CHAPTER I

1.1 Introduction Of Writing

Writing is one of the skills that have to be mastered by students in learning English. It is
important for students to known the definition first. Many experts define speaking in different
ways. According to Rivers (1981: 294), Writing is conveying information or expression of
original ideas in a consecutive way in the new language. Brown (2001: 336) also claimed that
Writing is a thinking process, it means that writing represents what we think. It is because the
writing process reflects things, which stay in the mind. And according to Gaith (2002 : 1)
Writing is a complex process that allows writers to explore thoughts and ideas and make them
visible and concrete. Elbow (1973) in Brown (2001: 336) also says that writing is a two-step
process. The first process is figuring out the meaning and the second process is putting the
meaning into language.

Based on the definitions above, a definition of writing skill can be obtained. Writing is a
productive process done through some stages. Firstly, exploring and transmitting ideas, thought
and feeling into written form. Secondly, conducting a number of revising process to carry out a
grammatically and orderly texts. The writing productions are in the forms of readable texts
which should be meaningful to everyone who read the writing.

1.2 Theories of Writing

Writing is a way of thinking and learning. It gives a unique opportunity to explore ideas
and acquire information. Writing is one of four skills in English that have to be mastered.
According to Nunan ( 2003 : 88) Writing is the mental work of inventing ideas, and thinking
how to express them, it means that writing is a process to think deeply and to convey the
message to the reader.

According to O’Malley and Pierce, the purpose of writing can be categorized as follows:

- Notify or Explain: Writing that aims to inform or explain something..

- Convincing or Urgent: The purpose of writing is sometimes to convince the reader that what
the author is telling is true so the writer hopes the reader will follow the author's opinion.

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- Telling Something: Writing that aims to tell an event to the reader.

- Influencing Readers: The purpose of writing is sometimes to influence or persuade the reader to
follow the will of the author.

- Describing Something: A text is used to make the reader seem to see and feel something the
author told in his writing.

The Component of Writing

The stock of vocabulary, grammar and comprehend how to make a correct sentence must
be considered to make a good writing. The students’ writing score will be evaluated by the
scoring system. The aspects of scoring are organization, content, grammar, and vocabulary
(Nurgiyantoro, 2001: 48).

To make it clear, the writer will explain each aspect.

a) Organization
It means how the students organize their idea. Whether each paragraph is organize well or not.
The organization of the text is fluent in expressing, reveal clearly ideas, good organization, logic
sequence, and cohesive.

b) Content
The content refers to the topic and its explanation, discussion, evaluation, and conclusion. It
should be clear, specific, and relevant. The good content had to fulfill the criteria such as full of
information, substantive make a clear thesis development and relevant with the problem.

c) Language
The students use effective complex sentence construction and make only few faults in the using
of grammar.

d) Vocabulary
If the students could choose the correct words as it is function and master informing words.

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1.3 Types of Classroom Writing Performance.

There are five types of classroom writing performance that students are expected to carry
out in the classroom:

1. Imitative
At the beginning level of learning to write, students will simply "write down" English
letters, words, and possibly sentences in order to learn the conventions of the
orthographic code. Some forms of dictation fall into this category, although dictation can
serve to teach and test higher-order processing as well. Dictations typically involve the
following steps:
a. Teacher reads a short paragraph once or twice at normal speed.

b. Teacher reads the paragraph in short phrase units of three or four words each and each
unit is followed by a pause.

c. During the pause, students write exactly what they hear.

d. Teacher then reads the whole paragraph once more at normal speed so students can
check their writing.

e. Scoring of students' written work can utilize a number of rubrics for assigning points.
Usually spelling and punctuation errors are not considered as severe as grammatical
errors.

2. Intensive
Writing is sometimes used as a production mode for learning, reinforcing, or testing
grammatical concepts. This intensive writing typically appears in controlled, written
grammar exercises. This type of writing does not allow much, if any, creativity on the
part of the writer.

A common form of controlled writing is to present a paragraph to students in which they

have to alter a given structure throughout. So, for example, they may be asked to change all
present tense verbs to past tense; in such a case, students may need to alter other time references
in the paragraph.

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 Guided writing loosens the teacher's control but still offers a series of stimulators. For
example, the teacher might get students to tell a story just viewed on a videotape by asking them
a series of questions: Where does the story take place? Describe the principal character. What
does he say to the woman in the car?

Yet another form of controlled writing is a dicto-comp. Here, a paragraph is read at

normal speed, usually two or three times; then the teacher asks students to rewrite the paragraph
to the best of their recollection of the reading. In one of several variations of the dicto-comp
technique, the teacher, after reading the passage, puts key words from the paragraph, in
sequence, on the chalkboard (or whiteboard) as cues for the students.

3. Self-writing
A significant proportion of classroom writing may be devoted to self-writing, or writing
with only the self in mind as an audience. The most salient instance of this category in
classrooms is note-taking, where students take notes during a lecture for the purpose of
later recall. Other note-taking may be done in the margins of books and on odd scraps of
paper.

4. Display writing
Writing within the school curricular context is a way of life. For all language students,
short answer exercises, essay examinations, and even research reports will involve an
element of display.

5. Real writing
While virtually every classroom writing task will have an element of display writing in it,
some classroom writing aims at the genuine communication of messages to an audience
in need of those messages. The two categories of real and display writing are actually two
ends of a continuum, and in between the two extremes lies some combination of display
and real writing.

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1.4 The Problem of Writing

There are some characteristics can make speaking difficult. According to Nurgiantoro
(2001: 298-299), there are some problems faced by students in learning writing. Those are as
follows:

a) Organizing idea
The students usually face problem in writing process such as how to organize the idea
into sentences. In writing composition, students will put their ideas and thoughts to be
developed become a good written. It will be better if we start the writing process by
choosing theme first before we write the composition. After that we can make an outline
to help us in arranging the sentences or paragraphs.

b) Lack of Vocabulary
Vocabularies become complex problem especially in writing. Lack of vocabulary makes
students often write uncommunicative sentence. Besides that, they often choose incorrect
words in their composition.

c) Grammar Accuracy
Grammar becomes very important aspect in writing. A draft will be said a good draft if
grammar which is used is correct.

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 MIND MAPPING OF THE THEORIES

Rivers (1981: 294)

THEORIES
OF Brown (2001: 336)
WRITING

Gaith (2002 : 1)

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 CHAPTER II
METHOD IN TEACHING SPEAKING

2.1 Writing in the Here and Now

The strategy of writing writing in the here and now is a learning strategy that can help
students to reflect on the experiences they have experienced directly. Melvin L. Silberman
suggested that "Writing allows students to reflect on experiences they have had". Writing can
help us reflect on what we have experienced. Direct method of writing experience or writing in
the here and now is a dramatic way to increase reflection independently by asking students to
write present tense reports about an experience they have (as if it happened here and now).
This activity allows students to think about their experiences.

Steps for Writing in the here and now

a) Choose the type of experience students want to write. That experience can be in the past
or in the future.
b) Inform students about the experiences that have been chosen for reflective writing
purposes. Tell them that a valuable way to reflect on experience is to bring it to life for
the first time here and now. This method will have a clear and dramatic impact.
c) Instruct students to write the experience selected. Instruct them to begin the experience
and write down what they are doing and feeling. Invite them to write as much as they
want about the events and feelings they produce.
d) Discuss their experiences by reading about their reflections.
e) End by discussing the results of the students' experiences together with students.

The variety of Writing methods in the here and now are as follows :
a) To help students get excitement in imaginative writing, do group discussions relevant to
the topic to be assigned to them.
b) Instruct students to tell each other about what they have written. The alternative is to
order a number of students to read their finished work. The second alternative is to ask
the couple to tell each other about what they wrote.

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2.2 Direct method

Direct teaching methods are specifically designed to develop student learning about well-
structured declarative procedural and knowledge, knowledge and can be learned step by step. In
the direct method, there are five important phases: the preparation and motivation phase, the
demonstration phase, the mentoring phase, the checking phase, and the advanced training phase.
For example: the teacher shows a picture of a flood that hit a village or saw firsthand the events
of a flood in a village. From the picture, students can make writing in a coherent and logical
manner based on the picture.

2.3 Suggestopedy method

This method is more directed at giving suggestions to students that all students can make
a writing. In the creation of this suggestion, an atmosphere must be created that makes students
feel calm, relaxed, enjoy the atmosphere so that they are mentally really ready to accept the
subject matter (writing) without coercion. In principle, the suggestion-imagination method is a
method of learning to write by giving suggestions through songs to stimulate the imagination of
students.

In this case, the song is used as the creator of a suggestive atmosphere, stimulus, and at
the same time becomes a bridge for students to imagine or create images and events based on
song themes. The response that is expected to emerge from the students is the ability to see the
images of the incident with imagination and the logic that they have and then express it again
using verbal symbols.

Steps:
a. Planning stage (pre-learning)

- Study of learning material

- Selection of songs as learning media

- preparation of learning approaches.

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b. Second stage (implementation)

- Pretest: to measure students' abilities or knowledge

- Submission of learning objectives

- Apperception: explains the relationship between material that has been taught with the material
to be taught.

- Explanation of the practice of learning with song media

- Practice learning

- Pascates: Students write an essay without being preceded by listening to songs

c. Evaluation

2.4 Relay Writing Method

In the relay writing method or serial writing, students work in groups. Each group
member poured his feelings into one line of poetry with the same theme and title. This is done in
a chain until the specified deadline expires. The success of a group member will affect the
success of the group.

Based on the opinion of Masruroh (2014: 12), learning using relay writing learning
methods is that students work in groups. Each group member puts his feelings into one text with
the same theme and title. This is done in a chain. The relay writing learning method applies the
following steps.

a) Students working in groups are asked to determine a theme that will be developed into
an argument.

b) After students complete the fragment, they are asked to submit a paper containing
fragments of the essay to the teacher then the teacher distributes it randomly.

c) Students who receive paper containing essays are asked to read and then each student is
asked to continue (connect) the essay.

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 d) After the serial writing activities are finished, each student is asked to collect the paper
with the teacher.

The steps to write poetry with the chain method proposed by Syatariah (2009) are as follows.

a) Students formed several groups which each group consisted of 4-6 students

b) Students are asked to determine the free theme that will be developed into poetry; the
next step, the first student starts to write the first stanza which is in accordance with the
theme and title that has been predetermined

c) At the end of each verse, students write their names

d) After the first student completes the first stanza, they are asked to submit or move the
book to a friend on his right.

e) Students who receive the book are required to read the poetry that their previous friend
has written. Then each student is asked to continue or connect the poem by writing the
second link. Each end of the verse the student writes his name. It aims to find out which
temple owner is incoherent or incompatible with the previous verse of poetry

f) After the second student continues the friend's next poem, the book is played to the next
friend clockwise until the time limit specified by the teacher. Every student must read
poetry from the beginning of the poem that will be continued. And so on

g) The next step, the results of the poetry that are done in series are discussed with the
group, then mark discordant sentences or not in accordance with the previous sentence

h) After revising the poem, then the group member gives the right title for poetry that has
been done in series

i) one student represented to read poetry results with a loud voice and then responded by
other students.

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 CHAPTER III

APPROACHES IN TEACHING WRITING

3.1 Definition Of Approach

An approach is away of looking at teaching and learning. underlying any language

teaching approach is a theoretical view of what language is, and of how it can be learnt. An
approach gives rise to methods, the way of teaching something, which use classroom activities or
techniques to help learners learn.

3.2 Product Approach

The product approach in writing activities only focuses on the end result of a writing
learning activity. The product approach also prioritizes textual forms, by more teaching
grammar, error analysis, or combining single sentences into compound sentences. In addition,
students are taught to write by imitating existing models. This ignores the cognitive aspect of
writing. Writing is only seen as a linguistic act.

3.3 Process Approach

In the process approach, the main focus is on the process of student activities in
producing the final text. Cumming in Reid (1993) states that writing is negotiating the meaning
between the writer and the reader which involves a continuous process from the design to the
revision process. According to him, the stages in writing consist of prewriting, drafting and
revising. In prewriting, students issue ideas to find topics they will write. After finding the idea,
they made a draft that was later revised and rewritten until it was finished. This process will
develop students' ability to express their ideas in writing. According to Murray (in Aswandi,
2009) writing learning activities using a process approach are characterized by the use of
collaborative brain storming, free-writing, the choice of writing topics submitted to the author,
the presence of peer editing groups, the learning steps in the process include: developing ideas /
ideas, drafting, revising, and editing.

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3.4 The Paragraph-Pattern Approach

Instead of accuracy of grammar or fluency of content, the paragraph pattern approach stresses
organization. Students copy paragraphs, analyze the form of model paragraphs, and imitate
model passages. They put scrambled sentences into paragraph order, they identify general and
specific statements, they choose or invent an appropriate topic sentence, they insert or delete
sentences.

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