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Punctuation
Punctuation is the use of symbols (i.e. ‘punctuation marks’) that enhance the meaning of written words and indicate grammatical and
intonational aspects.
Syntax
Syntax is the ways into which words can be put together in order to make phrases, clauses, and, eventually, sentences.
a Separation ,
A separation is indicated by the comma. The comma is a punctuation mark that 111 .P1.1. is used to separate, if need be, the main
clause from the coordinate clause or coordinate clauses, the subordinate clause [i.e. when the subordinate clause precedes
the main clause] or subordinate clauses, or the subordinate phrase or subordinate phrases; 111 .P1.2. is used to separate
items in the list; 111 .P1.3. is used to separate adjectives from each other; 111 .P1.4. is used to separate adverbs/adverbials from, if
need be, the clause and/or each other; 111 .P1.5. is used to separate question tags; 111 .P1.6. is used to separate vocatives; 111
.P1.8. is used to separate discourse markers; 111 .P1.9. is used with the inverted commas or the double inverted commas to separate
direct speech (also known as ‘direct discourse’) from indirect speech (also known as ‘reported speech’) [if no question mark or no
exclamation mark is used]; or 111 .P1.10. is used to separate the day of the month and the month from the year.
separation If you want one, I can buy it for you. the comma ,
separation The big, angry dog chased the little, scared cat. the comma ,
separation Dad, I will come to see you after work. the comma ,
separation “I love you,” she said. | ‘I love you,’ she said. the comma ,
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tag: examples: emphasis:
1 P1.2 I have bought apples, pears, and bananas.
1 P1.2 On the table were some books, pencils, and a gun.
1 P1.2 Would you like tea, coffee or something else? Ⓛ list
1 P1.2 I need an eraser, a pencil, and some paper.
1 P1.2 I like pasta, fruits, and vegetables.
usage:
is used to separate items in the list
tag: examples: emphasis:
1 P1.3 She is beautiful, energetic, and very talented.
1 P1.3 The big, angry dog chased the little, scared cat.
1 P1.3 Frightened, hungry, and wet, the girl kept on walking. Ⓐ adjective
1 P1.3 Looking around, the captain could only see the vast, calm, blue ocean.
1 P1.3 They were happy, so happy.
usage:
is used to separate adjectives from each other
tag: examples: emphasis:
1 P1.4 Tomorrow, I will come to see you.
1 P1.4 Fortunately, nobody was hurt in the accident.
Ⓐ adverb,
1 P1.4 Slowly, I began to understand his unusual philosophy.
or Ⓐ adverbial
1 P1.4 However, I don’t see the point.
1 P1.4 Shyly, quietly, almost tenderly, the girl began to speak.
usage:
is used to separate adverbs/adverbials from the clause and/or each other
tag: examples: emphasis:
1 P1.5 I cannot do that, can I?
1 P1.5 You haven’t told him, have you?
1 P1.5 You are not, are you? Ⓠ question tag
1 P1.5 Your name is James, is it not?
1 P1.5 You are looking for me, are you not?
usage:
is used to separate question tags
tag: examples: emphasis:
1 P1.6 ‘Hello, darling,’ he said.
1 P1.6 Yes, that’s right, mum.
1 P1.6 Will you help me, Irene? Ⓥ vocative
1 P1.6 Come on, Alex – do it!
1 P1.6 Dad, I will come to see you after work.
usage:
is used to separate vocatives
tag: examples: emphasis:
1 P1.8 I mean, I don’t know.
1 P1.8 Well, I think so.
ⒹⓂ discourse
1 P1.8 Actually, I like him.
marker
1 P1.8 Believe it or not, I won five hundred.
1 P1.8 Now now, that’s not how you do it.
usage:
is used to separate discourse markers
tag: examples: emphasis:
1 P1.9 ‘I love you,’ she said.
1 P1.9 ‘I see what you mean,’ he answered, looking at her.
ⒹⓈ direct speech /
1 P1.9 ‘Do it yourself then!’ she snapped.
ⒹⒹ direct discourse
1 P1.9 ‘I don’t know the answer,’ he said.
1 P1.9 ‘He said, “What’s your name?” and smiled at me,’ the young lady said to her mother, wincing.
usage:
is used with the inverted commas or the double inverted commas to separate direct speech (also known as ‘direct discourse’) from
indirect speech (also known as ‘reported speech’) [if no question mark or no exclamation mark is used]
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tag: examples: emphasis:
1 P1.10 I received your letter on the 2nd of June, 2015.
1 P1.10 It happened in August, 1986.
1 P1.10 March 9, 2014 Ⓓ date
1 P1.10 I was born on the 4th of February, 1981.
1 P1.10 They got married on the 1st of January, 2016.
usage:
is used to separate the day of the month and the month from the year
connection
balance I have been looking for you: I have found you. the colon :
constrast
connection
balance I am from Spain; my wife is from Portugal. the semicolon ;
constrast
balance He loves her – she loves him. the dash –
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tag: examples: emphasis:
7 P7.3 He had everything – a good education, a good job, a big house, a nice car, a beautiful wife,
happy kids, and many, many friends.
7 P7.3 I will love you – forever. Ⓢ summarization,
7 P7.3 Side by side: life and death, love and hate, success and misery – that’s life. Ⓐ amplification,
7 P7.3 The burglar took everything – the TV, the computer, the tablet, and the money. or Ⓔ emphasis
7 P7.3 Disease, hunger, poverty, ignorance, crime, and suffering – these were the problems which
they faced.
usage:
is used – singly – to summarize, amplify, or emphasize the previous clause or clauses, word or words, or phrase or phrases
a Reason or an Explanation :
A reason or an explanation is indicated by the colon. The colon 151 .P5.2. is used to give an explanation or a reason.
sudden change Do you really think that I – what do you think I am? the dash –
Direct Speech/Discourse ‘ ’ or ` ‘ or “ ”
Direct speech/discourse is indicated by the inverted commas. The inverted commas (also known as ‘the quotation marks’, ‘the quotes’,
‘the double inverted commas’, or ‘the double quotation marks’) .10. .P10.1. are used to show direct speech/discourse.
the inverted
direct discourse “I don’t love you anymore.” | “I don’t love you anymore,” she simply said. commas “”
the inverted
direct speech ‘I don’t love you anymore.’ | ‘I don’t love you anymore,’ she simply said. commas ‘’
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tag: examples: emphasis:
10 P10.1 ‘I don’t love you anymore,’ she simply said.
10 P10.1 “Run, rabbit, run,” the girl shouted.
ⒹⓈ direct speech /
10 P10.1 ‘He answered “I don’t think so,”,’ she said.
ⒹⒹ direct discourse
10 P10.1 `Who knows?' he soliloquized.
10 P10.1 “She screamed ‘No!’,” he said.
usage:
in writing, are used to show direct speech / direct discourse
In British English, the single inverted commas are used, which can be of two types (‘ ’ or ` '); in American English, the double inverted
commas are used (“ ”). If a phrase or a passage – which is already contained within the inverted commas – has, within itself, direct
speech, a highlighted word, phrase, or title, such direct speech or such highlighted word, phrase, or title should be contained within
the inverted commas of the opposite style.
rep. direct speech 1 or. dir. sp. 2 rep. direct speech 1 or. dir. sp. 2 rep. direct speech 2 or. dir. sp. 3
British English ‘I don’t love you,’ she said. `I don’t love you,' she said. ‘She said, “Yes,”,’ he said.
British type 1 British type 2 rep. direct speech 1
rep. direct discourse 1 or. dir. disc. 2 rep. direct discourse 2 or. dir. disc. 3
American English “I don’t love you,” she said. “She said, ‘Yes,’,” he said.
American type rep. direct discourse 1
a Pause …
In direct speech, a pause in indicated by the triple dot. The triple dot (also known as – when indicating .P16.1. a slight pause – ‘three
dots’, ‘the dot-dot-dot’, ‘the suspension point’, or ‘the multidot’) .16. .P16.1., in reported direct speech, is used to indicate a slight
pause.
a Question ?
A question is indicated by the question mark. The question mark (also known as ‘the query’ [chiefly in printing]) 121 .P2.1. is used at
the end of a question, i.e. the interrogative mood.
the question
question How are you? | “How are you?” | “How are you?” he said. mark ?
the question
question How are you? | ‘How are you?’ | ‘How are you?’ he said. mark ?
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an Exclamation !
An exclamation is indicated by the exclamation mark. The exclamation mark 131 .P3.1. is used to indicate that a word, a phrase, a
clause, or a sentence is an exclamation that shows a strong feeling of some kind.
the exclamation
exclamation Run! | “Run!” | “Run!” she screamed. mark !
the exclamation
exclamation Run! | ‘Run!’ | ‘Run!’ she screamed. mark !
possessive form It is the dog’s mat. | It is the cat’s food. | It is Sarah’s umbrella. the apostrophe ’ or '
highlight Did she answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’? | Have you read ‘Animal Farm’? the inverted
“ ” or ‘ ’
title commas
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Extra Information ( ) [ ] < > { } – –
Extra information is indicated by the round brackets, the square brackets, the angle brackets, the brace/curly brackets, or the pair of
dashes. The round brackets (also known as ‘the parentheses’ [plural]) .11. .P11.1. are placed around a word, a phrase, a sentence, a
numerical value, or a symbol to show that extra information is given. The square brackets (also known as ‘the parentheses’ [plural])
.12. .P12.1. are placed around a word, a phrase, a sentence, a numerical value, or a symbol to show that extra information is given.
The angle brackets .13. .P13.1. are placed around a word, a phrase, a sentence, a numerical value, or a symbol to show that extra
information is given. The brace/curly brackets .21. .P21.1. are placed around a word, a phrase, a sentence, a numerical value, or a
symbol to show that extra information is given. The pair of dashes 171 .P7.2. are used to fence off extra information within a clause
or a sentence.
an Alternative or an Option ( )
An alternative or an option is indicated the round brackets. The round brackets .11. .P11.2. are used to show an alternative or an
option.
an Omission , or ’ or '
An omission of a word or words is indicated by the comma, and an omission of letters or numbers is indicated by the apostrophe. The
comma 111 .P1.7. is used to show the omission of a word or words in the text. The apostrophe 191 .P9.1. is used to indicate the
omission of a letter or letters or numbers within a word or a number respectively.
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tag: examples: emphasis:
9 P9.1 I’m well. (= I am well.)
9 P9.1 He isn’t here. (= He is not here.)
9 P9.1 I can’t see it. (= I cannot see it.) Ⓞ omission
9 P9.1 Do you like rock ‘n’ roll? (= Do you like rock and roll?)
9 P9.1 1 January ’86 (= 1 January 1986)
usage:
is used to indicate the omission of letters or numbers
list I have bought: flour, milk, and some eggs. the colon :
direct discourse He told her: “I love you so much.” | He told her: ‘I love you so much.’ the colon :
direct speech
One of his favo(u)rite Darwin’s quotation was: “A man who dares to
quotation the colon :
waste one hour of time has not discovered the value of life.”
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