short) * 907.18 kilograms 1 Mg
Density
3
1 pounds/cubic foot 16.018 kilograms/cubic meter 16 kg/m
3
1 pounds/gallon 119.83 kilograms/cubic meter 120 kg/m
* A short Ton is a unit of weight equal to 2,000 pounds (0.907 metric ton or 907.18 kilograms), as compared to a Long Ton which is a unit of
weight equal to 2,240 pounds (1.016 metric tons or 1,016.05 kilograms).

Force
1
1 pound force 4.448 newtons 4 /2 N
1
1 kip force 4.448 kilo newtons 4500 N or 4 /2 kN
1
1 pound force/lin. ft. 14.59 newtons/meter 14 /2 N/m
1
1 kip force/lin. ft. 14.59 kilo newtons/meter 14 /2 kN/m
Pressure
1 pound/sq. in. 6,894.8 pascals 7000 Pa or 7 kPa
1 kip/sq. in. 6.895 mega pascals 7 MPa
1 pound force/sq. ft. 47.9 pascals 48 Pa
1 kip force/sq. ft. 47.9 kilo pascals 48 kPa
Moment
1 foot pound force 1.356 newton meters 1.36 Nm
1 foot kip force 1.356 kilo newton meters 1.36 kNm
1 foot pound force/foot 4.448 newton/meters/meters 4.45 Nm/m
Energy
1 BTU 1,054.35 joule or 1.054 kj 1 kj
Temperature
5
ºFahrenheit [(ºF-32)( /9)] ºCelcius
UNIT CONVERSIONS 357
METRIC/ENGLISH CONVERSION
Length
5
1 kilometer 0.6214 mile /8 mile or 0.6 mile
3
1 meter 3.2808 feet or 39 /8 inches 3 ft. 3 in. or 3 ft.+
3
1 centimeter 0.3937 inch 0.4 inch or /8 inch
1
1 millimeter 0.0394 inch /32 inch
Area
1 2
1 square kilometer 0.3861 square mile or 247.1 acres /3 mi or 250 acres
1 2 2
1 square meter 1.196 square yds or 10.764 sq.ft. /2 yd or 10 ft
1 2
1 square centimeter 0.155 square inch /6 in
Volume
3
35.315 cubic feet or 35 ft or
1 cubic meter
264.17 gallons 265 gallons
0.0353 cubic feet or
1 liter 3 1 3
0.2642 gallon or 61.024 in /4 gallon or 1 quart or 60 in
1 3
1 cubic centimeter 0.061 cubic inch /16 in
Speed
5
1 kilometer per hour 0.6214 mile per hour /8 mph or 0.6 mph
1 meter per second 3.2808 feet per second 3 ft/s or 1 yd/s
Weight or Mass
1
1 gram 0.03527 ounce /30 ounce
1
1 kilogram 2.205 pounds 2 /4 pounds or 2 pounds
1
1 megagram 2.205 kips or 2,205 pounds 2 /4 kips or 2,000 pounds
1 gigagram 1,102 Tons or 2,205,000 lbs 1,000 Tons or 2 million lbs
Density
1 3
1 gram/cubic centimeter 8.345 lbs/gal or 62.428 lbs/cu ft 8 /2 lbs/gal or 62 lbs/ft
1 1 3
1 kg/cubic meter 0.0081345 lbs/gal or 0.062428 lbs/cu ft /8 oz/gal or /16 lbs/ft
Force
1
1 newton 0.2248 pound force /4 pound force
1 kilo newton 224.8 pound force 225 pound force
Pressure
1 pascal 0.000145 pounds/square inch
1
1 kilo pascal 0.145 pounds/square inch /7 psi
1 mega pascal 145 pounds/square inch 150 psi
Moment
3
1 newton meter 0.737 foot pound force /4 ft lb
3
1 kilo newton meter 0.737 foot kip force /4 ft kip
1
1 newton meter/meter 0.225 foot pound force/foot /4 ft lb/ft
Energy
1000 joules 0.94845 BTU 1 BTU
Temperature
ºCelcius [(1.8 x ºC)+32] ºFahrenheit
This chapter is referenced in Section 2.2.2

ENGLISH SYSTEM M ETRIC S YSTEM

CONVERSION C ONVERSION
inches/feet mm/meters cm/meters inches/feet
3
1 in. 25.4 mm 1 cm 0.3937" = /8"
3
2 in. 50.8 (51) mm 2 cm 0.7874" = /4"
3
3 in. 76.2 (76) mm 3 cm 1.1811" = 1 / 16 "
9
4 in. 101.6 (102) mm 4 cm 1.5748" = 1 / 16 "
5 in. 127 mm 5 cm 1.9685" = 2"
3
6 cm 2.3622" = 2 / 8"
6 in. 152.4 (152) mm
7 cm 2.7559" = 2 3/ 4"
7 in. 177.8 (178) mm 3
8 cm 3.1496" = 3 / 16 "
8 in. 203.2 (203) mm
9 cm 3.5433" = 3 9/ 16 "
9 in. 228.6 (229) mm 10 cm 3.9370" = 4"
10 in. 254 mm 20 cm 7.8740" = 8 / 8"
7
11 in. 279.4 (279) mm 30 cm 11.811" = 11 13 / 16"

12 in. = 1 foot 304.8 (305) mm 40 cm 15.748" = 1' - 3 /4"
3
2 ft. 609.6 (610) mm 50 cm

11
19.685" = 1' - 7 /16 "
3 ft. 914.4 (914) mm 5
60 cm 23.622" = 1' - 11 /8"
9
4 ft. 1.2 m 70 cm 27.559" = 2' - 3 /16 "
1
5 ft 1.5 m 80 cm 31.496" = 2' - 7 /2"
7
6 ft. 1.8 m 90 cm 35.433" = 2' - 10 /16 "
7 ft. 2.1 m 100 cm =1m 39.370" = 3' - 3 3 /8"
3
8 ft. 2.4 m 2m 6' - 6 /4"
9 ft. 2.7 m 3m 9' - 10 1/8"
10 ft. 3.0 m 4m 13' - 1 1/2"
7
20 ft. 6.1 m 5m 16' - 4 /8"
25 ft. 7.6 m 6m 19' - 8 1/4"
5
30 ft. 9.1 m 7m 22' - 11 / 8"
35 ft. 10.7 m 8m 26' - 3"
3
9m 29' - 6 /8"
40 ft. 12.2 m 3
10 m 32' - 9 /4"
45 ft. 13.7 m 1
11 m 36' - 1 /8"
50 ft. 15.2 m 1
12 m 39' - 4 /2"
55 ft. 16.8 m 13 m
7
42' - 7 /8"
60 ft. 18.3 m 14 m
1
45' - 11 / 4"
65 ft. 19.8 m 15 m
5
49' - 2 /8"
70 ft. 21.3 m 16 m 52' - 6"
75 ft. 22.9 m 17 m
3
55' - 9 /8"
80 ft. 24.4 m 18 m 59' - 0 3/4"
1
85 ft. 25.9 m 19 m 62' - 4 /8"
90 ft. 27.4 m 20 m 65' - 7 1/2"
95 ft. 29.0 m 25 m 82' - 0 3/8"
1
100 ft. 30.5 m 30 m 98' - 5 /4"
200 ft. 61.0 m 35 m 114' - 101/ 8"
300 ft. 91.4 m 40 m 131' - 3"
7
400 ft. 121.9 m 45 m 147' - 7 / 8"
3
500 ft. 152.4 m 50 m 164' - 0 / 4"
1
600 ft. 182.9 m 100 m 328' - 1 / 2"
1
700 ft. 213.4 m 500 m 1,640' - 7 /2"
1
800 ft. 243.8 m 1000 m 3,283' - 1 /2"
900 ft. 274.3 m
1000 ft. 304.8 m
CHAPTER
17
GLOSSARY
Anchor Tie –Any type of mechanical fastener used

A to secure masonry to a support and stable system,
such as a backup wall; usually used in tension
Absorption –The amount of water a dry masonry application.
unit will absorb. The weight of water a masonry
unit absorbs, when immersed in either cold or
boiling water for a stated length of time. Expressed
as a percentage of the weight of the dry unit. See
ASTM Specification C 67 for clay units and ASTM
C 140 for concrete units.
Adherence –The property of materials bonded to each

other without mechanical anchorage.
Adhered –Attached by adhesion, as in adhered

veneer. Angle Brick –Any brick that is shaped to an oblique
angle to fit and create non-perpendicular corners.
Admixture –Any material other than water or
aggregate or portland cement or lime that is used
as an ingredient of mortar and grout to improve
the quality and/or property.
Adobe –An unfired clay brick dried in the sun.
Aggregate –Inert particles such as sand, gravel, and/

or rock, which, when bound together with portland
cement and water will form a homogeneous
system such as grout or concrete.
Air Drying –The process of drying brick or block

without any special equipment. Drying by simple
exposure to ambient air.
American Bond –A form of bonding two wythes of Apron Wall –That part of a wall that is below a window
masonry wall together with a header course sill.
occurring at every sixth course. The remaining
courses are stretcher courses.
Arch Brick –A wedge shaped brick for special use in Belt Course –See Sill Course.
arches.
Bevel - Once side of a solid body that is sloped with
respect to another side.
BIA –Brick Industry Association.
Blind Header –A concealed header, such that it can

not be seen from the exterior side of the wall.
Bond Beam –Course or courses of a masonry wall

grouted and usually reinforced in the horizontal
direction. Serves as horizontal tie of wall, bearing
Ashlar Masonry –Masonry composed of rectangular course for structural members or as a flexural
units of fired clay, fired shale, stone, or concrete member itself.
block (generally larger in size than common
building brick) having sawed, dressed, or square
beds and having joints laid in mortar. Ashlar
masonry may be constructed in a random or
coursed pattern.
Bond beam units
ASTM –American Society for Testing and Materials.
B
Backup - That part of a masonry wall behind the
exterior facing.
Bat –The end portion of a brick, approximately a half

brick.
Batter -–Recessing or sloping masonry back in

successive courses; the opposite of a corbel. Bond Course –The course consisting of units which
overlap more than one wythe of masonry. For
Bearing Wall –A wall that supports gravity wall, (i.e. reinforced masonry the course of masonry where
floor loading) in addition to its own weight. the bond beam occurs.
Bed –The horizontal surfaces (mortar) on which the Breaking Joints –Any arrangement of masonry units
masonry units of the wall lie in courses. which prevents a continuous vertical joint line.
Bed Joint –The horizontal mortar joint upon which Brick –A solid masonry unit of clay or shale, usually
the masonry units are placed. formed into a rectangular prism while plastic and
burned or fired in a kiln.
Building Brick –A brick for building purposes and

not specifically treated for appearance such as
Bed joint texture or color. Building bricks shall conform to
ASTM C 62. Building bricks are also known as
common bricks.
GLOSSARY 361
Bull Nose Unit –A brick or concrete masonry unit Cement –An ingredient of concrete, mortar and grout.
having one or more rounded exterior corners. Cement is made by burning a mixture of clay and
limestone and then pulverizing into a fine powder.
Centering –Temporary formwork for the support of

masonry arches or lintels during construction.
Chamfer –A beveled edge; an oblique surface formed

Buttering –Placing mortar on a masonry unit with a by cutting away an edge or corner.
trowel.
Chamfer
C
C/B ratio –The ratio of the weight of water absorbed
by a masonry unit during immersion in cold water
to weight absorbed during immersion in boiling
water. An indication of the probable resistance of Channel Block –A CMU with the web portions
brick to freezing and thawing. Also called saturation depressed less than 11/4 in. (6.4 mm) to produce
coefficient. See ASTM C 67. a continuous horizontal channel in which horizontal
reinforcement may be laid.
Camber –A slight arching or upward curve of a beam
or a soffit.
Camber
Cap –Masonry units laid on top of a finished wall or Chase –A continuous recess built into a wall to receive
pier. pipes, ducts, etc.
Cavity Wall –A wall built of two or more wythes of Checkerboard Bond - See Stacked Bond.
masonry units arranged to provide a continuous
air space within the wall. The wythes of wall are Chimney –A shaft built to carry off smoke.
tied together.
Chimney Breast –The projection of the interior or
Cell –A hollow space within a concrete masonry unit exterior face of a wall caused by fireplaces or flues.
formed by the face shells and the webs having a
gross cross-sectional area greater than 11/2 square Chimney Lining -–Fire brick, fire clay, terra cotta or
inches (968 mm2). refractory cement, made to cover the walls of a
chimney to protect the masonry from the effects
of heat.
Cell
Chimney Throat –That part of a chimney directly
above the fireplace where the walls are brought
close together.
Clay –A natural mineral aggregate consisting

essentially of hydrous aluminum silicate; it is plastic
when sufficiently wetted, rigid when dried, and
v it rif ied when f i red t o a suff i cient ly high
temperature.
Cleanout –Opening in the first course, of a masonry Concrete Block –See Concrete Masonry Unit.
brick wall one or concrete block wall, where the
openings are used to clean out mortar protrusions Concrete Brick –A solid concrete masonry unit made
and droppings. from portland cement and suitable aggregates with
or without additional materials.
Concrete Masonry Unit –Unit made of concrete

(cement, aggregate and water) that consists of
natural aggregates that are carefully graded.
Cleanout (entire face

shell removed
Control Joint –A continuous unbonded or weakened

32”max. (48”max. for vertical masonry joint to control the location and
partially grouted walls amount of separation resulting from the contraction
or @ reinforcing steel
of the masonry wall to avoid the development of
excessively high stress and random cracking in
Clinker Brick –A very hard-burned brick whose shape the masonry.
is distorted or bloated due to nearly complete
vitrification. Coping –A covering or top for a masonry wall,
sometimes projected out from the wall to provide
Closer –The last masonry unit laid in a course. It decorative as well as protective feature.
may be whole or a portion of unit. Sometimes
spelled “
closure”
. Coping Block –A solid concrete masonry unit for use
as the top and finished course.
CMU – See Concrete Masonry Unit.
Core –A void space having a gross cross-sectional
Collar Joint –The space between two wythes of wall area less than than 11/2 square inches (968 mm2).
filled with grout for tying the two wythes together.
Common Brick –See Building Brick. Core
Composite Wall –Multiple wythe construction in which

at least one of the wythes is dissimilar to the other
wythe or wythes with respect to type or grade of
units or mortar.
Concave Joint –A mortar joint formed with a special

tool to produce a concave indentation in the mortar
joint. This type of mortar joint is weather resistant
and inexpensive.
Corbel - A shelf or ledge formed by projecting

successive courses of masonry out from the face
of a wall.
GLOSSARY 363
Cored Brick - A brick in which the holes consist of Dentil –The cogged or tooth-like members which
less than 25% of cross-section area. Also known project under a cornice; used as a decorative
as a solid brick. effect.
Discharging Arch –See Relieving Arch.
Dog’s Tooth –A brick so laid that its corners project

out from the face of the wall.
Dowels –Steel reinforcement projecting up from a

foundation or from a partially finished wall, so the
next section of wall may begin.
Coring –The term used to describe the voids in the
brick that occur perpendicular to the bearing Drip –A projecting piece of material shaped to throw
surface. off water and prevent the water from running down
the face of the wall.
Course –A horizontal row of masonry units bonded
together with mortar. Dry Pack –A mixture of cement and fine aggregate
with only enough moisture for hydration. Dry
Culling –Sorting of masonry units (bricks and block) enough that it must be rammed into place.
for size, color and/or quality.
Dry Press Brick –Brick formed in molds under high
Culls –The rejected masonry units in culling. pressure from relatively dry clay, 5% to 7%
moisture content.
Cultured Brick –A brick masonry unit made from a
material other than clay or shale. Dutch Bond –A masonry wall having a bond course
made up of alternating headers and stretchers.
Cultured Stone –Non-naturally occurring stone Also known as an English Cross Bond.
masonry usually made from concrete.
Curing –The maintenance of proper moisture and E

temperature conditions during the initial setting
period to develop the required strength and reduce Efflorescence –The leaching of soluble salts from
shrinkage effects. within the masonry (masonry unit or mortar) to form
a whitish surface deposit.
Curtain Wall –A non-load bearing wall built between
columns and between floor levels to enclose and Expansion Joint –A vertical or horizontal joint or
separat e the buil ding f rom the outside space to allow movement of a masonry wall due
environment. to volume changes.
Cut Joints –Masonry bed joints and head joints cut

flush with a trowel.
D
Damp Course –A course or layer of impervious
material which prevents capillary action of moisture
entering from the ground or a lower course. Also
known as damp check.
Dead Load –The weight of all permanent and

sustained loads in a building.
Deformed Bars –Steel reinforcing bars made with

raised deformation to create a bond with the
concrete, mortar or grout.
Extrados –The exterior curve in an arch or vault. Flare Header –A brick burned on one end to a darker
color than the face.
F Flashing –A thin impervious material placed in mortar

joints and through air spaces in masonry to prevent
Face –1. The exposed surface of a wall or masonry water penetration and/or provide water drainage.
unit. 2. The surface of a masonry unit designed
to be exposed in the finished masonry.
Face Brick –A brick made for facing on wall, often

treated to produce desired appearance such as
surface texture and/or color.
Face Shell –The side wall of a hollow concrete

masonry or clay masonry unit.
Faced Wall –A wall in which the masonry facing and

the backup wall are of different materials and
bonded together to act as one wall.
Facing –Any masonry, forming an integral part of a

wall, used as a finished surface. This is contrasted
to Veneer, see definition.
Flashing
Facing Brick –See Face Brick.
Fascia –The flat outside horizontal member of a Flemish Bond –A masonry wall having a bond course,
cornice. in every course, consisting of alternating headers
and stretchers. The masonry is so laid that the
Fat Mortar –Mortar containing a high percentage of header lands in the middle of the stretchers above
cementitous components. It is a sticky mortar that and below.
adheres to a trowel.
Floor Brick –Smooth dense brick, highly resistant to
Field –The expanse of area of wall between defining abrasion, used as finished floor surface.
element (i.e. openings, corners, etc.). Typically
composed of a majority of stretcher units. Fretwork –Any ornamental openwork or work in relief.
Fire Box - The interior of fireplace or furnace, serving Frog –A recess in the bearing surface of a brick, not
as the combustion space. exceeding 3/ 8 in. (9.5 mm) in depth, and often
contains the stam ped name of the brick
Fire Brick - Brick made of refractory ceramic material manufacturer.
which will resist cracking when exposed to high
temperatures.
Fire Clay –Clay which is capable of being subjected

to high temperatures without fusing or softening
perceptibly. It is used extensively for laying of
firebrick in the construction of kilns, ovens and
tanks for molten metals.
Flagging –A pavement made of stone slabs is known

as flagging or flagstone.
Flagstone –A kind of stone that splits easily into flags

or slabs; also a term applied to irregular pieces of
stone split into slabs from one to three inches thick
and used for walks, terraces, etc.
GLOSSARY 365
Furrowing –The practice of striking a “
V”shaped Head Joint –The vertical mortar joint between ends
trough in a bed of mortar. of masonry units. Sometimes called a cross joint.
Head joint
Header –A masonry unit which overlaps two or more

adjacent wythes of masonry to tie them together.
G Also called a bonder.
Hearth –The masonry floor of a fireplace; also the

Gauged Brick – Brick that has been sorted or
portion of the floor immediately in front of the
otherwise produced to accurate dimensions.
fireplace.
Glazed Brick –A brick prepared by fusing on the
High Lift Grouting –The technique of grouting
surface a ceramic glazing material resulting in a
masonry in lifts for the full height of the wall.
brick with a glossy surface.
Hollow Brick –A brick with interior voids creating
Green Masonry –A molded clay unit before it has
bearing surface of less than 75% of the gross
been burned. An uncured concrete masonry unit.
cross-sectional area.
Grounds –Nailing strips placed in masonry walls as
a means of attaching trim or furring.
Grout – Mixture of cementitious material and

aggregate to which sufficient water is added to
produce pouring consistency without segregation
Solid shell hollow Double shell Cored shell hollow
of the constituents. Grout is placed in the cells of
brick unit hollow brick unit brick unit
hollow masonry units or between the wythes of
solid units to bind the reinforcing steel and the
masonry into a homogeneous structural system.
I
H IBC –International Building Code.
Hacking –Laying masonry units so that the bottom ICC –International Code Council.
edge is set back from the plane surface of the
wall. Impervious –The quality of resisting moisture
penetration.
Hard-Burned –Clay masonry products that have been
fired at high temperatures to near vitrification, In Situ –A Latin phrase meaning –in the original or
generally producing low-absorption and high natural place. It is used in construction to
compression strength. reference what was actually built in the field.
Harsh Mortar –A mortar that is difficult to spread. It Initial Rate of Absorption –The amount of water a
is not workable. dry brick will absorb in one minute. The initial rate
of absorption is not to be confused with absorption.
There is no consistent relationship between the
initial rate of absorption and absorption.
Intrados –The under surface or interior curve of an Lean Mortar –Mortar containing a low percentage of
arch. cementitious components.
Lift –The vertical section of wall that is built prior to

J grouting.
Jack Arch –An arch that is horizontal or nearly Lightweight CMU –Concrete masonry units that
horizontal. May also be called a flat arch or a consist of lightweight aggregate. Unit weight is
straight arch. The term is also used for any roughly less than 105 pcf.
built arch.
Lime –
Jack Bond –See Stacked Bond. Lime Putty –Hydrated lime in plastic form ready
for addition to mortar.
Jamb –The side of an opening, such as a doorway or
a window. Hydrated Lime –A dry powder obtained by
treating quick lime with water enough to satisfy
Joint Reinforcement –Steel wire, bar or prefabricated its chemical affinity for water under conditions
reinforcement which is placed in mortar bed joints. of its hydration. The term may be modified by
the use of the prefix high calcium, magnesium,
pressure, etc., depending on the exact
chemical cont ent and m ethod of
manufacturing. Hydraulic hydrated lime is a
different material and is not generally used in
masonry construction.
Processed Lime –Pulverized quick lime.
Quick Lime –A hot or unslaked lime. A calcined

material, the major part of which is calcium
oxide, or calcium oxide in natural association
with lesser amounts of magnesium oxide,
Jointer –A tool used by bricklayers to form various capable of slaking with water.
types of mortar joints, such as concave or “
V”.
Slaked Lime –A crumbly mass of lime formed
Jointing –The process of finishing a mortar joint into when quick lime is treated with water; same
a specific shape, such as concave or “V’. as hydrated lime.
Line Pin –A metal pin used to attach a line used for

K alignment of masonry units.
Kerf - A cut made with a saw where the cut does not
go through the masonry unit. A kerf cut can
facilitate the break line of a unit.
Keystone –The wedge shape masonry piece at the

top of an arch, which generally regarded as the
most important member because it binds or locks
in all of the other members.
L Line pin
Ladder Bar –A prefabricated reinforcement designed

for embedment in horizontal mortar joints.
Lintel –A beam placed over an opening in a wall.
Lap –The distance one brick or reinforcing bar extends
beyond or over another.
GLOSSARY 367
Lipping –Laying brick so that the top edge of the unit Norman Brick –Standard nomenclature for a brick
is set in from the plane surface of the wall. size of 4"(width) x 22/3”
(height) x 12"(length).
Low Lift Grouting –The technique of grouting as the

wall is constructed. O
M Ornamental Facing –A design formed by the laying
of stone, brick, tile or other masonry units so to
produce a decorative effect.
MIA –Masonry Institute of America.
Mason –A workman skilled in laying brick, block or

stone; as in a stonemason.
P
Parapet Wall –The portion of an exterior wall that
Masonry – Brick, Stone, Concrete Block or extends above the roof line.
combination thereof, bonded together with mortar.
Parging or Pargeting –The process of applying a
Masonry Unit –Natural or manufactured building unit coat of cement mortar to the back of the facing
of burned clay, concrete, stone, glass, gypsum or material or the face of a backing material.
other similar material, bonded together by a
cementitious agent. Paving Brick –A brick suitable for application where
resistance to abrasion is important.
Mechanical Bond –Tying masonry units together with
metal ties or reinforcing steel. Pedestal –A support for a column or statue.
Medium Weight CMU –Concrete masonry units that Permeability –The quality of allowing the passage of
consist of aggregate to yield a unit weight of 105 fluids.
pcf to less than 125 pcf.
Perpend Bond –A header brick or larger stone
Moist Air Curing – Curing with moist air at extending through a wall so that one end appears
atmospheric pressure and a temperature of about on each side of the wall and acts as a binder.
70° F.
Pick and Dip –A method of laying brick whereby the
Mortar –In its most general terms, mortar is a plastic mason simultaneously picks up a brick with one
mixture of materials used to bind masonry units hand and, with the other hand, picks up enough
into a structural mass. mortar on the trowel to the lay the brick. Also
known as the Eastern or New England method.
Multi-Unit Wall –A masonry wall composed of two or
more wythes. Pier –An isolated column of masonry.
N Pilaster –A wall portion projecting from either or both

wall faces and serving as a column.
NCMA –National Concrete Masonry Association.
Plasticizers –An additive to mortar or grout to impart
more plastic quality.
Neat Cement –A pure cement uncut by a sand
admixture.
Plumb Joint Bond - See Stacked Bond.
Nominal Dimension –A dimension greater than the
Pointing –Troweling mortar into a joint after the
actual masonry unit dimension by the thickness
masonry unit has been laid.
of a mortar joint.
Prism Testing –A small section of wall built to be
Normal Weight CMU –Concrete masonry units that
tested in a laboratory to determine the properties
consist of natural aggregate and has unit weight
of the wall.
equal to or greater than 125 pcf.
Rebar –Reinforcing steel bars.

Q
Recess –An indentation in the surface of a wall.
Quoin –Projecting courses of brick at the corners of
a building as an ornamental feature, or large Reglet –A groove or channel in a mortar joint, or in a
squared stones set at angles or corner of a special masonry unit, to receive roof flashing or
building. other material that has to be sealed in the masonry.
Reinforcement –Nonprestressed steel reinforcement.

(MSJC Code)
Relieving Arch –An arch built over a lintel, or similar

wal l opening, and intended to di v ert the
superimposed load above the opening to the sides
of the opening, thus relieving the lintel or jack arch
from excessiv e loading. Also known as a
discharging arch or a safety arch.
Retempering –To moisten and remix, to proper

consistency, mortar for use. Also known as
retempering.
R Return –Any surface turned back from the face of

the principal surface.
Racking – A method entailing stepping back Reveal –That portion of a jamb or recess which is
successive courses of masonry. visible from the face of a wall.
Roman Brick –Standard nomenclature for a brick size

of 4"(width) x 2"(height) x 12"(length).
Rowlock –An orientation of brick, such that the short

and thin side is exposed and laid upright. Also
spelled rolok and also known as a bull-header.
Running Bond - Lapping of units in successive

courses such that the vertical head joints of
alternating course line up.
Raggle –A groove in a joint or a special unit to receive

roofing or flashing.
Raked Joint –A type of mortar of joint that has the

mortar raked out of it to a specified depth, before
the mortar has set.
GLOSSARY 369
sticking of clay, the product is known as sand mold
S brick. When the molds are wetted to prevent
sticking, the product is known as water-struck or
Sack Joint –A mortar joint that has been wiped or slip brick.
rubbed with a rag or object such as a rubber heel.
Soldier –An orientation of brick, such that the long
Safety Arch –See Relieving Arch. and thin face is exposed and laid upright.
Salient –A prominent feature. Solid Brick - A brick with interior voids creating bearing
surfacing that are at least 75% of the gross cross-
Sailor –an orientation of brick, such that the long and sectional area. No part of any void can be closer
wide face is exposed and laid upright. than ¾”to an exterior edge. It is noted that the
term solid brick does not necessarily mean 100%
Saturation Coefficient –See C/B ratio. solid.
Scutch –A mason’ s cutting tool used for dressing and Spall –A small thin fragment removed from the face
trimming brick to a desired shape. It resembles a of a masonry unit by a blow or by action of the
small pick and is sometimes call a “ scotch” . elements (freeze/thaw).
Set –To change from a plastic to a hard state.
Sewer Brick –A low absorption, abrasive-resistant

brick intended for use in drainage structures; see
ASTM C 32.
Shiner –An orientation of brick, such that the long

and wide face is exposed and laid flat.
Sill Course –A narrow horizontal course of masonry,

sometimes slightly projected such as window sills Spandrel –That part of a panel wall above the top of
which are made continuous. Also known as a string a window and below the sill of the window in the
course or sill course. story above.
Slurry –A thin watery mixture of neat cement, or Splay –An inclined surface, as the slope of bevel at
cement and sand. the sides of a door or window; also to make a
beveled surface or to spread out.
Slurry Coat –A brushed application of slurry, generally
applied to the back of adhered veneer units and Split –See Soap.
the support backing.
Stacked Bond –A bonding pattern where no unit
Smoke Chamber – The space in a f ireplace overlaps either the unit above or below by more
immediately above the throat where the smoke than 25% of the length of the unit. Also known as
gathers before passing into the flue and narrowed a plumb joint bond, straight stack, jack bond, or
by the corbeling to the size of the flue lining. checkerboard bond.
Soap –A brick split though the middle of its height. A

brick the same dimensions as its whole but only
half the thickness. Also known as a split.
Soft Burned –Clay products which have been fired

at low temperature ranges, generally producing
relatively high absorption and low compressive
strengths.
Soft Mud Brick –A brick produced by molding

relatively wet clay. Often a hand process. When
the insides of the molds are sanded to prevent
Standard Modular Brick –Standard nomenclature Thin Brick - A brick specifically designed for adhered
for a nominal brick size of 4"(width) x 22/3"(height) veneer application. Common thickness are 1/2" to
x 8"(length). 1", with typical maximum thickness of 13/4” .
Stiff Brick –A brick produced by extruding stiff but Tie –Any unit of material which connects masonry to
plastic clay through a die. This is the most masonry or other materials.
common way of mass production of bricks.
Tooling –Compressing and shaping the face of a
Straight Stack –See Stacked Bond. mortar joint with a special tool other than a trowel.
Also known as jointing.
Stretcher –An orientation of brick, such that the long
and thin face is exposed and laid flat.. Toother –A brick projecting from the end of a wall
against which another wall will be built.
String Course –See Belt Course.
Stringing Mortar –The procedure of spreading

enough mortar on a bed to lay several masonry
units.
Existing New
Trimmer Arch - An arch used to support a fireplace

hearth.
U
Utility Brick –A standard nomenclature for a brick
size of 4"(width) x 4"(height) x 12"(length).
Struck Joint –A mortar joint which is formed with a V

recess at the bottom of the joint.
V Joint –Tooling works the mortar tight and provides
a good weather joint. Used to emphasize joints
T and conceal small irregularities in laying and
provide a line in center of mortar joint.
Temper –See Retempering.
Tender –A laborer who tends to the needs of the

mason. Also known as hodcarrier.
Terra Cotta –Non-structural hard-burned, glazed, or

unglazed clay building units usually used for
ornamental purposes.
Veneer –A single wythe of masonry for facing
Throat –The throat is a slot-like opening directly above purposes, not considered to contribute to the
the firebox through which smoke and combustion structural integrity of the wall itself.
gases pass into the smoke chamber. It is usually
fitted with a damper. Vitrification –The condition resulting when kiln
temperatures are sufficient to fuse grains of clay
and to close pores of a clay product rendering the
product impervious.
GLOSSARY 371
Vitrified –To be fused together by heat.
Voussoirs –The individual stones forming an arch.

They are generally in the form of truncated
wedges.
W
Weep Holes –Openings placed in mortar joints of
facing material at the level of flashing, to permit
the escape of moisture that has built up behind
the wall. Also openings in retaining walls to allow
the escape of water that has built up behind the
retaining wall.
Wire Cut Brick - A brick formed by extruding a plastic

clay into a bar shape and wire cutting the extrusion
into brick units, before firing.
Wythe - A continuous vertical section of masonry (i.e.

a wall) that is one unit (brick) thick.
CHAPTER
18
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America, www.masonryinstitute.org. Reinforced Concrete Masonry Construction
Inspector’s Handbook, Fifth Edition, Masonry Institute
Marble Institute of America, 28901 Clemens Road, of America, www.masonryinstitute.org.
Suite 100, Cleveland, Ohio, 44145, www.marble-
institute.com. Reinforced Grouted Brick Masonry, Fourteenth
Edition, Masonry Institute of America,
Marble & Stone Slab Veneer, Second Edition, Masonry www.masonryinstitute.org.
Institute of America, www.masonryinstitute.org.
Reinforced Masonry Engineering Handbook, Fifth
National Building Granite Quarries Association, 1220 Edition Updated, Masonry Institute of America,
L Street, NW, Suite 100-167, Washington, DC 20005, www.masonryinstitute.org.
www.nbgqa.com.
Reinforcing Steel in Masonry, Masonry Institute of
National Concrete Masonry Association, NCMA, 13750 America, www.masonryinstitute.org.
Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, VA 20171-4662,
www.ncma.org. Removing Efflorescence, John A. Koski, Masonry
Construction Magazine (1992).
NCMA TEK NOTE 7-1A, Fire Resistance Rating of
Concrete Masonry Assemblies, www.ncma.org. RILEM Tube Test by The Construction Technology
Laboratories, Inc.
NCMA TEK NOTE 8-2A, Removal of Stains from
Concrete Masonry, www.ncma.org. Standard Handbook of Structural Details for Building
Construction, Second Edition, Morton Newman,
NCMA TEK NOTE 8-4, Removal of Graffiti from McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New
Concrete Masonry, www.ncma.org. York, NY 10020.
NCMA TEK NOTE 10-1A, Crack Control in Concrete Standard Practice for Bracing Masonry Walls Under
Masonry Walls, www.ncma.org. Construction (2001), Council for Masonry Wall Bracing.
NCMA TEK NOTE 18-1A, Compressive Strength Stone Anchorage Design, Dimensional Stone
Evaluation of Concrete Masonry, www.ncma.org. Magazine, 1992.
NCMA TEK NOTE 18-3B, Concrete Masonry Stone Maintenance & Care, Dimensional Stone
Inspection www.ncma.org. Magazine, 1991.
NCMA TEK NOTE 18-5A, Masonry Mortar Testing, The Proudfoot Company, Inc., Architectural Acoustics,
www.ncma.org. 588 Pepper Street, PO Box 276, Monroe, CT 06468-
2672, www.soundblox.com.
NCMA TEK NOTE 19-4, Flashing Strategies for
Concrete Masonry Walls, www.ncma.org. W.R. Grace & Co. - Conn., Grace Masonry Products,
62 Whittemore Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02140-1692,
NCMA TEK NOTE 19-5A, Flashing Details for www.na.graceconstruction.com.
Concrete Masonry Walls, www.ncma.org.
Orco Block Co., Inc., 11100 Beach Blvd., Stanton, CA

90680, www.orco.com.
Pittsburgh Corning Corporation, Glass Block, 800

Presque Isle Drive, Pittsburgh, PA 15239,
www.pittsburghcorning.com.
CHAPTER
19
INDEX
Anchors--------------------------------------------------------------------65, 272
A Angle Brick--------------------------------------------------------------------2
Appearance-------------------------------------------------------------------6
Arch Brick----------------------------------------------------------------------3
Absorption and Saturation--------------------------------------------6, 10 Arch Types and Terminology------------------------------------------135
Abutments-------------------------------------------------------------------143 Architectural Feature Units----------------------------------------------30
Accessory Block------------------------------------------------------------27 Architectural Units---------------------------------------------------------21
Acoustics-------------------------------------------------------------------104 Cap Units----------------------------------------------------------------22
Decibels--------------------------------------------------------------104 Screen Block-----------------------------------------------------------22
Sound Transmission Class--------------------------------------104 Slumped Unit-----------------------------------------------------------21
Transmission Loss-------------------------------------------------104 Split Face Units---------------------------------------------------------21
Active Solar Heating---------------------------------------------------------351 Veneer Units----------------------------------------------------------21
Adhered Veneer-----------------------------------------------------------298 Areas of Refuge----------------------------------------------------------212
Adhered Veneer Installation-------------------------------------------299 Asphalt-Impregnated Felt------------------------------------------------94
Admixtures-------------------------------------------------------------------72 ASTM Stone Specifications----------------------------------------------38
Aesthetic Design----------------------------------------------------------83 Attached Sunspace------------------------------------------------------353
Brick Masonry Bond Patterns------------------------------------83 Attachment of Components---------------------------------------------105
Common or American Bond--------------------------------84
English Bond---------------------------------------------------85
English Cross or Dutch Bond------------------------------85
Flemish Bond--------------------------------------------------84
Running Bond--------------------------------------------------83 B
Stack Bond--------------------------------------------------85
Wall Texture----------------------------------------------------85
Brick Masonry Dimensioning-------------------------------------87 Backing-----------------------------------------------------------------------99
Color--------------------------------------------------------------------88 Barrier and Drainage Walls------------------------------------------------106
Modular Brick Masonry---------------------------------------------85 Basement Design------------------------------------------------------------212
Coordination of Masonry Units----------------------------86 Beaded Joint----------------------------------------------------------------75
Dimensions of Modular Units------------------------------86 Beam with Vertical Load------------------------------------------------216
Grid Locations of Masonry Walls-------------------------86 Bearing Wall Types-------------------------------------------------------116
Initial Design Considerations------------------------------86 Block Veneer, Concrete Units-----------------------------------------307
Scale--------------------------------------------------------------------89 Bond and Anchorage------------------------------------------------------93
Texture------------------------------------------------------------------88 Brick-----------------------------------------------------------------1, 99, 144
Aggregates for Grout------------------------------------------------------77 Mortar and Grout------------------------------------------------------5
Allowable Stresses---------------------------------------------------------92 Orientation of Brick---------------------------------------------------3
Aluminum--------------------------------------------------------------------95 Patterns of Brick-------------------------------------------------------4
Anchor Bolt--------------------------------------------------------------------229 Reinforced Brick - An Overview-----------------------------------1
General------------------------------------------------------------------229 Shapes of Brick--------------------------------------------------------2
Ties at Anchor Bolts-------------------------------------------------230 Angle Brick-------------------------------------------------------2
Anchorage of Reinforcing Steel in Masonry-----------------------227 Arch Brick---------------------------------------------------------3
Development Length----------------------------------------------227 Building Brick----------------------------------------------------3
Development Length of Straight Reinforcement----227 Face Brick or Facing Brick-----------------------------------3
Hooks-----------------------------------------------------------228 Fire Brick----------------------------------------------------------3
Lap Splices for Reinforcing Steel------------------------------229 Hollow Brick------------------------------------------------------3
Special Provisions for Higher Seismic Risk-----------------229 Paving Brick------------------------------------------------------3
Anchored Veneer-------------------------------------------------------------301 Solid Brick--------------------------------------------------------3
Thin Brick---------------------------------------------------------3
Brick Applications------------------------------------------------------------105 Brick Masonry Construction---------------------------------------------83

Brick Masonry Arches---------------------------------------------135 Brick Masonry Dimensioning--------------------------------------------87
Abutments--------------------------------------------------------143 Brick Masonry Rain Screen Walls------------------------------------129
Arch Detailing-------------------------------------------------140 Brick on Sheet Steel Forms-----------------------------------------------149
Brick-----------------------------------------------------------144 Brick Paving and Installation------------------------------------------145
Construction and Workmanship----------------------------144 Brick Paving Design-----------------------------------------------------145
Detailing Consideration---------------------------------------140 Brick Paving Design Assemblies-----------------------------------------148
Expansion Joints----------------------------------------------143 Brick Sculpture------------------------------------------------------------157
Lateral Stability-------------------------------------------------143 Building Brick or Common Brick-----------------------------------------5
Material Selection---------------------------------------------144 Absorption and Saturation------------------------------------------6
Mortar-------------------------------------------------------144 Appearance-------------------------------------------------------------6
Providing Flashing and Weep Holes----------------------139 Color and Texture------------------------------------------------------7
Skewback Detailing-------------------------------------------142 Compressive Strength-----------------------------------------------6
Soffit Detailing-----------------------------------------------141 Coring--------------------------------------------------------------------8
Structural Function---------------------------------------------138 Durability----------------------------------------------------------------6
Temporary Shoring---------------------------------------------144 Efflorescence-----------------------------------------------------------9
Terminology-------------------------------------------------135 Freezing and Thawing-----------------------------------------------6
Weather Resistance-------------------------------------------138 Frogging-----------------------------------------------------------------8
Workmanship---------------------------------------------------145 Grade of Brick----------------------------------------------------------5
Brick Paving Design-----------------------------------------------145 Grade MW (Moderate Weathering)------------------------5
Brick on Sheet Steel Forms----------------------------------149 Grade NW (Negligible Weathering)------------------------5
Brick Paving Design Assemblies---------------------------148 Grade SW (Severe Weathering)----------------------------5
Cleaning----------------------------------------------------------151 Initial Rate of Absorption (I.R.A.)----------------------------------8
Drainage ---------------------------------------------------------146 Size-----------------------------------------------------------------------7
Drains and Waterproofing-----------------------------------151 Tolerances--------------------------------------------------------------8
Edging-------------------------------------------------------------147 Visual Inspection------------------------------------------------------9
High-Bond Mortared Pavement-----------------------------149 Building Applications-----------------------------------------------------240
Installation--------------------------------------------------------147 Building Codes----------------------------------------------------------------349
Insulation---------------------------------------------------------151 Building Stone Surface Finishes---------------------------------------38
Maintenance-----------------------------------------------------151
Moisture----------------------------------------------------------148
Mortar-------------------------------------------------------------151
Reinforced Construction--------------------------------------149
Site---------------------------------------------------------------146
Structural Brick Floors-----------------------------------------148
C
Structural Considerations------------------------------------148
Cantilever Retaining Walls---------------------------------------------206
Suspended Diaphragm Bases------------------------------148
Cap Units---------------------------------------------------------------------22
Thermal Considerations--------------------------------------148
Cavity Wall Connections-------------------------------------------------125
Traffic--------------------------------------------------------------146
Cavity Walls----------------------------------------------------------------118
Brick Sculpture-----------------------------------------------------157
Cement-----------------------------------------------------------------------99
Corbels and Racks------------------------------------------------156
Cements----------------------------------------------------------------------70
Fireplaces and Chimneys----------------------------------------154
Characteristics----------------------------------------------------49, 240, 246
Landscaping---------------------------------------------------------152
Classifications----------------------------------------------------------------271
Fountains------------------------------------------------------153
Classification of Stone------------------------------------------------------38
Garden Walls-------------------------------------------------153
Geological Classification--------------------------------------------38
Planter Boxes------------------------------------------------153
Clay Brick Design for Moisture and Movement----------------------93
Screen Walls-------------------------------------------------153
Coatings---------------------------------------------------------------98
Steps------------------------------------------------------------153
Efflorescence---------------------------------------------------------98
Masonry Heaters---------------------------------------------------154
Backing----------------------------------------------------------99
Parapets--------------------------------------------------------------156
Brick--------------------------------------------------------------99
Sound Barrier Walls-----------------------------------------------158
Cement----------------------------------------------------------99
Structural Brickwork-Wall Types-------------------------------105
Hydrated Lime-------------------------------------------------99
Attachment of Components----------------------------------105
Mortar and Grout----------------------------------------------99
Barrier and Drainage Walls----------------------------------106
Sand--------------------------------------------------------------99
Bearing Wall Types--------------------------------------------116
Trim---------------------------------------------------------------99
Brick Masonry Rain Screen Walls----------------------129
Flashing----------------------------------------------------------------94
Cavity Walls---------------------------------------------------118
Aluminum-------------------------------------------------------95
Cavity Wall Connections------------------------------------125
Asphalt-Impregnated Felt-----------------------------------94
Composite/Non-Composite Wall---------------------------105
Copper-----------------------------------------------------------94
Double-W ythe Grouted Walls----------------------------116
Lead--------------------------------------------------------------95
Masonry Cavity Bearing Walls------------------------------121
Plastic------------------------------------------------------------94
Masonry Cavity Walls with Concrete Frame------------123
Stainless Steel-------------------------------------------------94
Materials for Single-Wythe Bearing Walls---------------109
Moisture Resistance------------------------------------------------93
Reinforced Hollow Masonry Walls----------------------118
Movement-------------------------------------------------------------100
Single-Wythe Bearing Walls------------------------------107
Control Joints-------------------------------------------------102
Solid Masonry Walls-----------------------------------------107
Creep-------------------------------------------------------------100
Thermal Insulation--------------------------------------------134
Deflection-------------------------------------------------------100
Vapor and Air Barriers----------------------------------------134
Differential Movement----------------------------------------100
Thin Brick Veneer--------------------------------------------------157
Expansion Joints-----------------------------------------------101
Brick Masonry Arches---------------------------------------------------135
Expansion Joint Placement-------------------------------101
Brick Masonry Bond Patterns-------------------------------------------83
INDEX 379
Location of Expansion Joints-----------------------------101 Split Faced Units------------------------------------------------21
Moisture Movement------------------------------------------100 Veneer Units----------------------------------------------------21
Thermal Movement-------------------------------------------100 Component Units and Sections----------------------------------31
Selection of Wall Type----------------------------------------------93 Compression Strength----------------------------------------------20
Sources of Moisture-------------------------------------------------93 Concrete Brick--------------------------------------------------------22
Condensation--------------------------------------------------93 Concrete Masonry Units (CMU) Illustrated--------------------22
Ground Water--------------------------------------------------93 Concrete Paving Pattern Units-----------------------------------32
Humidity---------------------------------------------------------93 Dimensions and Modular Sizes----------------------------------19
Rain---------------------------------------------------------------93 Metric-------------------------------------------------------------------19
Vents--------------------------------------------------------------------98 Paving Units----------------------------------------------------------22
Water Penetration Resistance-------------------------------------94 Properties----------------------------------------------------------18
Weep Holes------------------------------------------------------------98 Dimensions and Modular Sizes-----------------------------19
Clay Brick Units--------------------------------------------------------------1 Metric----------------------------------------------------------------19
Cleaning-----------------------------------------------------------151, 158, 273 Compression Strength------------------------------------------20
Cleaning Guide for Brick Masonry--------------------------------------159 Resin (Glazed) Coatings-------------------------------------------33
Clear Spacing Between Reinforcing Bars--------------------------226 Manufacturer’ s Standards----------------------------------34
Clearance Between Reinforcement and Masonry Units-----------225 Shapes and Sizes of Glazed CMU-----------------------34
Clearance 30’ -----------------------------------------------------------------339 Specifications--------------------------------------------------33
Clearances-----------------------------------------------------------------225 Concrete Masonry Units (CMU) Illustrated--------------------------22
Coarse Grout----------------------------------------------------------------76 Concrete Masonry Wall Assembly Detail----------------------------177
Coatings----------------------------------------------------------------------98 Concrete Paving Pattern Units-----------------------------------------32
Code Requirements---------------------------------------------------------283 Condensation---------------------------------------------------------------93
Cold Weather Protection-----------------------------------------------272 Conection Detail--------------------------------------------------------------286
Color----------------------------------------------------------------------72, 88 Connectors-------------------------------------------------------------------64
Color and Texture----------------------------------------------------7, 11, 16 Anchors----------------------------------------------------------------65
Columns--------------------------------------------------------------------230 Wall Ties---------------------------------------------------------------64
Column Ties---------------------------------------------------------231 Consideration in Selection-------------------------------------------------331
Column Tie Requirements--------------------------------231 Consolidation----------------------------------------------------------------82
Typical Layout of Ties and Masonry Construction---------------------------------------------------------------214
Units for Columns-----------------------------------------232 Construction and Workmanship--------------------------------------144
General---------------------------------------------------------------231 Continuous Footing Walls-------------------------------------------------203
Non-Projecting Wall Columns--------------------------------------233 Control Joints-----------------------------------------------------------102, 189
Projecting Wall Columns or Pilasters----------------------------234 Convective Loop----------------------------------------------------------353
Tie Spacing for Elements that are Part of the Conventional or Gravity-----------------------------------------------------210
Lateral System-------------------------------------------------232 Coordination of Masonry Units------------------------------------------86
Tie Spacing for Higher Seismic Risk-------------------233 Copper------------------------------------------------------------------------94
Tie Spacing for Lower Seismic Risk--------------------232 Corbels and Racks-------------------------------------------------------156
CMU Control Joint Spacing------------------------------------------------191 Coring--------------------------------------------------------------------------8, 11
CMU Weight Classification-------------------------------------------------18 Corner Patterns------------------------------------------------------------183
Common Brick or Building Brick Durability Physical Counterfort or Buttressed Walls--------------------------------------205
Requirements-------------------------------------------------------------6 Creep--------------------------------------------------------------------------100
Common or American Bond---------------------------------------------84
Common Portland Cement-Lime Mortar Mixes---------------------70
Compartmentation of Rain Screen Walls--------------------------137
Component Units and Sections----------------------------------------31
Composite/Non-Composite Wall-----------------------------------------105
Compression Strength---------------------------------------------------11, 20
D
Compression Stresses--------------------------------------------------217
Compressive Strength------------------------------------------------------6 Dead Loads------------------------------------------------------------------89
Compressive Strength of Mortar---------------------------------------69 Decibels---------------------------------------------------------------------104
Compressive Stress-------------------------------------------------------91 Definitions------------------------------------------------------------------296
Concave Joint---------------------------------------------------------------74 Deflection---------------------------------------------------------------------100
Concrete Block-------------------------------------------------------------171 Deformed Reinforcement-----------------------------------------------227
Concrete Brick--------------------------------------------------------------22 Design-------------------------------------------------------------------283, 349
Concrete Masonry Basements----------------------------------------211 Design Considerations--------------------------------------------------346
Areas of Refuge----------------------------------------------------212 Design Construction-------------------------------------------------------83
Basement Design-----------------------------------------------------212 Design Loads------------------------------------------------------------------89
Construction---------------------------------------------------------214 Loads-------------------------------------------------------------------89
Energy Efficiency-----------------------------------------------------211 Dead Loads-----------------------------------------------------89
Fire Resistance-----------------------------------------------------211 Hydrostatic Loads---------------------------------------------90
Maintenance and Low Cost-------------------------------------211 Live Loads------------------------------------------------------90
Natural Lighting--------------------------------------------------------211 Material Property Loads-------------------------------------90
Noise Control-------------------------------------------------------212 Seismic (Earthquake) Loads-------------------------------90
Strength and Durability-------------------------------------------211 Wind Loads-----------------------------------------------------90
Textures and Interior Finishes----------------------------------211 Detailing Considerations------------------------------------------------140
Water Penetration Resistance----------------------------------213 Determination of Noise Reduction Coefficients---------------------344
Concrete Masonry Units----------------------------------------------------17 Development Length-----------------------------------------------------227
Architectural Units---------------------------------------------------21 Development Length of Straight Reinforcement------------------227
Cap Units--------------------------------------------------------22 Differences in Stone-----------------------------------------------------240
Screen Block-----------------------------------------------------22 Granite----------------------------------------------------------------240
Slumped Units-------------------------------------------------21 Building Applications------------------------------------------240
Details-------------------------------------------------------------242
Characteristics--------------------------------------------------240 Face (or Facing) Brick----------------------------------------------------10

Maintenance-----------------------------------------------------241 Absorption and Saturation----------------------------------------10
Limestone------------------------------------------------------------271 Color and Texture----------------------------------------------------11
Anchors-----------------------------------------------------------272 Compression Strength------------------------------------------------11
Classifications-------------------------------------------------271 Coring-------------------------------------------------------------------11
Cleaning----------------------------------------------------------273 Durability------------------------------------------------------------------10
Cold Weather Protection----------------------------------272 Efflorescence------------------------------------------------------------14
Details-----------------------------------------------------------274 Freezing and Thawing----------------------------------------------10
Discoloration-----------------------------------------------------271 Frogging-------------------------------------------------------------------8
Expansion Joints--------------------------------------------272 Grade-------------------------------------------------------------------10
Mortars and Pointing---------------------------------------272 Initial Rate of Absorption (I.R.A.)----------------------------------13
Sealant Systems--------------------------------------------272 Size----------------------------------------------------------------------11
Marble-----------------------------------------------------------------245 Tolerances----------------------------------------------------------------11
Application-------------------------------------------------------245 Types-----------------------------------------------------------------------10
Characteristics--------------------------------------------------246 Type FBA (Face Brick Architectural)---------------------10
Details------------------------------------------------------------260 Type FBS (Face Brick Standard)--------------------------10
Installation-----------------------------------------------------247 Type FBX (Face Brick Extra)-------------------------------10
Interior Veneer-----------------------------------------------247 Visual Inspection----------------------------------------------------9, 13
Maintenance--------------------------------------------------259 Face Brick Tolerances on Dimensions-------------------------------13
Sandstone-----------------------------------------------------------279 Face Brick Tolerances on Distortion----------------------------------13
Travertine------------------------------------------------------------278 Fine Grout--------------------------------------------------------------------76
Differential Movement-----------------------------------------------------100 Fire Brick-----------------------------------------------------------------------3
Differential Movement in Rain Screen Walls----------------------136 Fire Ratings-------------------------------------------------------------------337
Dimensions and Modular Sizes----------------------------------------19 Fire Ratings for Brick Veneer Walls------------------------------------338
Dimensions of Modular Units-------------------------------------------86 Fire Resistance-----------------------------------------------------211, 336
Direct Gain-----------------------------------------------------------------352 Fire Ratings for Brick Veneer Walls------------------------------338
Discoloration-----------------------------------------------------------------271 Fire Ratings----------------------------------------------------------337
Door Jamb Details---------------------------------------------------------191 Fire Safety Environments----------------------------------------338
Double-W ythe Grouted Walls------------------------------------------116 Fire Resistance Ratings--------------------------------------------340
Drainage-------------------------------------------------------------------146 Fire Safety Facts---------------------------------------------------339
Drains and Waterproofing-------------------------------------------------151 Fire Resistance Ratings----------------------------------------------------340
Dual Pane Fire Windows, Glass Doors and Shutters-------------339 Fire-Resistive Walls---------------------------------------------------------338
Durability----------------------------------------------------------------------6, 10 Fire Retardant Roofing Materials----------------------------------------338
Fire Safety Environments--------------------------------------------------338
Fire Safety Facts-------------------------------------------------------------339
Fireplaces and Chimneys----------------------------------------------154
E Flanking Path Control---------------------------------------------------344
Flashing---------------------------------------------------------------62, 94, 294
Flemish Bond---------------------------------------------------------------84
Flexural Tension Stresses------------------------------------------------91
Eave Hazards-----------------------------------------------------------------338
Floor and Roof Connection Details--------------------------------------179
Edging--------------------------------------------------------------------------147
Steel Connections-------------------------------------------------181
Efflorescence-----------------------------------------------------9, 14, 98, 271
Timber Connections-----------------------------------------------179
Empirical Design-----------------------------------------------------------92
Floor Connection Details-----------------------------------------------316
Allowable Stresses--------------------------------------------------92
Flush Joint-------------------------------------------------------------------74
Bond and Anchorage-----------------------------------------------93
Foundation Details-----------------------------------------------------------175
Lateral Stability-------------------------------------------------------93
Foundation Detail for Residential Construction----------------------200
Lateral Support-------------------------------------------------------92
Fountains-------------------------------------------------------------------153
Minimum Thickness-------------------------------------------------92
Freezing and Thawing-------------------------------------------------6, 10
Energy Conservation----------------------------------------------------283
Frogging-------------------------------------------------------------------8, 11
Energy Efficiency------------------------------------------------------------211
Energy Systems--------------------------------------------------------------349
English Bond----------------------------------------------------------------85
English Cross or Dutch Bond-------------------------------------------85
English/Metric Conversion---------------------------------------------355
English System Conversion-----------------------------------------------358
Environmental---------------------------------------------------------------283
G
Equivalent Spacing of Reinforcement-------------------------------223
Evaluating Stone-------------------------------------------------------------41 Garden Fences------------------------------------------------------------202
Expansion Joint Details-------------------------------------------------321 Continuous Footing Walls---------------------------------------203
Expansion Joint Placement--------------------------------------------101 General---------------------------------------------------------------202
Expansion Joints------------------------------------------101, 143, 272, 295 General Notes----------------------------------------------------------202
Extended Life Mortar--------------------------------------------------------73 Garden Walls--------------------------------------------------------------153
Garden Walls and Curbs---------------------------------------------------339
Geological Classification-------------------------------------------------38
General-------------------------------------------------------------1, 17, 37, 47
F 51, 55, 161, 171, 202, 215, 229, 231, 235, 283, 289, 325
General Notes-----------------------------------------------------------------202
General Requirements--------------------------------------------------296
Glass Block---------------------------------------------------------------51, 283
Face Brick Durability Physical Requirements-----------------------10 General------------------------------------------------------------------283
Face Brick or Facing Brick------------------------------------------------3 Code Requirements-------------------------------------------283
INDEX 381
Design-------------------------------------------------------------283 Hollow Spaces-----------------------------------------------------------------15
Energy Conservation------------------------------------------283 Hollow Brick Section Properties------------------------------------------15
Environmental--------------------------------------------------283 Hollow Brick Tolerances on Dimensions-----------------------------16
Installation----------------------------------------------------284 Hollow Brick Tolerances on Distortion--------------------------------16
Maintenance---------------------------------------------------283 Honeycomb Stone--------------------------------------------------------299
Security-----------------------------------------------------------283 Hooks------------------------------------------------------------------------228
Glass Block Applications--------------------------------------------------53 Housekeeping----------------------------------------------------------------339
Glass Block Construction----------------------------------------------297 Horizontal Surfaces------------------------------------------------------334
Glass Block Properties-----------------------------------------------------52 Humidity----------------------------------------------------------------------93
Glazed CMU-----------------------------------------------------------------34 Hybrid Solar Heating------------------------------------------------------352
Glossary--------------------------------------------------------------------359 Hydrated Lime-------------------------------------------------------------71, 99
Grade----------------------------------------------------------------------------10 Hydrostatic Loads----------------------------------------------------------90
Grade of Brick----------------------------------------------------------------5
Grade NW (Negligible Weathering)------------------------------5
Grade MW (Moderate Weathering)------------------------------5
Grade SW (Severe Weathering)----------------------------------5
Grade Recommendations for Face Exposures-----------------5, 10
Grading Requirements-------------------------------------------------------77
I
Granite-----------------------------------------------------------------42, 240
Granite Building Applications------------------------------------------240 Impact Noise Control--------------------------------------------------------345
Granite Details------------------------------------------------------------242 Index----------------------------------------------------------------------------377
Granite Characteristics--------------------------------------------------240 Initial Design Considerations--------------------------------------------86
Granite Maintenance Tips----------------------------------------------242 Initial Rate of Absorption (I.R.A.)--------------------------------------8, 13
Grapevine Joint-------------------------------------------------------------75 Inspections-----------------------------------------------------------------335
Gravity Walls---------------------------------------------------------------204 Installation--------------------------------------------------147, 247, 284, 297
Grid Locations of Masonry Walls---------------------------------------86 Integral Water Repellents----------------------------------------------331
Ground Water---------------------------------------------------------------93 Interior Moisture Control------------------------------------------------332
Grout------------------------------------------------------------------------------75 Interior Veneer-------------------------------------------------------------247
12 Foot Grout Lifts----------------------------------------------------82 Introduction--------------------------------------------------------------------348
Proportions------------------------------------------------------------77 Isolation vs. Insulation--------------------------------------------------342
Aggregates--------------------------------------------------------77 Insulation-----------------------------------------------------------------------151
Consolidation---------------------------------------------------82 Insulation by STC------------------------------------------------------------342
Grout Admixtures---------------------------------------------77
Grout Pour and Lift-------------------------------------------79
Grout Strength Requirements-----------------------------78
High Lift Grouting Procedure-------------------------------80
Low Lift and High Lift Grouting----------------------------79
J
Low Lift Grouting Procedure-------------------------------79
Methods of Grouting Walls---------------------------------79 Job Site Mortar Mix--------------------------------------------------------72
Mixing Grout----------------------------------------------------77 Joint Reinforcement-------------------------------------------------------58
Testing Grout Strength-----------------------------------------78 Joint Reinforcement and Ties-----------------------------------------227
Types of Grout--------------------------------------------------------75
Coarse Grout---------------------------------------------------76
Fine Grout-------------------------------------------------------76
Self-Consolidating Grout---------------------------------------76
Slump---------------------------------------------------------------76
Grout Admixtures-----------------------------------------------------------77
L
Grout Pour and Lift--------------------------------------------------------79
Grout Proportions by Volume-------------------------------------------77 Landscaping---------------------------------------------------------------152
Grout Strength Requirements-------------------------------------------78 Lap Splices for Reinforcing Steel-------------------------------------229
Guide for the Selection of Masonry Mortars------------------------68 Lateral Stability----------------------------------------------------------93, 143
Lateral Support-------------------------------------------------------------92
Layout and Assembly---------------------------------------------------172
Modular Considerations------------------------------------------172
H Modular Dimensions----------------------------------------------172
Lead---------------------------------------------------------------------------95
Limestone-------------------------------------------------------------42, 271
Limestone Details------------------------------------------------------------274
Head Details---------------------------------------------------------------285 Lintel and Bond Beam Connection--------------------------------------189
Heat Transfer--------------------------------------------------------------102 Live Loads-------------------------------------------------------------------90
R-Value---------------------------------------------------------------103 Load Distribution-----------------------------------------------------------90
Thermal Mass-------------------------------------------------------104 Loads--------------------------------------------------------------------------89
U-Value---------------------------------------------------------------103 Location of Expansion Joints------------------------------------------101
Heat Transmission Coefficients of Building Materials-----------103 Location of Reinforcement “ d”Distance----------------------------223
High-Bond Mortared Pavement------------------------------------------149 Low Lift and High Lift Grouting-----------------------------------------79
High Lift Grouting Procedure--------------------------------------------80 Low Lift Grouting Procedure--------------------------------------------79
Height Limit from Foundation---------------------------------------------302
Hollow Brick------------------------------------------------------------------3, 14
Color and Texture------------------------------------------------------16
Hollow Spaces---------------------------------------------------------15
Tolerances--------------------------------------------------------------16
Types-----------------------------------------------------------------------16
Testing-------------------------------------------------------------------335
M Water Repellent Types----------------------------------------------329
What is Waterproof---------------------------------------------------326
Mortar----------------------------------------------------------------67, 144, 151
Maintenance----------------------------------------151, 241, 259, 280, 283 Mixing-------------------------------------------------------------------72
Maintenance and Low Cost--------------------------------------------211 Extended Life Mortar-------------------------------------------73
Maintenance of Granite Surfaces------------------------------------241 Measurements of Mortar Materials-----------------------72
Manufacturer’ s Standards------------------------------------------------34 Job Site Mortar Mix-------------------------------------------72
Marble------------------------------------------------------------------42, 245 Pre-Blended Mortar-------------------------------------------73
Marble Application-----------------------------------------------------------245 Retempering----------------------------------------------------74
Marble Characteristics------------------------------------------------------246 Mortar Materials------------------------------------------------------70
Marble Details-----------------------------------------------------------------260 Admixtures------------------------------------------------------72
Masonry and the Sun-------------------------------------------------------354 Cements---------------------------------------------------------70
Masonry Cavity Bearing Walls--------------------------------------------121 Color--------------------------------------------------------------72
Masonry Cavity Walls with Concrete Frame-------------------------123 Hydrated Lime----------------------------------------------------71
Masonry Cements---------------------------------------------------------71 Masonry Cements--------------------------------------------70
Masonry Heaters---------------------------------------------------------156 Mortar Cements-----------------------------------------------71
Masonry Stresses-------------------------------------------------------------91 Mortar Sand----------------------------------------------------71
Compressive Stress------------------------------------------------91 Portland Cement----------------------------------------------70
Flexural Tension Stresses-----------------------------------------91 Water-------------------------------------------------------------72
Shear Stresses-------------------------------------------------------91 Types of Mortar------------------------------------------------------67
Masonry Sound Transmission Class (STC)---------------------------341 Property Specifications--------------------------------------68
Material Property Loads--------------------------------------------------90 Proportion Specifications-----------------------------------69
Material Selection------------------------------------------------------------144 Selection of Mortar Types-----------------------------------67
Materials-----------------------------------------------------------------------1 Specifying Mortar----------------------------------------------68
Materials for Single-Wythe Bearing Walls----------------------------109 Types of Mortar Joints----------------------------------------------74
Maximum Glass Block Panel Size------------------------------------284 Beaded Joint---------------------------------------------------75
Measurements of Mortar Materials------------------------------------72 Concave Joint--------------------------------------------------74
Methods of Grouting Walls----------------------------------------------79 Flush Joint------------------------------------------------------74
Metric--------------------------------------------------------------------------19 Grapevine Joint------------------------------------------------75
Metric/English Conversion---------------------------------------------357 Raked Joint-----------------------------------------------------75
Metric System Conversion-------------------------------------------------358 Squeezed Joint------------------------------------------------75
Minimum Area of Steel--------------------------------------------------221 Struck Joint-----------------------------------------------------75
Minimum Radius of Uncut Brick----------------------------------------141 “V”Joint---------------------------------------------------------74
Minimum Steel Ratios-------------------------------------------------------223 Weather Joint--------------------------------------------------74
Minimum Diameters of Bend------------------------------------------228 Mortar and Grout---------------------------------------------------5, 67, 99
Minimum Steel Requirements for High Seismic Exposure----222 Mortar Cements------------------------------------------------------------71
Minimum Steel Requirements for Low Seismic Exposure-----221 Mortar Materials------------------------------------------------------------70
Minimum Thickness----------------------------------------------------------92 Mortar Properties------------------------------------------------------------68
Minimum Thickness of Face Shells and Webs---------------------19 Mortar Proportions for Unit Masonry----------------------------------70
Minimum Reinforcement Requirements----------------------------221 Mortar Sand-----------------------------------------------------------------71
Minimum Area of Steel-------------------------------------------221 Mortar Types-Classes of Construction--------------------------------68
Minimum Steel Requirements for High Seismic Mortars and Pointing--------------------------------------------------------272
Exposure--------------------------------------------------222 Movement--------------------------------------------------------------------100
Minimum Steel Requirements for Low Seismic Movement Joints----------------------------------------------------------333
Exposure--------------------------------------------------221
Miscellaneous Interior Details-----------------------------------------286
Mixing-------------------------------------------------------------------------72
Mixing Grout-----------------------------------------------------------------77
Modular Brick Masonry---------------------------------------------------85
Modular Considerations---------------------------------------------------172
N
Modular Dimensions--------------------------------------------------------172
Moisture------------------------------------------------------------------------148 Natural Lighting---------------------------------------------------------------211
Moisture Intrusion--------------------------------------------------------327 Natural Stone-------------------------------------------------------------37, 235
Moisture Migration Control---------------------------------------------326 Navy Hose Stream Test----------------------------------------------------335
Moisture Movement--------------------------------------------------------100 Noise Control-------------------------------------------------------212, 340
Moisture Resistance----------------------------------------------------93, 325 Flanking Path Control---------------------------------------------344
Consideration in Selection------------------------------------------331 Impact Noise Control---------------------------------------------345
Inspections--------------------------------------------------------------335 Insulation by STC----------------------------------------------------342
Interior Moisture Control---------------------------------------------332 Isolation vs. Insulation--------------------------------------------342
Integral Water Repellents-------------------------------------------331 Masonry Sound Transmission Class (STC)--------------------341
Moisture Intrusion-----------------------------------------------------327 Sound Absorption and Noise Reduction-----------------------344
Openings---------------------------------------------------------329 STC Values of Masonry Walls----------------------------------342
Moisture Migration Control------------------------------------------326 Traffic Noise---------------------------------------------------------345
Other Critical Elements----------------------------------------------332 Design Considerations-------------------------------------346
Horizontal Surfaces--------------------------------------------334 Visual Considerations--------------------------------------348
Movement Joints-----------------------------------------------333 Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) of Selected Materials-------344
Wall Caps---------------------------------------------------------333 Non-Projecting Wall Columns---------------------------------------------233
Wall Penetrations----------------------------------------------335
Windows and Doors-------------------------------------------334
Surface Treatments---------------------------------------------------330
INDEX 383
Reinforcement Cover----------------------------------------------------227
O Reinforcement Requirements for Typical
Cantilever Retaining Wall-------------------------------------------208
Reinforcement Spacing----------------------------------------------------223
Openings-----------------------------------------------------------------------329 Clearances--------------------------------------------------------------225
Orientation of Brick----------------------------------------------------------3 Clear Spacing Between Reinforcing Bars----------------226
Other Critical Elements----------------------------------------------------332 Clearance Between Reinforcement and
Overhangs---------------------------------------------------------------------339 Masonry Units---------------------------------------------225
Location of Reinforcement “ d”Distance-------------------------223
Placement of Steel---------------------------------------------------224
Reinforcement Cover------------------------------------------------227
Deformed Reinforcement------------------------------------227
P Joint Reinforcement and Ties-------------------------------227
Reinforcing Bar Positioners-----------------------------------------225
Tolerances for Placement of Reinforcement-------------------224
Reinforcing Bar Positioners--------------------------------------------225
Panel Anchor Details----------------------------------------------------287
Reinforcing Bars------------------------------------------------------------56
Parapet Walls--------------------------------------------------------------108
Reinforcing Steel----------------------------------------------------55, 215
Parapets-----------------------------------------------------------------------156
Reinforcing Steel Bar Designation---------------------------------------56
Passive Solar Energy----------------------------------------------------351
Residential Construction Isometric with Diaphragm Roof--------195
Passive Solar Heating----------------------------------------------------351
Residential Construction Isometric without Roof Diaphragm----197
Passive Solar Basics--------------------------------------------------------352
Residential Design-------------------------------------------------------197
Passive Solar Systems-----------------------------------------------------352
Foundation Detail for Residential Construction------------200
Patterns of Brick-------------------------------------------------------------4
Raised Wood Floor Connection for Residential
Paving Brick-------------------------------------------------------------------3
Construction----------------------------------------------------199
Paving Units-----------------------------------------------------------------22
Residential Construction Isometric with
Permissible Variation in Dimensions------------------------------------8
Diaphragm Roof-----------------------------------------------195
Physical Characteristics--------------------------------------------------40
Residential Construction Isometric without
Physical Nature------------------------------------------------------------41
Roof Diaphragm-----------------------------------------------197
Pilaster Details----------------------------------------------------------------186
Residential Wall Section-----------------------------------------198
Pilaster Units----------------------------------------------------------------26
Roof Connection Details for Residential
Placement of Steel-------------------------------------------------------224
Construction----------------------------------------------------201
Planter Boxes--------------------------------------------------------------153
Residential Wall Section---------------------------------------------------198
Plants---------------------------------------------------------------------------339
Resin (Glazed) Coatings-------------------------------------------------33
Plastic-------------------------------------------------------------------------94
Manufacturer’ s Standards------------------------------------------34
Portland Cement-----------------------------------------------------------70
Shapes and Sizes of Glazed CMU-------------------------------34
Pre-Blended Mortar-----------------------------------------------------------73
Specifications---------------------------------------------------------33
Principles----------------------------------------------------------------349, 351
Retaining Walls-----------------------------------------------------------203
Projecting Wall Columns or Pilasters-----------------------------------234
Cantilever Retaining Walls--------------------------------------206
Properties of CMU------------------------------------------------------------18
Counterfort or Buttressed Walls--------------------------------205
Dimension and Modular Sizes-------------------------------------19
Gravity Walls--------------------------------------------------------204
Compression Strength----------------------------------------------20
Segmental Walls---------------------------------------------------209
Metric---------------------------------------------------------------------19
Conventional or Gravity---------------------------------------210
Properties of Stone-----------------------------------------------------------42
Soil-Reinforced or Geosynthetic----------------------------210
Property Specification Requirements---------------------------------73
Supported Walls----------------------------------------------------209
Property Specifications for Mortars------------------------------------68
Retempering-----------------------------------------------------------------74
Proportions of Grout---------------------------------------------------------77
Roof Connection Details for Residential Construction------------201
Proportion Specifications-------------------------------------------------69
RILEM Test No. 11.4, RILEM Tube Test------------------------------335
Providing Flashing and Weep Holes------------------------------------139 Roof Overhang------------------------------------------------------------350
Roof/Parapet Details----------------------------------------------------308
Rubble and Ashlar Stone-----------------------------------------------235
Rubble Stone Masonry Patterns-----------------------------------------237
Q Rumford Fireplace-----------------------------------------------------------154
Running Bond---------------------------------------------------------------83
R-Value-------------------------------------------------------------------------103
Quarrying and Milling Stone---------------------------------------------43
S
R
Sand---------------------------------------------------------------------------99
Rain----------------------------------------------------------------------------93 Sand for Masonry Mortar--------------------------------------------------71
Raised Wood Floor Connection for Residential Construction---199 Sandstone-------------------------------------------------------------43, 279
Raked Joint------------------------------------------------------------------75 Scale--------------------------------------------------------------------------89
References-------------------------------------------------------------------373 Screen Block------------------------------------------------------------------22
Reinforced Brick - An Overview------------------------------------------1 Screen Walls---------------------------------------------------------------153
Reinforced Construction---------------------------------------------------149 Sealant Systems-------------------------------------------------------------272
Reinforced Grouted Brick Masonry------------------------------------160 Sealing--------------------------------------------------------------------------280
Reinforced Hollow Masonry Walls------------------------------------118 Security---------------------------------------------------------------------283
Segmental Retaining Wall Units-----------------------------------------36
Segmental Walls----------------------------------------------------------209 Stone Anchorage---------------------------------------------------------279

Seismic Forces------------------------------------------------------------219 Stone Application---------------------------------------------------------236
Seismic (Earthquake) Loads--------------------------------------------90 Stone Construction-------------------------------------------------------239
Self-Consolidating Grout--------------------------------------------------76 Stone Coursing---------------------------------------------------------236
Skewback Detailing---------------------------------------------------------142 Stone Finishes------------------------------------------------------------237
Selection of Mortar Types------------------------------------------------67 Stone Variations------------------------------------------------------------42
Selection of Wall Type----------------------------------------------------93 Granite-----------------------------------------------------------------42
Shape and Orientation--------------------------------------------------352 Limestone-------------------------------------------------------------42
Shapes and Sizes of Glazed CMU------------------------------------34 Marble------------------------------------------------------------------42
Shapes of Brick--------------------------------------------------------------2 Sandstone-------------------------------------------------------------43
Shear Stresses-------------------------------------------------------91, 218 Travertine--------------------------------------------------------------43
Shelf Angle/Flashing Details-------------------------------------------310 Stone Veneer--------------------------------------------------------------304
Shelf Angles----------------------------------------------------------62, 293 Strength and Absorption Requirements------------------------------20
Shrinkage and Temperature Stresses-------------------------------219 Strength and Durability--------------------------------------------------211
Sill and Jamb Details----------------------------------------------------313 Struck Joint------------------------------------------------------------------75
Single W ythe Bearing Walls-------------------------------------------107 Structural Brick Floors------------------------------------------------------148
Site---------------------------------------------------------------------------146 Structural Brickwork-Wall Types--------------------------------------105
Size-------------------------------------------------------------------------7, 11 Structural Concrete Backup-----------------------------------------------291
Slab Type Veneer---------------------------------------------------------322 Structural Considerations----------------------------------------------148
Slump------------------------------------------------------------------------76 Structural Function of Arches------------------------------------------138
Slumped Cap Units--------------------------------------------------------30 Structural Masonry Backup------------------------------------------------290
Slumped Units--------------------------------------------------------------21 Structural Support Backup Materials--------------------------------290
Soffit Detailing----------------------------------------------------------------141 Steel Stud Backup-------------------------------------------------292
Soil-Reinforced or Geosynthetic-----------------------------------------210 Structural Concrete Backup-------------------------------------291
Solar Energy---------------------------------------------------------------348 Structural Masonry Backup--------------------------------------290
Building Codes-----------------------------------------------------349 Wood Stud Backup------------------------------------------------291
Design---------------------------------------------------------------349 Summary-------------------------------------------------------------------279
Energy Systems------------------------------------------------------349 Sealing-------------------------------------------------------------------280
Introduction----------------------------------------------------------348 Maintenance------------------------------------------------------------280
Masonry and the Sun------------------------------------------------354 Stone Anchorage---------------------------------------------------279
Passive Solar Basics---------------------------------------------352 Supported Walls----------------------------------------------------------209
Shape and Orientation-------------------------------------352 Surface Treatments---------------------------------------------------------330
Thermal Storage/Retrieval---------------------------------352 Suspended Diaphragm Bases-------------------------------------------148
Passive Solar Energy---------------------------------------------351 System Configuration---------------------------------------------------323
Principles---------------------------------------------------------351 System Detail Requirements------------------------------------------295
Active Solar Heating-------------------------------------------351 Adhered Veneer----------------------------------------------------298
Passive Solar Heating-----------------------------------------351 Adhered Veneer Installation------------------------------299
Hybrid Solar Heating-------------------------------------------352 Honeycomb Stone-------------------------------------------299
Passive Solar Systems--------------------------------------------352 Terra Cotta----------------------------------------------------299
Attached Sunspace-----------------------------------------353 Thin Brick------------------------------------------------------298
Convective Loop---------------------------------------------353 Anchored Veneer--------------------------------------------------301
Direct Gain----------------------------------------------------352 Block Veneer, Concrete Units----------------------------307
Thermal Storage Roof--------------------------------------354 Stone Veneer-------------------------------------------------304
Thermal Storage Wall--------------------------------------353 General Requirements-------------------------------------------296
Principles----------------------------------------------------------349 Definitions-----------------------------------------------------296
Roof Overhang-----------------------------------------------------350 Installation-----------------------------------------------------297
Solid Brick---------------------------------------------------------------------3
Solid Masonry Walls-----------------------------------------------------107
Sound Absorption and Noise Reduction-------------------------------344
Sound Barrier Walls-----------------------------------------------------158
Sound Level in Decibel-----------------------------------------------------341
Sound Transmission Class------------------------------------------------104
T
Sources of Moisture--------------------------------------------------------93 Temporary Shoring----------------------------------------------------------144
Special Provisions for Higher Seismic Risk-----------------------229 Tension Stresses---------------------------------------------------------216
Special Shapes---------------------------------------------------------------51 Beam with Vertical Load-----------------------------------------216
Special Topics-------------------------------------------------------------325 Wall with Lateral Load--------------------------------------------216
Specifications---------------------------------------------------------------33 Terra Cotta------------------------------------------------------------47, 299
Specifying Mortar-----------------------------------------------------------68 Characteristics-------------------------------------------------------49
Split Faced Units-------------------------------------------------------------21 Testing-----------------------------------------------------------------------335
Split Stone Masonry Height Pattern---------------------------------237 Testing Grout Strength------------------------------------------------------78
Split Stone Masonry Patterns-----------------------------------------237 Texture------------------------------------------------------------------------88
Sprinklers----------------------------------------------------------------------339 Texture of Quarried Stone------------------------------------------------39
Squeezed Joint-------------------------------------------------------------75 Textures and Interior Finishes-----------------------------------------211
Stack Bond---------------------------------------------------------------------85 Thermal Considerations---------------------------------------------------148
Stainless Steel--------------------------------------------------------------94 Thermal Insulation-------------------------------------------------------134
Stand-by Power---------------------------------------------------------------339 Thermal Mass-------------------------------------------------------------104
Standard Hook and Bend-----------------------------------------------228 Thermal Movement--------------------------------------------------------100
STC Values of Masonry Walls----------------------------------------342 Thermal Storage Roof---------------------------------------------------354
Steel Stud Backup--------------------------------------------------------292 Thermal Storage/Retrieval-------------------------------------------------352
Steel Connections--------------------------------------------------------181 Thermal Storage Wall---------------------------------------------------353
Steps-------------------------------------------------------------------------153 Thin Brick---------------------------------------------------------------3, 298
INDEX 385
Thin Brick Veneer--------------------------------------------------------157
Tie Spacing - 16 Bar Diameters--------------------------------------233
Tie Spacing - 48 Tie Diameters---------------------------------------233
V
Tie Spacing for Elements that are Part of the
Lateral System--------------------------------------------------------232 “V”Joint-----------------------------------------------------------------------74
Tie Spacing for Higher Seismic Risk--------------------------------233 Vapor and Air Barriers----------------------------------------------------134
Tie Spacing for Lower Seismic Risk---------------------------------232 Vapor and Air Retarders for Rain Screen Walls------------------135
Ties at Anchor Bolts---------------------------------------------------------230 Variations of Stone-----------------------------------------------------------42
Timber Connections-----------------------------------------------------179 Granite-------------------------------------------------------------------42
Tolerances---------------------------------------------------------------8, 11, 16 Limestone-----------------------------------------------------------------42
Tolerances for Placement of Reinforcement----------------------224 Marble-------------------------------------------------------------------42
Traffic-------------------------------------------------------------------------146 Sandstone----------------------------------------------------------------43
Traffic Noise---------------------------------------------------------------345 Travertine-----------------------------------------------------------------43
Transmission Loss-------------------------------------------------------104 Veneer---------------------------------------------------------------------61, 289
Travertine--------------------------------------------------------------43, 278 Veneer Units-----------------------------------------------------------------21
Trim----------------------------------------------------------------------------99 Vents-----------------------------------------------------------------------98, 338
Type FBA (Face Brick Architectural)----------------------------------10 Vertical Steel Placement---------------------------------------------------186
Type FBS (Face Brick Standard)---------------------------------------10 Visual Inspection---------------------------------------------------------9, 13
Type FBX (Face Brick Extra)--------------------------------------------10 Visual Considerations-------------------------------------------------------348
Types of Face Brick-------------------------------------------------------10
Types of Grout--------------------------------------------------------------75
Types of Hollow Brick-------------------------------------------------------16
Types of Mortar-------------------------------------------------------------67
Types of Reinforcement--------------------------------------------------56
Joint Reinforcement------------------------------------------------58
W
Reinforcing Bars-----------------------------------------------------56
Types of Stone------------------------------------------------------------235
Water--------------------------------------------------------------------------72
Rubble and Ashlar Stone-----------------------------------------235
Water Penetration Resistance---------------------------------------94, 213
Stone Construction------------------------------------------------239
Water Repellent Types-----------------------------------------------------329
Stone Coursing-----------------------------------------------------236
Water Storage-----------------------------------------------------------------339
Rubble Stone Masonry Patterns-------------------------237
Wall and Opening Dimensions-------------------------------------------174
Split Stone Masonry Height Pattern--------------------237
Wall Base Details---------------------------------------------------------317
Split Stone Masonry Patterns----------------------------237
Wall Caps----------------------------------------------------------------------333
Stone Finishes------------------------------------------------------237
Wall Penetrations---------------------------------------------------------335
Typical Details-------------------------------------------------------------308
Wall with Lateral Load---------------------------------------------------216
Expansion Joint Details------------------------------------------321
Wall Texture-----------------------------------------------------------------85
Floor Connection Details-----------------------------------------316
Wall Ties----------------------------------------------------------------------64
Roof/Parapet Details----------------------------------------------308
Wall to Wall Connections--------------------------------------------------188
Shelf Angle/Flashing Details------------------------------------310
Weather Joint---------------------------------------------------------------74
Sill and Jamb Details---------------------------------------------313
Weather Resistance-----------------------------------------------------138
System Configuration---------------------------------------------323
Weep Holes------------------------------------------------------63, 98, 294
Wall Base Details--------------------------------------------------317
Weight of Reinforcement-----------------------------------------------223
Typical Glass Block Details--------------------------------------------285
West Coast Veneer Stone-----------------------------------------------40
Connection Detail-----------------------------------------------------286
What is Waterproof-------------------------------------------------------326
Head Details--------------------------------------------------------285
Wind Loads------------------------------------------------------------------90
Miscellaneous Interior Details----------------------------------286
Window Details---------------------------------------------------------------194
Panel Anchor Details----------------------------------------------287
Windows and Doors---------------------------------------------------------334
Typical Jamb Details----------------------------------------------286
Wood Stud Backup-------------------------------------------------------291
Typical Sill Details-------------------------------------------------286
Workmanship-----------------------------------------------------------------145
Typical Jamb Details--------------------------------------------------------286
Typical Layout of Ties and Masonry Units for Columns--------232
Typical Sill Details------------------------------------------------------------286
U
U-Value----------------------------------------------------------------------103
Unit Conversions---------------------------------------------------------355
MASONRY INDUSTRY ORGANIZATIONS 387
MASONRY INDUSTRY ORGANIZATIONS
The organizations listed below provide information on the material, design and construction
of masonry systems.
American Concrete Institute Brick Industry Association Indiana Limestone Institute

38800 Country Club Drive 1850 Centennial Park Drive, Suite 301 400 Stone City Bank Bldg.
Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3411 Reston, VA 20191-1542 Bedford, IN 47421-3835
Phone: 248-848-3700 Phone: 703-620-0010 Phone: 812-275-4426
Fax: 248-848-3701 Fax: 703-620-3928 Fax: 812-279-8682
Web site: www.aci-int.org Web site: www.gobrick.org Web site: www.iliai.com
American Institute of Architects Building Stone Institute International Code Council HQ

1735 New York Ave. NW 300 Park Blvd., Suite 335 5203 Leesburg Pike, Suite 600
Washington, DC 20006-5292 Itasca, IL 60143 Falls Church, VA 22041-3401
Fax: 202-626-7547 Fax: 630-775-9134 Fax: 703-379-1546
Web site: www.aia.org Web site: www.buildingstone.org Web site: www.iccsafe.org
American Society of Civil Engineers Cast Stone Institute ICC-Birmingham

1801 Alexander Bell Drive 813 Chestnut St. 900 Montclair Rd.
Reston, VA 20191-4400 Lebanon, PA 17042-5227 Birmingham, AL 35213-1206
Fax: 703-295-6222 Fax: 717-272-5147 Fax: 205-599-9871
Web site: www.asce.org Web site: www.caststone.org Web site: www.iccsafe.org
Arizona Masonry Guild Clay Flue Lining Institute ICC-Chicago

99 E. Virginia Ave., Suite 160 Post Office Box 60 4051 W. Flossmoor Rd.
Phoenix, AZ 85004 Orchard Park, NY 14127-0060 Country Club Hills, IL 60478-5795
Fax: 602-274-5121 Fax: 716-662-2068 Fax: 800-214-7167
Web site: www.masonryforlife.org Web site: www.iccsafe.org
ASTM Concrete Masonry Assoc. of CA/NV ICC-Los Angeles

100 Barr Harbor Drive 6060 Sunrise Vista Drive, #1990 5360 Workman Mill Rd.
West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959 Citrus Heights, CA 95610-7004 Whittier, CA 90601-2256
Fax: 610-832-9555 Fax: 916-722-1819 Fax: 562-908-5524
Web site: www.astm.org Web site: www.cmacn.org Web site: www.iccsafe.org
BIA-Mid East Region Construction Specifications Institute International Masonry Institute

Post Office Box 35575 99 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 300 42 East Street
Canton, OH 44735-5575 Alexandria, VA 22314-1588 Annapolis, MD 21401-1731
Fax: 330-492-7373 Fax: 703-684-8436 Fax: 301-261-2855
Web site: www.gobrick.com Web site: www.csinet.org Web site: www.imiweb.org
Brick SouthEast, Headquarters Expanded Shale, Clay & Slate Inst. Marble Institute of America
8420 University Executive Park Dr. #800 2225 Murray Holladay Rd., Ste. 102 28901 Clemens Road, Suite 100
Charlotte, NC 28262-3381 Salt Lake City, UT 84117-5385 Cleveland, OH 44145-1166
Fax: 704-510-0042 Fax: 801-272-3377 Fax: 440-250-9223
Web site: www.gobrick.com Web site: www.escsi.org Web site: www.marble-institute.com
Brick SouthEast Florida Concrete & Products Assoc. Masonry Contractors Assoc. of America
1810 Overlake Dr., Suite A 3030 Dade Ave. 33 South Roselle Road
Conyers, GA 30013-1787 Orlando, FL 32804-4014 Schaumburg, IL 60193-1638
Fax: 770-760-7810 Fax: 407-895-3733 Fax: 847-301-1110
Web site: www.gobricksoutheast.com Web site: www.fcpa.org Web site: www.masonrycontractors.org
Masonry Advisory Council Masonry Institute of St. Louis Scaffold Industry Association
1480 Renaissance Dr., Suite 302 1429 S. Big Bend Blvd. P.O. Box 20574
Park Ridge, IL 60068-1354 St. Louis, MO 63117-2203 Phoenix, AZ 85036-0574
Fax: 847-297-8373 Fax: 314-645-5898 Fax: 602-257-1166
Web site: www.maconline.org Web site: www.masonrystl.org Web site: www.scaffold.org
Masonry Industry Promotion Group Masonry Institute of Washington Sealant Waterprfng & Restoration Inst.
102 East Boone Ave., Suite 101 10607 NE 38th Place, Building 18, Suite A 14 W. 3rd Street, Suite 200
Spokane, WA 99202-1748 Kirkland, WA 98033 Kansas City, MO 64105
Fax: 509-324-2489 Fax: 425-828-0438 Fax: 816-472-7765
Web site: www.masonrypromotion.com Web site: www.masonryinstitute.com Web site: www.swrionline.org
Masonry Institute of America The Masonry Society Southwestern Brick Institute

22815 Frampton Avenue 3970 Broadway, Suite 201D 3000 S. 31st Street, Suite 507
Torrance, CA 90501-5034 Boulder, CO 80304-1135 Temple, TX 76502
Fax: 310-257-1942 Fax: 303541-9215 Fax: 254-771-2011
Web site: www.masonryinstitute.org Web site: www.masonrysociety.org Web site: www.swbrick.com
Masonry Institute of Hawaii National Concrete Masonry Association Texas Masonry Council
1440 Kapiolani Blvd., Suite 800 13750 Sunrise Valley Drive 314 Highland Mall Blvd., Suite 510
Honolulu, HI 96814 Herndon, VA 20171-4662 Austin, TX 78752-3783
Fax: 808-841-6433 Fax: 703-713-1910 Fax: 512-451-9599
Web site: www.masonryhawaii.com Web site: www.ncma.org Web site: www.texasmasonrycouncil.org
Masonry Institute of Iowa National Lime Association Utah Masonry Council

5665 Greendale Rd., Suite C 200 N. Glebe Road, Suite 800 1174 E. 2760 S., Suite 16
Johnston, IA 50131-1508 Arlington, VA 22203-3728 Salt Lake City, UT 84106
Fax: 515-252-0645 Fax: 703-243-5489 Fax: 888-428-2209
Web site: www.masonryinstituteofiowa.org Web site: www.lime.org Web site: www.utahmasonrycouncil.org
Masonry Institute of Michigan Pennsylvania Concrete Masonry Assoc. Weatern States Clay Products Assoc.
12870 Farmington Rd., Suite A P.O. Box 4 22815 Frampton Avenue
Livonia, MI 48150-1603 Lebanon, PA 17042-0004 Torrance, CA 90501-5034
Fax: 734-458-8545 Fax: 717-272-5147 Fax: 310-257-1942
Web site: www.mim-online.org Web site: www.pacma.com Web site: www.wscpa.us
Masonry Institute of Oregon Portland Cement Association

3609 SW Corbett, Suite 4 5420 Old Orchard Road
Portland, OR 97239-4349 Skokie, IL 60077-1083
Phone: 503-224-1940 Phone: 847-966-6200
Fax: 503-241-4807 Fax: 847-966-8389
Web site: www.mioctio.org Web site: www.cement.org
THE BEST SOURCE FOR
SOURCE
Masonry Publications
is the
T
he Masonry Institute of America, founded in 1957 under the name Masonry
Research, is a promotion, technical and research organization established to
improve and extend the uses of masonry. Also promotes new ideas and
masonry work, building codes, conducts research projects, presents design,
construction and inspection seminars and writes technical and non-technical papers,
all for the purpose of improving the masonry industry.

22815 Frampton Ave.
Torrance, CA 90501-5034
Phone (310) 257-9000 Toll Free (800) 221-4000 Fax (310) 257-1942
www.masonryinstitute.org
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REF 44-05-252

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MASONRY

MASONRY INSTITUTE OF AMERICA

John Chrysler, P.E. Craig V. Baltimore, S.E., Ph.D. Thomas Escobar

MASONRY INSTITUTE OF AMERICA

INTERNATIONAL CODE COUNCIL

Copyright © 1969, 1972, 1979, 2007

Masonry Institute of America

International Code Council

In this publication the Masonry Standards Joint Committee’

MIA 601-07 01-07 2M

CHAPTER 2 CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS---------------------------------------------------17

CHAPTER 3 NATURAL STONE-----------------------------------------------------------------------37

CHAPTER 4 TERRA COTTA-----------------------------------------------------------------------------47

CHAPTER 5 GLASS BLOCK----------------------------------------------------------------------------51

CHAPTER 8 MORTAR AND GROUT---------------------------------------------------------------67

SECTION 2 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

CHAPTER 10 CONCRETE BLOCK--------------------------------------------------------------171

CHAPTER 12 NATURAL STONE-----------------------------------------------------------------------235

12.3 Differences in Stone---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------240

CHAPTER 13 GLASS BLOCK-------------------------------------------------------------------------283

CHAPTER 15 SPECIAL TOPICS----------------------------------------------------------------------325

15.4.4 STC Values of Masonry Walls------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------342

CHAPTER 16 UNIT CONVERSIONS------------------------------------------------------------------355

The ICC makes available an impressive inventory of International CodesTM, including:

• International Building Code

• Code application assistance

MASONRY STANDARDS JOINT

In the pursuit of its goals, Committee activities include:

1. Evaluate and ballot proposed changes to existing standards of the Committee.

2. Develop and ballot new standards for masonry.

3. Resolve negative votes from ballot items.

4. Identify areas of needed research.

5. Sponsor educational seminars and symposia.

6. Monitor international standards.

THE MASONRY SOCIETY

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL

Egyptian Pyramids located in Giza were constructed

Stonehenge ring on England’

Stone was also used around 2500 B.C. to build

As with the Egyptian Pyramids, numerous other

The Pyramid of El Castillo de Chichén Itzá in Yucatán

The outer walls of St. Basil’

In fact, the stone walls at the Machu Picchu in

Built between 1631 and 1653, the Taj Mahal depicts

13 Story Pasadena Hilton Hotel, Completed in 1971.

The Pasadena Hilton, like the newer 16 story

Built in 1891, the 16 story brick Monadnock Building in

In the early 1900’

Prior to the development of reinforced masonry,

Although taller masonry buildings may someday

Anahola Station, Hawaii.

The Getty Center, Los Angeles, California.

Coe College McCabe Hall, Cedar Rapids, Iowa.

Physical Science Building, Riverside, California.

for easy and safe shipment to the retail distribution

In addition to direct tension (pulling something

Brunel’ s discovery of reinforced brick masonry

No Voids Voids 25% or less

Fire Brick are made of refractory ceramic material

FIGURE 1.4 Types of hollow (structural) brick.

Paving Brick are vitrified brick especially suitable

Stretcher Header Rowlock