Tuti Transmission Lines and Power Flow Analysis

School of Engineering (SOE)
University of St Thomas (UST)
Transmission Lines and

Power Flow Analysis
Dr. Greg Mowry

Annie Sebastian
Marian Mohamed
1
School of Engineering
The UST Mission

Inspired by Catholic intellectual tradition, the
University of St. Thomas educates students
to be morally responsible leaders who think
critically, act wisely, and work skillfully to
advance the common good. http://www.stthomas.edu/mission/
Since civilization depends on power, power is for the

‘common good’!! 2
Outline
I. Background material
II. Transmission Lines (TLs)
III. Power Flow Analysis (PFA)
3
I. Background Material
4
Networks & Power Systems

 In a network (power system) there are 6 basic
electrical quantities of interest:
1. Current 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑑𝑞/𝑑𝑡
2. Voltage 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑑𝜑/𝑑𝑡 (FL)
𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝐸
3. Power 𝑝 𝑡 =𝑣 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
5

 6 basic electrical quantities continued:
𝑡 𝑡
4. Energy (work) w t = −∞
𝑝 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = −∞
𝑣 𝜏 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝑡
5. Charge (q or Q) 𝑞 𝑡 = −∞
𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝑡
6. Flux 𝜑 𝑡 = −∞
𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
6

 A few comments:
 Voltage (potential) has potential-energy characteristics

and therefore needs a reference to be meaningful; e.g.
ground  0 volts
 I will assume that pretty much everything we discuss

& analyze today is linear until we get to PFA
7

 Linear Time Invariant (LTI) systems:
 Linearity:
If 𝑦1 = 𝑓 𝑥1 & 𝑦2 = 𝑓(𝑥2 )
Then 𝛼 𝑦1 + 𝛽 𝑦2 = 𝑓(𝛼 𝑥1 + 𝛽 𝑥2 )
8

 Implications of LTI systems:
 Scalability: if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝛼𝑦 = 𝑓(𝛼𝑥)
 Superposition & scalability of inputs holds
 Frequency invariance: 𝜔𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝜔𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
9

 ACSS and LTI systems:
 Suppose: 𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃
 Since input = output, the only thing a linear system can

do to an input is:
 Change the input amplitude: Vin  Vout
 Change the input phase: in  out
10

These LTI characteristics along with Euler’s theorem
𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗 sin 𝜔𝑡 ,
allow 𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 to be represented as
𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃  𝑉𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑉𝑖 ∠𝜃
11

 In honor of Star Trek,
𝑉𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑉𝑖 ∠𝜃
is called a ‘Phasor’

12
𝑉𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑉𝑖 ∠𝜃 13

 Since time does not explicitly appear in a phasor, an

LTI system in ACSS can be treated like a DC system
on steroids with j
 ACSS also requires impedances; i.e. AC resistance

14

 Comments:
 Little, if anything, in ACSS analysis is gained by
thinking of j = −1 (that is algebra talk)
 Rather, since Euler Theorem looks similar to a 2D

vector
𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑢 =𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 15
𝑒 𝑗90° = cos 90° + 𝑗 sin 90° = 𝑗
Hence in ACSS analysis,

think of j as a 90 rotation
16
Operators
v(t ) V  V
dv
dt jV
V
 vdt j
17
Ohm’s Approximation (Law)
Summary of voltage-current relationship

Element Time domain Frequency domain
R
v  Ri V  RI
L vL
di
V  jLI
dt
C dv V
I
iC
dt jC
18
Impedance & Admittance

Impedances and admittances of passive elements
Element Impedance Admittance
R 1
ZR Y
R
L 1
Z  jL Y
jL
C 1
Z  Y  jC
jC
18
The Impedance Triangle
18
Z=R+jX
The Power Triangle (ind. reactance)
18
S=P+jQ
Triangles
 Comments:
 Power Triangle = Impedance Triangle
 The cos() defines the Power Factor (pf)
22
Reminder of Useful Network Theorems
 KVL – Energy conservation 𝑣𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 = 0
 KCL – Charge conservation 𝑖𝑁𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑠 = 0
 Ohm’s Approximation (Law)
 Passive sign Convention (PSC)

23
Passive Sign Convection – Power System
24
PSC Source Load or Circuit Element
PSource = vi PLoad = vi
25
PSource = PLoad
Reminder of Useful Network Theorems

 Pointing Theorem 𝑆 = 𝑉 𝐼∗
 Thevenin Equivalent – Any linear circuit may be

represented by a voltage source and series Thevenin
impedance
 Norton Equivalent – Any linear circuit my be

represented by a current source and a shunt Thevenin
impedance
26
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 𝐼𝑁 𝑍𝑇𝐻
School of Engineering (SOE)
University of St Thomas (UST)
Transmission Lines and

Power Flow Analysis
Dr. Greg Mowry

Annie Sebastian
Marian Mohamed
1
II. Transmission Lines
2
Outline
 General Aspects of TLs
 TL Parameters: R, L, C, G
 2-Port Analysis (a brief interlude)
 Maxwell’s Equations & the Telegraph equations
 Solutions to the TL wave equations

3
4
5
Transmission Lines (TLs)
 A TL is a major component of an electrical

power system.
 The function of a TL is to transport power

from sources to loads with minimal loss.
6
Transmission Lines
 In an AC power system, a TL will operate

at some frequency f; e.g. 60 Hz.
 Consequently, 𝜆 = 𝑐/𝑓
 The characteristics of a TL manifest

themselves when 𝝀 ~ 𝑳 of the system. 7
USA example
 The USA is ~ 2700 mi. wide & 1600 mi. from

north-to-south (4.35e6 x 2.57e6 m).
3𝑒8
 For 60 Hz, 𝜆 = = 5𝑒6 𝑚
60
 Thus 𝝀𝟔𝟎 𝑯𝒛 ~ 𝑳𝑼𝑺𝑨 and consequently the

continental USA transmission system will exhibit
TL characteristics 8
Overhead TL Components
9
Overhead ACSR TL Cables
10
Some Types of Overhead ACSR TL Cables
11
http://lyhuatong.en.alibaba.com/product/60038152156-801813127/7_Wires_AAC_Wasp_Conductor_Aluminium_Electric_Conductor.html
TL Parameters
12
Model of an Infinitesimal TL Section
13
General TL Parameters
a. Series Resistance – accounts for Ohmic (I2R losses)
b. Series Impedance – accounts for series voltage drops

 Resistive
 Inductive reactance
c. Shunt Capacitance – accounts for Line-Charging Currents
d. Shunt Conductance – accounts for V2G losses due to leakage

currents between conductors or between conductors and
14
ground.
Power TL Parameters
 Series Resistance: related to the physical structure of

the TL conductor over some temperature range.
 Series Inductance & Shunt Capacitance: produced

by magnetic and electric fields around the conductor
and affected by their geometrical arrangement.
 Shunt Conductance: typically very small so

15
neglected.
TL Design Considerations
Design Considerations Responsibilities
1. Dictates the size, type and number of bundle conductors per phase.
2. Responsible for number of insulator discs, vertical or v-shaped arrangement,
Electrical Factors phase to phase clearance and phase to tower clearance to be used
3. Number, Type and location of shield wires to intercept lightning strokes.
4. Conductor Spacing's, Types and sizes
Mechanical Factors Focuses on Strength of the conductors, insulator strings and support structures
Environmental Factors Include Land usage, and visual impact
Economic Factors Technical Design criteria at lowest overall cost
16
Transmission Line Components

Components Made of Types
ACSR - Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced
AAC - All Aluminum Conductor
AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor
ACAR - Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced
Aluminum replaced
Conductors Alumoweld - Aluminum clad Steel Conductor
copper
ACSS - Aluminum Conductor Steel Supported
GTZTACSR - Gap-Type ZT Aluminum Conductor
ACFR - Aluminum Conductor Carbon Reinforced
ACCR - Aluminum Conductor Composite Reinforced
Pin Type Insulator
Porcelain, Toughened
Insulators Suspension Type Insulator
glass and polymer
Strain Type Insulator
Steel, Alumoweld
Shield wires Smaller Cross section compared to 3 phase conductors
and ACSR
Wooden Poles
Lattice steel Tower, Reinforced Concrete Poles
Support Structures
Wood Frame Steel Poles
Lattice Steel towers.
17
ACSR Conductor Characteristic

Overall Dia DC Resistance Current Capacity
Name
(mm) (ohms/km) (Amp) 75 ◦C
Mole 4.5 2.78 70
Squirrel 6.33 1.394 107
Weasel 7.77 0.9291 138
Rabbit 10.05 0.5524 190
Racoon 12.27 0.3712 244
Dog 14.15 0.2792 291
Wolf 18.13 0.1871 405
Lynx 19.53 0.161 445
Panther 21 0.139 487
Zebra 28.62 0.06869 737
Dear 29.89 0.06854 756
Moose 31.77 0.05596 836
Bersimis 35.04 0.04242 998 18
TL Parameters - Resistance
19
 TL conductor resistance depends on factors such

as:
 Conductor geometry
 The frequency of the AC current
 Conductor proximity to other current-carrying conductors
 Temperature
20
Resistance
𝒍
The DC resistance of a conductor at a temperature T is given by: 𝑹(𝑻) = 𝝆𝑻
𝑨
where
T = conductor resistivity at temperature T
l = the length of the conductor
A = the current-carry cross-sectional area of the conductor
𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔
The AC resistance of a conductor is given by: 𝑹𝒂𝒄 =
𝑰𝟐
where
Ploss – real power dissipated in the conductor in watts
I – rms conductor current
21
TL Conductor Resistance depends on:
 Spiraling:
The purpose of introducing a steel core inside the stranded
aluminum conductors is to obtain a high strength-to-weight ratio. A
stranded conductor offers more flexibility and easier to
manufacture than a solid large conductor. However, the total
resistance is increased because the outside strands are larger than
the inside strands on account of the spiraling.
22
The layer resistance-per-length of each spirally wound

conductor depends on its total length as follows:
𝝆 𝟏
𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 = 𝟏 + (𝝅 )𝟐 Ω/m
𝑨 𝒑𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
where
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 - resistance of the wound conductor (Ω)
1
1 + (𝜋 )2 - Length of the wound conductor (m)
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑙 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛
p𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = - relative pitch of the wound conductor (m)
2𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟
𝑙𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 - length of one turn of the spiral (m)
2𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑟 - Diameter of the layer (m) 23
 Frequency:
 When voltages and currents change in time, current flow (i.e. current
density) is not uniform across the diameter of a conductor.
 Thus the ‘effective’ current-carrying cross-section of a conductor with

AC is less than that for DC.
 This phenomenon is known as skin effect.
 As frequency increases, the current density decreases from that at the

surface of the conductor to that at the center of the conductor.
24
 Frequency cont.
 The spatial distribution of the current density in a particular conductor is

additionally altered (similar to the skin effect) due to currents in adjacent
current-carrying conductors.
 This is called the ‘Proximity Effect’ and is smaller than the skin-effect.
 Using the DC resistance as a starting point, the effect of AC on the

overall cable resistance may be accounted for by a correction factor k.
 k is determined by E&M analysis. For 60 Hz, k is estimated around 1.02
𝑹𝑨𝑪 = 𝒌 𝑹𝑫𝑪
25
Skin Effect
26
 Temperature:
 The resistivity of conductors is a function of temperature.
 For common conductors (Al & Cu), the conductor

resistance increases ~ linearly with temperature
𝜌 𝑇 = 𝜌0 1 + 𝛼 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜
  the temperature coefficient of resistivity

27
TL Parameters - Conductance
28
Conductance
 Conductance is associated with power losses between the
conductors or between the conductors and ground.
 Such power losses occur through leakage currents on insulators

and via a corona
 Leakage currents are affected by:

 Contaminants such dirt and accumulated salt accumulated on insulators.
 Meteorological factors such as moisture
29
Conductance
 Corona loss occurs when the electric field at the surface of a
conductor causes the air to ionize and thereby conduct.
 Corona loss depends on:

 Conductor surface irregularities
 Meteorological conditions such as humidity, fog, and rain
 Losses due to leakage currents and corona loss are often small
compared to direct I2R losses on TLs and are typically neglected
in power flow studies.
30
Corona loss
31
Corona loss
32
TL Parameters - Inductance
33
Inductance is defined by the ratio of the total magnetic flux flowing

through (passing through) an area divided by the current producing
that flux
Φ= B ∙ d𝑠 ∝ 𝐼 , 𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
S
Φ
L= , 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐼
Inductance is solely dependent on the geometry of the arrangement

and the magnetic properties (permeability ) of the medium.
Also, B = H where H is the mag field due to current flow only.
34
Magnetic Flux
35
Inductance
 When a current flows through a conductor, a magnetic flux is set

up which links the conductor.
 The current also establishes a magnetic field proportional to the

current in the wire.
 Due to the distributed nature of a TL we are interested in the

inductance per unit length (H/m).
36
Inductance - Examples
37
Inductance of a Single Wire
The inductance of a magnetic circuit that has a constant permeability (𝜇) can be
obtained as follows:
The total magnetic field Bx at x via Amperes law:
𝜇𝑜 𝑥
𝐵𝑥 = 2
𝐼 (𝑊𝑏/𝑚)
2𝜋𝑟
The flux d through slice dx is given by:
𝑑Φ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑑𝑎 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑙 𝑑𝑥 (𝑊𝑏)
38
The fraction of the current I in the wire that links the area da = dxl is:
x 2
Nf =
r
The total flux through the wire is consequently given by:
𝑟 𝑟 2
𝑥 𝜇𝑜 𝑥 𝐼
Φ= 𝑑Φ = 𝑙𝑑𝑥
0 0 𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 2
Integrating with subsequent algebra to obtain inductance-per-m yields:
𝐿𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 −𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 = 0.5 ∙ 10−7 (𝐻/𝑚)

39
Inductance per unit length (H/m) for two

Wires (Cables)
To calculate the inductance per unit length (H/m) for two-parallel

wires the flux through area S must be calculated. 40
The inductance of a single phase two-wire line is given by:

D
L=4∙ 10−7 ln (H/m)
r′
1
−4
where 𝑟 ′ = 𝑟𝑥′ = 𝑟𝑦′ = 𝑒 𝑟𝑥
41
The inductance per phase of a 3-phase 3 wire line with equal spacing is given by:
D
La = 2 ∙ 10−7 ln (H/m) per phase
r′
42
L of a Single Phase 2-conductor Line Comprised

of Composite Conductors
43
𝐷𝑥𝑦
𝐿𝑥 = 2 ∙ 10−7 ln
𝐷𝑥𝑥
where
𝑁 𝑀 𝑁 𝑀
𝑀𝑁 𝑁2
𝐷𝑥𝑦 = 𝐷𝑘𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑥𝑥 = 𝐷𝑘𝑚
𝑘=1 𝑚=1′ 𝑘=1 𝑚=1
Dxy is referred to as GMD = geometrical mean distance between conductors x & y

Dxx is referred to as GMR = geometrical mean radius of conductor x
44
A similar Ly express exists for conductor y.
LTotal = Lx + Ly (H/m)
Great NEWs!!!!!
Manufacturers often calculate these inductances for us for

various cable arrangements 
45
 Long 3-phase TLs are sometimes transposed for positive sequence balancing.
 This is cleverly called ‘transposition’
 The inductance (H/m) of a completely transposed three phase line may also be
calculated
46
𝐷𝑒𝑞
𝐿𝑎 = 2 ∙ 10−7 ln
𝐷𝑠
3
𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 𝐷12 𝐷13 𝐷23
La has units of (H/m)

Ds is the conductor GMR for stranded conductors or r’ for solid conductors
47
In HV TLs conductors are often arranged in one of the

following 3 standard configurations
48
𝐷𝑒𝑞
𝐿𝑎 = 2 ∙ 10−7 ln
𝐷𝑆𝐿
La again has units of (H/m)
If bundle separation is large compared to the bundle size, then Deq ~ the center-to-
center distance of the bundles
4 2
2-conductor bundle: 𝐷𝑆𝐿 = 𝐷𝑆 𝑑 = 𝐷𝑆 𝑑
9 3 3
3-conductor bundle: 𝐷𝑆𝐿 = 𝐷𝑆 𝑑𝑑 = 𝐷𝑆 𝑑 2
16 4 4
4-conductor bundle: 𝐷𝑆𝐿 = 𝐷𝑆 𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 = 1.091 𝐷𝑆 𝑑 3
49
TL Parameters - Capacitance
50
𝑆
𝜀 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑠 𝜀
Q=CV C = RC =
− 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝑙 𝜎
𝑙
Capacitance
 A capacitor results when any two conductors are separated by an insulating

medium.
 Conductors of an overhead transmission line are separated by air – which acts

as an insulating medium – therefore they have capacitance.
 Due to the distributed nature of a TL we are interested in the capacitance per

unit length (F/m).
 Capacitance is solely dependent on the geometry of the arrangement and the

electric properties (permittivity ) of the medium
52
Calculating Capacitance
 To calculate the capacitance between conductors we

must calculate two things:
 The flux of the electric field E between the two conductors
 The voltage V (electric potential) between the conductors
 Then we take the ratio of these two quantities 53

 Since conductors in a power system are typically cylindrical, we

start with this geometry for determining the flux of the electric
field and potential (reference to infinity)
54
Gauss’s Law may be used to calculate the electric field E and the
potential V for this geometry:
𝑞
𝐸𝑥 = (𝑉/𝑚)
2𝜋𝜀𝑥
The potential (voltage) of the wire is found using this electric field:
𝐷2
𝑞 𝑑𝑥 𝑞 𝐷2
𝑉12 = = 𝑙𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
2𝜋𝜀 𝐷1 𝑥 2𝜋𝜀 𝐷1
The capacitance of various line configurations may be found using

these two equations 55
Capacitance - Examples
56
Capacitance of a single-phase 2-Wire Line
The line-to-neutral capacitance is found to be:
2𝜋𝜀
𝐶𝑛 = 𝐷 (𝐹/𝑚)
𝑙𝑛
𝑟
The same Cn is also found for a 3-phase line-to-neutral arrangement

The Capacitance of Stranded Conductors
e.g. a 3-phase line with 2 conductors per phase
58
Direct analysis yields
2𝜋𝜀
𝐶𝑎𝑛 = (𝐹/𝑚)
𝐷𝑒𝑞
𝑙𝑛
𝑟
where
3
𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 𝐷𝑎𝑏 𝐷𝑎𝑐 𝐷𝑏𝑐
59
The Capacitance of a Transposed Line
60
The Capacitance of a Transposed Line

2𝜋𝜀
𝐶𝑎𝑛 = (𝐹/𝑚)
𝐷𝑒𝑞
𝑙𝑛 𝐷
𝑆𝐶
where
3
𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 𝐷𝑎𝑏 𝐷𝑎𝑐 𝐷𝑏𝑐
2-conductor bundle: 𝐷𝑆𝐶 = 𝑟𝑑
3
3-conductor bundle: 𝐷𝑆𝐶 = 𝑟 𝑑2
4
4-conductor bundle: 𝐷𝑆𝐶 = 1.091 𝑟 𝑑 3
61
TLs Continued
Dr. Greg Mowry

Annie Sebastian
Marian Mohamed
1
Maxwell’s Eqns. & the

Telegraph Eqns.
2
3
Maxwell’s Equations & Telegraph Equations
 The ‘Telegrapher's Equations’ (or) ‘Telegraph Equations’ are a

pair of coupled, linear differential equations that describe the
voltage and current on a TL as functions of distance and time.
 The original Telegraph Equations and modern TL model was

developed by Oliver Heaviside in the 1880’s.
 The telegraph equations lead to the conclusion that voltages and

currents propagate on TLs as waves. 4
Maxwell’s Equations & Telegraph Equations
 The Transmission Line equation can be derived using Maxwell’s

Equation.
 Maxwell's Equations (MEs) are a set of 4 equations that describe

all we know about electromagnetics.
 MEs describe how electric and magnetic fields propagate, interact,

and how they are influenced by other objects.
5
Time for History
 James Clerk Maxwell [1831-1879] was an Einstein/Newton-

level genius who took the set of known experimental laws
(Faraday's Law, Ampere's Law) and unified them into a
symmetric coherent set of Equations known as Maxwell's
Equations.
 Maxwell was one of the first to determine the speed of

propagation of electromagnetic (EM) waves was the same as the
speed of light - and hence concluded that EM waves and visible
light were really descriptions of the same phenomena.
6
Maxwell’s Equations – 4 Laws
Gauss’ Law: The total of the electric flux through a closed surface
is equal to the charge enclosed divided by the permittivity. The
electric flux through an area is defined as the electric field
multiplied by the area of the surface projected in a plane
perpendicular to the field.
𝝆
𝜵∙𝑫=
𝝐
The ‘no name’ ME: The net magnetic flux through any closed
surface is zero.
𝛁∙𝑩=𝟎 7
Faraday’s law: Faraday's ‘law of induction’ is a basic law of

electromagnetism describing how a magnetic field interacts over a
closed path (often a circuit loop) to produce an electromotive force
(EMF; i.e. a voltage) via electromagnetic induction.
𝝏𝑩
𝜵𝑿𝑬=−
𝝏𝒕
Ampere’s law: describes how a magnetic field is related to two

sources; (1) the current density J, and (2) the time-rate-of-change of
the displacement vector D.
𝝏𝑫
𝜵𝑿𝑯= + 𝑱
𝝏𝒕 8
The Constitutive Equations
 Maxwell’s 4 equations are further augmented by the

‘constitutive equations’ that describe how materials interact with
fields to relate (B & H) and (D & E).
 For simple linear, isotropic, and homogeneous materials the

constitutive equations are represented by:
𝑩= 𝝁𝑯 𝝁 = 𝝁𝒓 𝝁𝒐
𝑫= 𝜺𝑬 𝝐 = 𝜺𝒓 𝜺𝒐
9
The Telegraph Eqns.
10
TL Equations
 TL equations can be derived by two methods:
 Maxwell’s equations applied to waveguides
 Infinitesimal analysis of a section of a TL operating in ACSS
with LCRG parameters (i.e. use phasors)
 The TL circuit model is an infinite sequence of 2-port

components; each being an infinitesimally short
segment of the TL.
11
TL Equations
 The LCRG parameters of a TL are expressed as per-
unit-length quantities to account for the experimentally
observed distributed characteristics of the TL
 R’ = Conductor resistance per unit length, Ω/m
 L’ = Conductor inductance per unit length, H/m
 C’ = Capacitance per unit length between TL conductors, F/m
 G’ = Conductance per unit length through the insulating medium between

TL conductors, S/m 12
The Infinitesimal TL Circuit
13
The Infinitesimal TL Circuit Model
14
Transmission Lines Equations

The following circuit techniques and laws are used to
derive the lossless TL equations
KVL around the ‘abcd’ loop
KCL at node b
𝜕i
VL = L OLL for an inductor
𝜕t
𝜕v
IC = C OLC for a capacitor
𝜕t
Set 𝑅′ = 𝐺 ′ = 0 for the Lossless TL case 15

 Apply KVL around the “abcd” loop:

𝜕𝐼(𝑧)
 𝑉(z) = V(z+∆z) +𝑅′ ∆z ′
I(z) + 𝐿 ∆z 𝜕𝑡
 Divide all the terms by ∆z :

𝑉 𝑧 𝑉 𝑧+∆𝑧 𝜕𝐼(𝑧)
 = + 𝑅′ 𝐼 𝑧 + 𝐿′
∆𝑧 ∆𝑧 𝜕𝑡
 As ∆z  0 in the limit and R’ = 0 (lossless case):

𝜕𝑉(𝑧) ′ ′ 𝜕𝐼(𝑧)
 =– 𝑅𝐼 𝑧 +𝐿
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝝏𝑽(𝒛) ′ 𝝏𝑰(𝒛)
 = –𝑳 (Eq.1)
𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒕
 Apply KCL at node b:

𝜕𝑉(𝑧+∆𝑧)
 𝐼 (z) = I(z+∆z) +𝐺 ′ ∆z ′
V(z+∆z) + 𝐶 ∆z 𝜕𝑡
 Divide all the terms by ∆z:

𝐼 𝑧 𝐼 𝑧+∆𝑧 𝜕𝑉(𝑧+∆𝑧)
 = + 𝐺 ′ 𝑉 𝑧 + ∆𝑧 + 𝐶 ′
∆𝑧 ∆𝑧 𝜕𝑡
 As ∆z  0 in the limit and G’ = 0 (lossless case):

𝜕𝐼(𝑧) 𝜕𝑉(𝑧)
 = – 𝐺 ′𝑉 𝑧 + 𝐶′
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝝏𝑰(𝒛) ′ 𝝏𝑽(𝒛)
 =– 𝑪 (Eq.2)
𝝏𝒛 𝝏𝒕
Summarizing
𝜕 𝑉 𝑧 ,𝑡 ′ 𝜕 𝐼 𝑧 ,𝑡
(Eqn. 1) =− 𝐿
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
𝜕 𝐼 𝑧 ,𝑡 ′ 𝜕 𝑉 𝑧 ,𝑡
(Eqn. 2) =− 𝐶
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
Equations 1 & 2 are called the “Coupled First Order Telegraph Equations”
18
 Differentiating (Eq.1) wrt ‘z’ yields:

𝜕2 𝑉(𝑧) 2
′ 𝜕 𝐼(𝑧)
 2 =– 𝐿 (Eq.3)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑡
 Differentiating (2) wrt ‘t’ yields:

𝜕2 𝐼(𝑧) 2
′ 𝜕 𝑉(𝑧)
 =– 𝐶 (Eq.4)
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
 Plugging equation 4 into 3:
𝝏𝟐 𝑽(𝒛) 𝝏 𝟐 𝑽(𝒛)
= 𝑳′ 𝑪′ (Eq.5)
𝝏𝒛𝟐 𝝏𝒕𝟐
19
Reversing the differentiation sequence

 Differentiating (Eq.1) wrt ‘t’ yields:
𝜕2 𝑉(𝑧) ′ 𝜕2 𝐼(𝑧)
 =– 𝐿 (Eq.6)
𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2
 Differentiating (2) wrt ‘z’ yields:

𝜕2 𝐼(𝑧) 2
′ 𝜕 𝑉(𝑧)
 2 =– 𝐶 (Eq.7)
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑡
 Plugging equation 6 into 7:
𝝏𝟐 𝑰(𝒛) 𝝏 𝟐 𝑰(𝒛)
= 𝑳′ 𝑪′ 𝟐 (Eq.8)
𝝏𝒛𝟐 𝝏𝒕 20
Summarizing
𝜕2 V(z) 𝜕 2 V(z)
(Eqn. 5) = L′ C′
𝜕z2 𝜕t2
𝜕2 I(z) 𝜕 2 I(z)
(Eqn. 8) = L′ C′ 2
𝜕z2 𝜕t
Equations 5 & 8 are the v(z,t) and i(z,t) TL wave equations

21
 What is really cool about Equations 5 & 8 is that the solution to a

wave equation was already known; hence solving these equations
was straight forward.
 The general solution of the wave equation has the following form:
f z, t = f(z ± ut)
where the ‘wave’ propagates with Phase Velocity 𝑢
ω ω 1
u= = =
β ω L ′ C′ L ′ C′
22
 The solution of the general wave equation, f(z,t), describes the

shape of the wave and has the following form:
f z, t = f(z − ut)
or
f z, t = f(z + ut)
 The sign of 𝑢𝑡 determines the direction of wave propagation:
 𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑢𝑡  Wave traveling in the +z direction
 𝑓 𝑧 + 𝑢𝑡  Wave traveling in the –z direction

23
The ‘+z’ Traveling WE Solution

 𝑓 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑧 − 𝑢𝑡)
 𝑓 𝑧 − 𝑢𝑡) = 𝑓(0
 𝑧 − 𝑢𝑡 = 0
 𝑧 = 𝑢𝑡 24
 The argument of the wave equation solution is called the

phase.
 Hence the culmination of all of this is that, “Waves

propagate by phase change”
 One other key point, the form of the voltage WE and

current WE are identical. Hence solutions to each must
be of the same form and in phase.
25
Wave Equation
 z increases as t increase for a constant phase
26
TL Solutions
27
TL Wave Equations - Recap
𝜕2 V(z) 𝜕 2 V(z)
(Eqn. 5) = L′ C′
𝜕z2 𝜕t2
𝜕2 I(z) 𝜕 2 I(z)
(Eqn. 8) = L′ C′ 2
𝜕z2 𝜕t
Equations 5 & 8 are the v(z,t) and i(z,t) TL wave equations

28
ACSS TL Analysis Recipe
29
Initial Steps
 Typically we will know or are given the source voltage. For
example, it could be:
𝒗𝒔𝒔 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎 cos 107 𝑡 + 30° 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
 From the time function we form the source phasor & know the
frequency that the TL operates at (in ACSS operation):
𝛚 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒔−𝟏
𝒋𝟑𝟎°
𝑽𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 30
ACSS TL Analysis
 Under ACSS conditions the voltage and current solutions to the WE
may be expressed as:
 𝑉 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑉0+ 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡−γ𝑧) + 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+γ𝑧)
 𝑉 𝑧 = 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝑗γ𝑧 + 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝑗γ𝑧 Time Harmonic Phasor Form
 I 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒 𝐼0+ 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡−γ𝑧) + 𝐼0− 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+γ𝑧)
𝑉+ −𝑗γ𝑧 𝑉− 𝑗γ𝑧
 I 𝑧 = 𝐼0+ 𝑒 −𝑗γ𝑧 + 𝐼0− 𝑒 𝑗γ𝑧 = 𝑒 + 𝑒 Time Harmonic Phasor Form
𝑍0 𝑍0
ACSS TL Analysis Recipe

 Step 1: Assemble 𝑍0 , 𝑍𝐿 , 𝑙, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 γ
 Step 2: Determine Г𝐿
 Step 3: Determine 𝑍𝑖𝑛
 Step 4: Determine 𝑉𝑖𝑛
 Step 5: Determine 𝑉0+
 Step 6: Determine 𝑉𝐿
 Step 7: Calculate 𝐼𝐿 and 𝑃𝐿 32

Step 1: Assemble 𝒁𝟎 , 𝒁𝑳 , 𝒍, , and 𝜸
 Characteristic Impedance:
𝑳′ 𝑽+𝒐 𝑽 −
𝒐
𝒁𝒐 = = = −
𝑪′ 𝑰𝒐+ 𝑰𝒐−
 Load Impedance:
𝑽𝑳 𝑽+
𝟎 + 𝑽 −
𝟎
𝒁𝑳 = = + − 𝒁𝟎
𝑰𝑳 𝑽𝟎 − 𝑽𝟎
 Complex Propagation Constant: ( = 0 for lossless TL)

𝜸 = 𝜶 + 𝒋𝜷 = 𝒋𝝎 𝑳′ 𝑪′
33
Additional Initial Results
 Phase velocity uP:

𝛚 𝟏
𝐮𝐏 = =
𝛃 𝐋′ 𝐂 ′
 Identity:
𝐋′ 𝐂 ′ = 𝛍 𝛆
34
Step 2: Determine Г𝑳
 Reflection Coefficient:
𝑉0− 𝐼0−
 Г𝐿 = = − +
𝑉0+ 𝐼0
𝑍𝐿 −𝑍0
 Г𝐿 =
𝑍𝐿 +𝑍0
𝑍𝐿
 𝑧𝐿 =
𝑍0
𝒛𝑳 − 𝟏
Г𝑳 =
𝒛𝑳 + 𝟏
 Reflection Coefficient at distance z (from load to source = -l):

𝑽−𝒐 𝒆
𝜸𝒛
Г 𝒛 = = Г𝑳 𝒆𝒋𝟐𝜷𝒛
𝑽+
𝒐 𝒆
−𝜸𝒛
35
Additional Step-2 Results
 VSWR:
𝟏 + 𝚪𝑳
𝐕𝐒𝐖𝐑 =
𝟏 − 𝚪𝑳
 Range of the VSWR:
𝟎 < 𝑽𝑺𝑾𝑹 < ∞

36
Step 3: Determine 𝒁𝒊𝒏
 Input Impedance:
𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝒛 = −𝒍 𝒁𝑳 + 𝒁𝟎 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡(𝜸𝒍)
𝒁𝒊𝒏 = = 𝒁𝟎
𝑰𝒊𝒏 𝒛 = −𝒍 𝒁𝟎 + 𝒁𝑳 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉(𝜸𝒍)
 For a lossless line  tanh γl = j tan(βl):
𝒁𝑳 + 𝒋𝒁𝟎 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝜷𝒍)
𝒁𝒊𝒏 = 𝒁𝟎
𝒁𝟎 + 𝒋𝒁𝑳 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝜷𝒍)
 At any distance 𝑧1 from the load:
𝒁𝑳 + 𝒋𝒁𝟎 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝜷𝒛𝟏 )
𝒁(𝒛𝟏 ) = 𝒁𝟎
𝒁𝟎 + 𝒋𝒁𝑳 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝜷𝒛𝟏 )
37
Step 4: Determine 𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝒁𝒊𝒏
𝑽𝒊𝒏 = 𝑽𝑺𝑺 = 𝑽𝒊𝒏 𝒛 = −𝒍
𝒁𝒊𝒏 + 𝒁𝑺
38
+
Step 5: Determine 𝑽𝟎
𝑉 𝑧 = 𝑉0+ 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + 𝑉0− 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 = 𝑉0+ (𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 +Г𝐿 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 )
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑇𝐿 𝑧 = −𝑙 = 𝑉0+ (𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑙 +Г𝐿 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑙 )
𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝑽𝟎+ = 𝒋𝜷𝒍
(𝒆 +Г𝑳 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒍 )
39
Step 6: Determine 𝑽𝑳
 Voltage at the load, VL:
𝑽𝑳 = 𝑽𝑻𝑳 𝒛 = 𝟎 = 𝑽𝒐+ 𝟏 + 𝚪𝑳
where:
𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝑽+
𝟎 = 𝒋𝜷𝒍
(𝒆 +Г𝑳 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒍 )
40
Step 7: Calculate 𝑰𝑳 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑷𝑳
𝑽𝑳
𝑰𝑳 =
𝒁𝑳
𝟏 𝟐
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝑷𝑳 = 𝑰𝑳 𝑹𝒆(𝒁𝑳 )
𝟐
𝑰𝒏 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍, 𝑺𝑳 = 𝑽𝑳 𝑰∗𝑳 = 𝑷𝑳 + 𝒋 𝑸𝑳
41
Final Steps
 After we have determined VL in phasor form, we might be
interested in the actual time function associated with VL; i.e.
vL(t). It is straight forward to convert the VL phasor back to the
vL(t) time-domain form; e.g. suppose:
−𝒋𝟔𝟎°
𝑽𝑳 = 𝟓 𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
 Then with
𝛚 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒔−𝟏
𝒗𝑳 𝒕 = 𝟓 cos 107 𝑡 − 60° 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔

42
Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)
Lossless TL with VS fixed for line-lengths < /4 43

2-Port Analysis
44
Two Port Network
45
 A two-port network is an electrical ‘black box’

with two sets of terminals.
 The 2-port is sometimes referred to as a four

terminal network or quadrupole network.
 In a 2-port network, port 1 is often considered as

an input port while port 2 is considered to be an
output port. 46
 A 2-port network model is used to

mathematically analyze electrical circuits by
isolating the larger circuits into smaller portions.
 The 2-port works as “Black Box” with its

properties specified by a input/output matrix.
 Examples: Filters, Transmission Lines,

Transformers, Matching Networks, Small Signal
47
Models
Characterization of 2-Port Network
 2-port networks are considered to be linear circuits

hence the principle of superposition applies.
 The internal circuits connecting the 2-ports are assumed

to be in their zero state and free of independent sources.
 2-Port Network consist of two sets of input & output

variables selected from the overall V1, V2, I1, I2 set:
 2 Independent (or) Excitation Variables
48
 2 Dependent (or) Response Variables
Characterization of 2-Port Network
Uses of 2-Port Network:
 Analysis & Synthesis of Circuits and Networks.
 Used in the field of communications, control system, power systems, and

electronics for the analysis of cascaded networks.
 2-ports also show up in geometrical optics, wave-guides, and lasers
 By knowing the matric parameters describing the 2-port network, it can be

considered as black-box when embedded within a larger network.
49
2-Port Networks & Linearity
 Any linear system with 2 inputs and 2 outputs can always be

expressed as:
𝑦1 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑥1
= 𝑎 𝑎22
𝑦2 21 𝑥2
50
2-Port Networks
http://www.globalspec.com/reference/9518/348308/chapter-10-two-port-networks
51
Review
 A careful review of the preceding TL analysis reveals that all we
really determined in ACSS operation was Vin & Iin and VL & IL.
 This reminds us of the exact input and output form of any linear
system with 2 inputs and 2 outputs which can always be
expressed as:
𝑦1 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑥1
= 𝑎 𝑎22 ∴
𝑦2 21 𝑥2
52
Transmission Line as Two Port Network
I1 = Iin I2 = IL
ZS
+ +
A B
+
VS V1 = Vin V2 = VL ZL
-
C D
- -
Source 2-Port Network Load

Representation of a TL by a 2-port network
 Nomenclature Used:
 VS – Sending end voltage
 IS – Sending end current
 VR – Receiving end Voltage
 IR – Receiving end current
54
Representation of a TL by a 2-port network
 Relation between sending end and receiving end is given as:
𝑉𝑆 = 𝐴 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵 𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑆 = 𝐶 𝑉𝑅 + 𝐷 𝐼𝑅
 In Matrix Form
𝑉𝑆 𝐴 𝐵 𝑉𝑅
=
𝐼𝑆 𝐶 𝐷 𝐼𝑅
𝐴𝐷 − 𝐵𝐶 = 1
55
4 Cases of Interest
 Case 1: Short TL
 Case 2: Medium distance TL
 Case 3: Long TL
 Case 4: Lossless TL
56
ABCD Matrix- Short Lines
57
Short TL
 Less than ~80 Km
 shunt Admittance is neglected
 Apply KVL & KCL on abcd loop:

 VS = VR + 𝑍IR
 IS = IR
 ABCD Matrix for short lines:

𝑉𝑆 1 𝑍 𝑉𝑅
 𝐼𝑆
= 𝐼𝑅
0 1
 ABCD Parameters:
 A=D=1 per unit
 B=𝑍 Ω
 C=0
58
ABCD Matrix- Medium Lines
59
Medium TL
 Ranges from ~ 80 to 250 Km

 Nominal symmetrical-π circuit model used
 Apply KVL & KCL on abcd loop:

𝑍𝑌
 VS = 1 + VR + ZIR
2
𝑌𝑍 𝑌𝑍
 Is = Y 1+ VR + 1 + IR
4 2
60
Medium TL
 ABCD Matrix for medium lines:
𝑌𝑍
1+ 𝑍
𝑉𝑆 2 𝑉𝑅
=
𝐼𝑆 𝑌𝑍 𝑌𝑍 𝐼𝑅
𝑌 1+ 1+
4 2
𝑌𝑍
 A=D= 1+ per unit
2
 B=Z Ω
𝑌𝑍 61
 C=Y 1+ Ω-1
4
ABCD Matrix- Long Lines
62
Long TL
 More than ~ 250 Km and beyond

 Full TL analysis
 ZC = Z0
 ABCD Matrix for long lines:
cosh(𝛾𝑙) 𝑍𝐶 sinh(𝛾𝑙)
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅
= 1
𝐼𝑆 sinh(𝛾𝑙) cosh(𝛾𝑙) 𝐼𝑅
𝑍𝐶
63
ABCD Matrix- Lossless Lines

 R=G=0
𝐿′
 𝑍0 =
𝐶′
 γ = 𝑗ω 𝐿′ 𝐶 ′ = 𝑗β
 ABCD Matrix for lossless lines:

cos(𝛽𝑙) 𝑗 𝑍𝐶 sin(𝛽𝑙)
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅
= 𝑗
𝐼𝑆 sin(𝛽𝑙) cos(𝛽𝑙) 𝐼𝑅
𝑍𝐶
 𝐴 = 𝐷 = cosh 𝛾𝑙 = cosh(𝑗β𝑙) = cos(β𝑙) per unit
 𝐵 = 𝑍0 sinh γ𝑙 = 𝑗𝑍0 sin(β𝑙) Ω
sinh(𝛾𝑙) sin(𝛽𝑙)
 𝐶= =𝑗 S 64
𝑍0 𝑍0
ABCD Matrix-Summary
65
A Brief Recipe on ‘How to do’

Power Flow Analysis (PFA)
Cooking with Dr. Greg Mowry

Steps
1. Represent the power system by its one-line diagram
2
Steps Cont.
2. Convert all quantities to per unit (pu)
2-Base pu analysis:
SBase kVA, MVA, …
VBase V, kV, …
3
Steps Cont.
3. Draw the impedance diagram
4
Steps Cont.
4. Determine the YBUS
5
Steps Cont.
5. Classify the Buses; aka ‘bus types’
6
Steps Cont.
6. Guess starting values for the unknown bus parameters;
e.g.
7
Steps Cont.
7. Using the power flow equations find approximations for the
real & reactive power using the initially guessed values and
the known values for voltage/angles/admittance at the
various buses. Find the difference in these calculated
values with the values that were actually given;
i.e. form P & Q.
(Δ value ) = (Given Value) – (Approximated Value)
8
Steps Cont.
8. Write the Jacobian Matrix for the first iteration of the
Newton Raphson Method. This will have the form:
[Δvalues] = [Jacobian Matrix] * [ for Unknown Parameters]
9
10
Steps Cont.
9. Solve for the unknown differences by inverting the
Jacobian and multiplying & form the next guess:
(Unknown Value)new = (Unknown Value)old + Solved (Δ Value)

11
Steps Cont.
10. Repeat steps 7 – 9 iteratively until an accurate value for
the unknown differences as they  0. Then solve for all
the other unknown parameters.
Once these iterations converge (e.g. via NR), we now have

a fully solved power system with respect to Sj & Vj at all of
the system buses!!
12
Power Flow Analysis

(PFA)
Dr. Greg Mowry
Annie Sebastian
Marian Mohamed
1
Introduction
2
Power Flow Analysis

 In modern power systems, bus voltages and power flow are controlled.
 Power flow is proportional to v2, therefore controlling both bus voltage &
power flow is a nonlinear problem.
 In power engineering, the power-flow study, or load-flow study, is a

numerical analysis of the flow of electric power in an interconnected system.
 A power-flow study usually a steady-state analysis that uses simplified

notation such as a one-line diagram and per-unit system, and focuses on
various aspects of AC power parameters, such as voltages, voltage angles,
real power and reactive power. 3
Power Flow Analysis - Intro

 PFA is very crucial during the power-system planning phases as well as
during periods of expansion and change for meeting present and future load
demands.
 PFA is very useful (and efficient) at determining power flows and voltage
levels under normal operating conditions.
 PFA provides insight into system operation and optimization of control

settings, which leads to maximum capacity at lower the operating costs.
 PFA is typically performed under ACSS conditions for 3-phase power

systems
4
PFA Considerations
1. Generation Supplies the demand (load) plus losses.
2. Bus Voltage magnitudes remain close to rated values.
3. Gens Operate within specified real & reactive power limits
4. Transmission lines and Transformers are not overloaded. 5

Load Flow Studies (LFS)

 Power-Flow or Load-Flow software (e.g. CYME, Power World, CAPE) is used
for investigating power system operations.
 The SW determines the voltage magnitude and phase at each bus in a power
system under balanced three-phase steady state conditions.
 The SW also computes the real and reactive power flows (P and Q
respectively) for all loads, buses, as well as the equipment losses.
 The load flow is essential to decide the best operation of existing system, for
planning the future expansion of the system, and designing new power system.
6
LFS Requirements
 Representation of the system by a one-line diagram.
 Determining the impedance diagram using information in the one-

line diagram.
 Formulation of network equations & PF equations.
 Solution of these equations.

7
Conventional Circuit Analysis vs. PFA
 Conventional nodal analysis is not suitable for power flow studies

as the input data for loads are normally given in terms of power
and not impedance.
 Generators are considered power sources and not voltage or

current sources
 The power flow problem is therefore formulated as a set of non-

linear algebraic equations that require numerical analysis for the
solution.
8
Bus
 A ‘Bus’ is defined as the meeting point (or connecting
point) of various components.
 Generators supply power to the buses and the loads

draw power from buses.
 In a power system network, buses are considered as

nodes and hence the voltage is specified at each bus
9
The Basic 2-Bus Analysis

The Foundational Heart of PFA
Quick Review
10
Motivation
 The basic 2-Bus analysis must be understood by all

power engineers.
 The 2-Bus analysis is effectively the ‘Thevenin

Equivalent” of all power systems and power flow
analysis.
 Many variant exist, by my count, at least a dozen. We

will explore the basic 2-Bus PFA that models
transmission systems. 11
The Basic 2-Bus Power System
1 2
I
jX
+ -
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑆 ∠𝛿 = 𝑉𝑅 𝑒 𝑗𝛿 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 ∠0° = 𝑉𝑅
S = ‘Send’ R = ‘Receive’
12
The Basic 2-Bus Power System
1 2
I
~ jX ~
+ -
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑆 ∠𝛿 = 𝑉𝑅 𝑒 𝑗𝛿 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 ∠0° = 𝑉𝑅
S = ‘Send’ R = ‘Receive’
13
2-Bus Phasor Diagram

VR  the Reference
VS
jXI

O VR

I
90
j X I  I due to j
14
Discussion
1) VS leads VR by 
2) KVL  VS – j X I = VR
𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅
∴ 𝐼=
𝑗𝑋
15
Discussion
3) At the receive end,
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑃𝑅 + 𝑗𝑄𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅 𝐼∗
∗
𝑉𝑆 ∠𝛿 − 𝑉𝑅
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑉𝑅
𝑗𝑋
16
Discussion
4) Therefore the complex power received is (after algebra):
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅2
𝑆𝑅 = sin 𝛿 + 𝑗 cos 𝛿 −
𝑋 𝑋 𝑋
𝑆𝑅 = 𝑃𝑅 + 𝑗𝑄𝑅
Recall 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑆 ∠𝛿 = 𝑉𝑆 𝑒 𝑗𝛿 = 𝑉𝑆 cos 𝛿 + 𝑗 sin 𝛿

17
Discussion
5) Or:
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅
𝑃𝑅 = sin 𝛿
𝑋
𝑉𝑆 𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅2
𝑄𝑅 = cos 𝛿 −
𝑋 𝑋
18
Discussion
6) Note that if VS ~ VR ~ V then:
𝑉2
𝑃𝑅 ≈ 𝛿
𝑋
𝑉
𝑄𝑅 ≈ ∆𝑉
𝑋
19
2-Bus, Y, and PFA Lead-in
20
Two Bus System – arbitrary phase angles
21
Two Bus System

 The complex AC power flow at the receiving end bus can be calculated as
follows:
𝑺𝒓 = 𝑽𝒓 𝑰∗
 Similarly, the power flow at the sending end bus is:
𝑺𝒔 = 𝑽𝒔 𝑰∗
where
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 𝑗𝜑1 is the voltage and phase angle at the sending bus.

𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝜑2 is the voltage and phase angle at the receiving bus.
Z is the complex impedance of the TL. 22
Two Bus System

𝑽𝒔 − 𝑽𝒓
𝐈=
𝒁
 In power flow calculations, it is more convenient to use

admittances rather than impedances
𝒀 = 𝒁−𝟏
𝑰 = 𝒀 𝑽𝒔 − 𝑽𝒓
 This 2-bus equation forms the basis of PF calculations. 23

The Admittance Matrix

 The use of admittances greatly simplifies PFA
 e.g. an open circuit between two buses (i.e. no connection) results in Y = 0

(which is computationally easy to deal with) rather than Z = ∞ (which is
computationally hard to deal with).
 Vij is the voltage at bus i wrt bus j; bus i positive, bus j negative
 Iab represents the current flow from bus a to bus b
 Recall that a ‘node voltage’ (bus voltage) is the voltage at that node (Bus) with
respect to the reference.
24
Admittance Matrix Method (1)
 NV analysis results in n-1 node equations (bus equations) which is

analytically very efficient for systems with large n.
 Given systems with n large, an efficient and automatable method is

needed/required for PFA. NVM and Y-matrix methods are so.
 In circuit analysis, series circuit elements are typically combined to

form a single impedance to simplify the analysis. This is generally
not done in PFA.
25
Admittance Matrix Method (2)
 In PFA, combining series elements is not typically done as we seek to keep track
of the impedances of various assets and their power flows; e.g. in:
i. Generators
ii. TLs
iii. XFs
iv. FACTs
 Voltages sources (e.g. generators) have an associated impedance (the Thevenin

impedance) that is typically inductive in ACSS
26
Y-Matrix Example
27
Example Circuit
28
Step 1: Identify nodes (buses), label them, and select one of

them as the reference or ground.
29
Step 2 & 3: (2) Replace voltage sources and their Thevenin

impedance with their Norton equivalent. (3) Replace
impedance with their associated admittances.
30
Step 4: Form the system matrix
𝒀𝑩𝒖𝒔 ∗ 𝑽 = 𝑰 (Eqn-1)
where,
Ybus = Bus Admittance matrix of order (n x n); known

V = Bus (node) voltage matrix of order (n x 1); unknown
I = Source current matrix of order (n x 1); known 31
Step 5: Solve the system matrix for bus voltages
−𝟏
𝑽 = 𝒀𝑩𝒖𝒔 ∗ 𝑰 (Eqn-2)
Note: at this point the various known bus voltages (amplitude and
phase) may be used to calculate currents and power flow.
32
Stuffing the Y-Matrix

 Y-matrix elements are designated as 𝑌𝑘𝑛 where k refers to the kth bus
and n refers to the nth bus.
 Diagonal elements 𝑌𝑘𝑘 :
 𝑌𝑘𝑘 = sum of all of the admittances connected to the kth bus
 Off-diagonal elements 𝑌𝑘𝑛 :
 𝑌𝑘𝑛 = 𝑌𝑛𝑘 = -(sum of the admittances in the branch connecting bus k to bus n)
33
Y-Matrix Terminology
 𝑌𝑘𝑘 , the main diagonal elements of Y, are referred to as the:
 “Self-admittance”; or
 “Driving point admittance”
of bus k
 𝑌𝑘𝑛 , the off diagonal elements of Y, are referred to as the:
 “Mutual-admittance”; or
 “Transfer admittance”
between bus k and bus n
34
Y-Matrix Notes
 If there is no connection between bus k and bus n, then 𝑌𝑘𝑛 = 0 in
the Y-matrix; hence there are 2 zeros in the Y-matrix for this
situation since 𝑌𝑘𝑛 = 𝑌𝑛𝑘 .
 If a new connection is made between 2 buses k & n in a network,

then only 4 elements of the Y matrix change, all of the others remain
the same. The elements that change are:
 𝑌𝑘𝑘
 𝑌𝑛𝑛
 𝑌𝑘𝑛 = 𝑌𝑛𝑘
35
The ‘stuffed’ Y-Matrix
I1 Y11 Y12 Y13 0 V1

I2 Y21 Y22 Y23 0 V2
=
I3 Y31 Y32 Y33 Y34 V3
I4 0 0 Y43 Y44 V4
Note that since no direct connections exist between Bus 1 & 4 or Bus 2 & 4,
the corresponding entries in the Y matrix are zero 36
Y-Matrix Math
37
PSC Reminder
For a passive network element(s), the PSC yields:
V1
+ V1 − V2
I=
Z
V I
- I = Y V1 − V2
V2 38
Y-Matrix Equations
Consider the following bus in a network:
Ia
Bus 3
Z13 V3
V1 ZC1 Ib
Z23
V2 Id  I3
ZC2
Ic
39
Y-Matrix Equations
KCL at bus 3 yields:
𝐈𝟑 = 𝐈𝐛 + 𝐈𝐝 + 𝐈𝐚 + 𝐈𝐜
𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟑 − 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟑 − 𝑽𝟐
𝑰𝟑 = + + +
𝒁𝑪𝟏 𝒁𝑪𝟐 𝒁𝟏𝟑 𝒁𝟐𝟑
𝑽𝟑 − 𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝟑 = 𝑽𝟑 𝒀𝟑,𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒏𝒅 +
𝒁𝒎𝟑
𝒎≠𝟑
40
Y-Matrix Equations
Algebra yields:
𝑽𝟑 − 𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝟑 = 𝑽𝟑 𝒀𝟑,𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒏𝒅 +
𝒁𝒎𝟑
𝒎≠𝟑
𝑰𝟑 = 𝑽𝟑 𝒀𝟑,𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒏𝒅 + 𝒀𝒎𝟑 𝑽𝟑 − 𝑽𝒎

𝒎≠𝟑
𝑰𝟑 = 𝑽𝟑 𝒀𝟑,𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒏𝒅 + 𝒀𝒎𝟑 − 𝒀𝒎𝟑 𝑽𝒎

41
𝒎≠𝟑 𝒎≠𝟑
Y-Matrix Equations
Finally:
𝑰𝟑 = 𝑽𝟑 𝒀𝟑,𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒏𝒅 + 𝒀𝒎𝟑 − 𝒀𝒎𝟑 𝑽𝒎

𝒎≠𝟑 𝒎≠𝟑
Or in general
𝑰𝒌 = 𝑽𝒌 𝒀𝒌,𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒏𝒅 + 𝒀𝒎𝒌 − 𝒀𝒎𝒌 𝑽𝒎

𝒎 ≠𝒌 𝒎≠𝒌
42
Y-Matrix Equations
Hence:
𝑰𝒌 = 𝑽𝒌 𝒀𝒌,𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒏𝒅 + 𝒀𝒎𝒌 − 𝒀𝒎𝒌 𝑽𝒎

𝒎 ≠𝒌 𝒎≠𝒌
Admittance connected to the kth bus Admittance between the

kth and mth bus
(i) (ii)
43
Y-Matrix Equations
In terms of Y-matrix elements:
𝒀𝒌𝒌 = 𝒀𝒌,𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒏𝒅 + 𝒀𝒎𝒌 (i)

𝒎 ≠𝒌
𝟏
𝐘𝐤𝐦 = 𝐘𝐦𝐤 = − (ii)
𝐙𝐤𝐦
44
Y-Matrix Equations
Using the short-hand notation:
𝑰𝒌 = 𝑽𝒌 𝒀𝒌𝒌 + 𝑽𝒎 𝒀𝒎𝒌
𝒎≠𝒌
𝐘𝐤𝐦 = 𝐘𝐦𝐤
45
Consider a 3-Bus System

Bus 1 Bus 3
Z13
I1   I3
Bus 2
 I2
46
Let’s focus on Bus 2
𝐈𝟐 = 𝐕𝟐 𝐘𝟐𝟐 + 𝐕𝟏 𝐘𝟐𝟏 + 𝐕𝟑 𝐘𝟐𝟑
𝐈𝟐 = 𝐕𝟏 𝐘𝟐𝟏 + 𝐕𝟐 𝐘𝟐𝟐 + 𝐕𝟑 𝐘𝟐𝟑
𝑉1
𝐼2 = 𝑌21 𝑌22 𝑌23 𝑉2
𝑉3
47
The General Case

For a n-Bus system we have:
𝐼1 𝑌11 ⋯ 𝑌1𝑛 𝑉1
⋮ = ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮
𝐼𝑛 𝑌𝑛1 ⋯ 𝑌𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑛
Known sources The Y-Matrix To be calculated
48
Power Flow Equations
49
Power Flow Equation

 The current at bus k in an n-bus system is:
𝑰𝒌 = 𝒀𝒌𝟏 𝑽𝟏 + 𝒀𝒌𝟐 𝑽𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒀𝒌𝒏 𝑽𝒏
𝑰𝒌 = 𝒀𝒌𝒎 𝑽𝒎
𝒎=𝟏
where
𝑽𝒌 = 𝑽𝒌 𝒆𝒋𝜽𝒌
𝑽𝒎 = 𝑽𝒎 𝒆𝒋𝜽𝒎
𝒀𝒌𝒎 = 𝒀𝒌𝒎 𝒆𝒋𝜹𝒌𝒎 50
Power Flow Equation

 The complex power S at bus k is given by:
𝑺𝒌 = 𝑽𝒌 𝑰∗𝒌 = 𝑷𝒌 + 𝒋𝑸𝒌
𝒏 ∗
𝑺𝒌 = 𝑽𝒌 𝒀𝒌𝒎 𝑽𝒎
𝒎=𝟏
51
Power Flow Equation

 Substituting the voltage and admittance phasors into the complex power
equations yields:
𝐧 ∗
𝐒𝐤 = 𝐏𝐤 + 𝐣𝐐𝐤 = 𝐕𝐤 𝐞𝐣𝛉𝐤 𝐘𝐤𝐦 𝐞𝐣𝛅𝐤𝐦 𝐕𝐦 𝐞𝐣𝛉𝐦

𝐦=𝟏
 By Euler’s Theorem
∗
𝑽𝒌 𝑽𝒎 = 𝑽𝒌 𝑽𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝒌𝒎 + 𝒋 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝒌𝒎
where 𝜽𝒌𝒎 = 𝜽𝒌 − 𝜽𝒎
52
Power Flow Equation

 Expanding the complex power summation into real and imaginary parts and
associating these with P & Q respectively yields our fundamental PFA equations
𝑷𝒌 = 𝑽𝒌 𝑽𝒎 𝒀𝒌𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝒌 − 𝜽𝒎 + 𝜹𝒌𝒎

𝒎=𝟏
𝑸𝒌 = 𝑽𝒌 𝑽𝒎 𝒀𝒌𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝒌 − 𝜽𝒎 + 𝜹𝒌𝒎

𝒎=𝟏
53
Power Flow Equation

 Key SUMMARY points:
 The bus voltage equations, I=YV, are linear
 The power flow equations are quadratic, V2 appears in all P & Q terms
 Consequently simultaneously controlling bus voltage and power flow is a non-

linear problem
 In general this forces us to use numerical solution methods for solving the
power flow equations while controlling bus voltages
54
Network Terminology
55
Simple 3-Bus Power System

PV Bus
Z12
~ 1 2 ~
Slack Bus
3
PQ Bus
56
Bus Types
Total number of Quantities Quantities to be
Bus Type
buses Specified obtained
Load Bus (or)
n-m P, Q V,δ
PQ Bus
Generator Bus (or)
Voltage Controlled
m-1 P, V Q,δ
Bus (or)
PV Bus
Slack Bus (or)
Swing Bus (or) 1 V,δ P, Q
Reference Bus
57
Bus Terminology
 P = PG – PD
 Q = QG – QD
 PG & QG are the Real and Reactive Power supplied by the power system
generators connected
 PD & QD are respectively the Real and Reactive Power drawn by bus loads
 V = Magnitude of Bus Voltage

 δ = Phase angle of Bus Voltage
58
The Need for a Slack Bus

 TL losses can be estimated only if the real and reactive power at all
buses are known.
 The powers in the buses will be known only after solving the load
flow equations.
 For these reasons, the real and reactive power of one of the
generator bus is not specified.
 This special bus is called Slack Bus and serves as the system
reference and power balancing agent. 59
The Need for a Slack Bus

 It is assumed that the Slack Bus Generates the real and reactive
power of the Transmission Line losses.
 Hence for a Slack Bus, the magnitude and phase of bus voltage are
specified and real and reactive powers are obtained through the
load flow equation.
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙 𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

= +
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑮𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔
or
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙 𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙

= - 60
𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑮𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓
Solving the PF equations
61
Power Flow Analysis - Intro

 There are several methods available for solving the
power flow equations:
 Direct solutions to linear algebraic equations

• Gauss Elimination
 Iterative solutions to linear algebraic equations

• Jacobi method
• Gauss-Siedel method
 Iterative solutions to nonlinear algebraic equations 62

• Newton-Raphson method
Gauss-Seidel Method
In numerical linear algebra, the Gauss–Seidel method, also known as the Liebmann method
or the method of successive displacement, is an iterative method used to solve a linear system
of equations. It is named after the German mathematicians Carl Friedrich Gauss and Philipp
Ludwig von Seidel, and is similar to the Jacobi method. Though it can be applied to any
matrix with non-zero elements on the diagonals, convergence is only guaranteed if the matrix
is either diagonally dominant, or symmetric and positive definite. It was only mentioned in a
private letter from Gauss to his student Gerling in 1823.
63
The Jacobi Method

Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi was a German mathematician,
who made fundamental contributions to elliptic functions,
dynamics, differential equations, and number theory.
64
Newton-Raphson Method
65
In numerical analysis, Newton's method (also known as the Newton–Raphson method),
is named after Isaac Newton and Joseph Raphson. It is a method for finding
successively better approximations to the roots (or zeroes) of a real-valued function.
𝐱; 𝐟 𝐱 = 𝟎
The Newton–Raphson method in one variable is implemented as follows:

 The method starts with a function f defined over the real numbers x
 The function's derivative f',
 An initial guess x0 for a root of the function f.
If the function is ‘well behaved’ then a better approximation to the actual root is x1:
𝐟(𝒙𝟎 )
𝒙𝟏 = 𝒙𝟎 − 66
𝐟′(𝒙𝟎 )
The Newton-Raphson method is a very popular non-

linear equation solver as:
 NR is very powerful and typically converges very quickly
 Almost all PFA SW uses Newton-Raphson
 Very forgiving when errors are made in one iterations; the final
solution will be very close to the actual root
67
Procedure:
Step 1: Assume a vector of initial guess x(0) and set iteration counter k = 0
Step 2: Compute f1(x(k)), f2(x(k)),⋯ ⋯ fn(x(k))
Step 3: Compute ∆𝑚1, ∆𝑚2, ⋯ ⋯ Δ𝑚𝑛.
Step 4: Compute error = max[ ∆𝑚1 , ∆𝑚2 , ⋯ ⋯ ∆𝑚𝑛 ]
Step 5: If error ≤ ∈ (pre-specified tolerance), then the final solution vector is x(k)
and print the results. Otherwise go to step 6
Step 6: Form the Jacobin matrix analytically and evaluate it at x = x(k)
Step 7: Calculate the correction vector ∆𝑥 = [∆𝑚1, ∆𝑚2, ⋯ ⋯ Δ𝑚𝑛]T by using
equation d
Step 8: Update the solution vector x(k+1) = x(k) + ∆𝑥 and update k=k+1 and go back
to step 2.
68
Consider a 2-D example where in general there are n equations are given for the n
unknown quantities x1, x2, x3 ⋯ xn.
f1(x1, x2) = k1
f2(x1, x2) = k2 (Equation set a)
 k1 and k2 are constants
 Let’s assume that

x1 ~ [x1(0) + ∆x1(0)]
x2 ~ [x2(0) + ∆x2(0)]
 Then
k1 = f1(x1(0) + ∆x1(0), x2(0) + ∆x2(0))
69
k2 = f1(x1(0) + ∆x1(0), x2(0) + ∆x2(0))
 Applying the first order Taylor Expansion to f1 and f2
𝝏𝒇𝟏 𝝏𝒇𝟏
k1≅ f1(x1(0), x2(0)) +∆x1(0) + ∆x2(0)
𝝏𝒙𝟏 𝝏𝒙𝟐
(Equation set b)
𝝏𝒇 𝝏𝒇
k2 ≅ f2(x1(0), x2(0)) +∆x1(0) 𝟐 + ∆x2(0) 𝟐
𝝏𝒙𝟏 𝝏𝒙𝟐
 ‘Equation set b’ expressed in matrix form,

𝝏𝒇𝟏 𝝏𝒇𝟏
k1 − f1(x1(0), x2(0)) 𝝏𝒙𝟏 𝝏𝒙𝟐 ∆x1(0)
= (Equation c)
k2 − f2(x1(0), x2(0)) 𝝏𝒇𝟐 𝝏𝒇𝟐 ∆x2(0)
𝝏𝒙𝟏 𝝏𝒙𝟐
The Baby Jacobian 70

Matrix
 Then
∆k1(0) ∆x1(0)
=J (0)
∆k2(0) ∆x2(0)
 Adjusting the guess according to
x1(1) = [x1(0) + ∆x1(0)]

x2(1) = [x2(0) + ∆x2(0)]
 Iterate until ∆xi(N) < ∈

71
For n equations in n unknown quantities x1, x2, x3 ⋯ xn.
f1(x1, x2 ⋯ ⋯ xn) = b1
f2(x1, x2 ⋯ ⋯ xn) = b2
(Equation set a)
⋮
fn(x1, x2, ⋯ ⋯ xn) = bn
72
 In ‘equation set a’ the quantities b1, b2, ⋯ bn as well as the functions f1, f2 ⋯ ⋯fn
are known.
 To solve the equation set an initial guess is made; the initial guesses be denoted
as x1(0), x2(0), ⋯ xn(0).
 First order Taylor’s series expansions (neglecting the higher order terms) are
carried out for these equation about the initial guess
 The vector of initial guesses is denoted as x(0) = [x1(0), x2(0), ⋯ xn(0)]T.
 Applying Taylor’s expansion to the “equation set a” will give: 73

𝝏𝒇𝟏 𝝏𝒇𝟏 𝝏𝒇𝟏

f1(x1(0), x2(0) ⋯ ⋯ xn(0)) + ∆𝒙𝟏 + ∆𝒙𝟐 + ⋯ + ∆𝒙𝒏 = b1
𝝏𝒙𝟏 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒙𝒏
𝝏𝒇𝟐 𝝏𝒇𝟐 𝝏𝒇𝟐
f2(x1(0), x2(0) ⋯ ⋯ xn(0)) + ∆𝒙𝟏 + ∆𝒙𝟐 + ⋯ + ∆𝒙𝒏 = b2
𝝏𝒙𝟏 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒙𝒏 (Equation set b)
⋮
𝝏𝒇𝒏 𝝏𝒇𝒏 𝝏𝒇𝟐
fn(x1(0), x2(0) ⋯ ⋯ xn(0)) + ∆𝒙𝟏 + ∆𝒙𝟐 + ⋯ + ∆𝒙𝒏 = bn
𝝏𝒙𝟏 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒙𝒏
‘Equation set b’ can be written in matrix form as:
𝝏𝒇𝟏 𝝏𝒇𝟏 𝝏𝒇𝟏

𝟎 ⋯
𝒇𝟏(𝒙 ) 𝝏𝒙𝟏 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒙𝒏 ∆𝒙𝟏 𝒃𝟏
𝟎 𝝏𝒇𝟐 𝝏𝒇𝟐 𝝏𝒇𝟐
𝒇𝟐(𝒙 ) ⋯ ∆𝒙𝟐 𝒃𝟐
= 𝝏𝒙𝟏 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒙𝒏 = (Equation c)
⋮ 𝟎 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝒇𝒏(𝒙 ) 𝝏𝒇𝒏 𝝏𝒇𝒏 𝝏𝒇𝒏 ∆𝒙𝒏 𝒃𝒏
⋯
𝝏𝒙𝟏 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒙𝒏
74
𝝏𝒇𝟏 𝝏𝒇𝟏 𝝏𝒇𝟏

⋯
𝝏𝒙𝟏 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒙𝒏
𝝏𝒇𝟐 𝝏𝒇𝟐 𝝏𝒇𝟐
⋯ Jacobin Matrix (J)
𝝏𝒙𝟏 𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒙𝒏
⋮
𝝏𝒇𝒏 𝝏𝒇𝒏 𝝏𝒇𝒏
⋯
𝝏𝒙𝟏 𝝏𝒙𝒏 𝝏𝒙𝒏
Hence ‘equation c’ can be written as

𝟎
∆𝒙𝟏 𝒃𝟏 − 𝒇𝟏(𝒙 ) ∆𝒎𝟏
𝟎
∆𝒙𝟐 𝒃𝟐 − 𝒇𝟐(𝒙 ) ∆𝒎𝟐
= [J-1] = [J-1]
(Equation d)
⋮ ⋮ 𝟎 ⋮
∆𝒙𝒏 𝒃𝒏 − 𝒇𝒏(𝒙 ) ∆𝒎𝒏
‘Equation d’ is the basic equation for solving the n algebraic equations given in
‘equation set a’. 75
NR Method Flowchart
76
Power Flow Example

(using Power World)
77
Power Flow Example
78
Power Flow Example, cont.

Step 1: Calculate Y-Bus:
−𝑗10 𝑗10 0
YBus = 𝑗10 −𝑗30 𝑗20
0 𝑗20 −𝑗20
79

Step 2: Define Bus types and their quantities:
Quantities Quantities to be
Bus No Bus Type
Specified obtained
One Slack Bus 𝑉1 , δ1 ---
Generator Bus
Two 𝑃2 , 𝑉2 δ2 , 𝑄2
PV
Load Bus
Three 𝑃3 , 𝑄3 𝑉3 , δ3
PQ
80

Step 3: User Power Equations to solve for unknowns:
𝑷𝟐 = 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝒎 𝒀𝟐𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐𝒌 − 𝜹𝟐 + 𝜹𝒎

𝒎=𝟏
𝑷𝟑 = 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝒎 𝒀𝟑𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟑𝒌 − 𝜹𝟑 + 𝜹𝒎

𝒎=𝟏
𝑸𝟑 = − 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝒎 𝒀𝟑𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟑𝒌 − 𝜹𝟑 + 𝜹𝒎

𝒎=𝟏
81
𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹𝟐 − 𝟐𝟎 𝑽𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒏(−𝜹𝟐 +𝜹𝟑 ) Eq.1
𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎 𝑽𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒏(−𝜹𝟑 +𝜹𝟐 ) Eq.2
𝟐
𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝟐𝟎 𝑽𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝜹𝟑 +𝜹𝟐 − 𝟐𝟎 𝑽𝟑 Eq.3
82

Step 4: Apply Newton-Raphson on Eq.2 and Eq.3 to find
𝑉3 and (−𝛿3 +𝛿2 ) ; then on Eq.1 to find 𝛿2 followed by 𝛿3
𝑽𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟖𝟗 pu
𝜹𝟐 = −𝟓. 𝟕𝟑𝟗 Deg
𝜹𝟑 = −𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟒 Deg

83

Step 5: Use 𝑽𝟑 , 𝜹𝟐 , and 𝜹𝟑 to find 𝑸𝟐 and 𝑸𝟏 :
𝑸𝟐 = − 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝒎 𝒀𝟐𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐𝒌 − 𝜹𝟐 + 𝜹𝒎

𝒎=𝟏
𝑸𝟏 = − 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝒎 𝒀𝟏𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏𝒌 − 𝜹𝟏 + 𝜹𝒎

𝒎=𝟏
𝑸𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟔 pu
𝑸𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟔 pu 84

Final Soliton
Bus No V 𝜹 P Q
One 1 0𝑜 1 0.05
Two 1 −5.7392𝑜 1 0.776
Three 0.9689 −11.664𝑜 −2 -0.5
85
Power World Example
86
Power World Example, cont.

Y-Bus
87

Jacobin Matrix
88

Power Flow Soliton
89

Tuti Transmission Lines and Power Flow Analysis

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School of Engineering (SOE)

University of St Thomas (UST)

Transmission Lines and

Dr. Greg Mowry

The UST Mission

Since civilization depends on power, power is for the

II. Transmission Lines (TLs)

III. Power Flow Analysis (PFA)

Networks & Power Systems

2. Voltage 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑑𝜑/𝑑𝑡 (FL)

Networks & Power Systems

Networks & Power Systems

 Voltage (potential) has potential-energy characteristics

 I will assume that pretty much everything we discuss

Networks & Power Systems

Networks & Power Systems

 Scalability: if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝛼𝑦 = 𝑓(𝛼𝑥)

 Superposition & scalability of inputs holds

 Frequency invariance: 𝜔𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝜔𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

Networks & Power Systems

 Suppose: 𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃

 Since input = output, the only thing a linear system can

Networks & Power Systems

These LTI characteristics along with Euler’s theorem

𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗 sin 𝜔𝑡 ,

allow 𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 to be represented as

Networks & Power Systems

Networks & Power Systems

 Since time does not explicitly appear in a phasor, an

 ACSS also requires impedances; i.e. AC resistance

Networks & Power Systems

 Rather, since Euler Theorem looks similar to a 2D

𝑒 𝑗90° = cos 90° + 𝑗 sin 90° = 𝑗

Hence in ACSS analysis,

Ohm’s Approximation (Law)

Summary of voltage-current relationship

Impedance & Admittance

The Impedance Triangle

The Power Triangle (ind. reactance)

 Power Triangle = Impedance Triangle

 The cos() defines the Power Factor (pf)

Reminder of Useful Network Theorems

 KVL – Energy conservation 𝑣𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 = 0

 KCL – Charge conservation 𝑖𝑁𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑢𝑠 = 0

 Ohm’s Approximation (Law)

 Passive sign Convention (PSC)

Passive Sign Convection – Power System

PSC Source Load or Circuit Element

Reminder of Useful Network Theorems

 Thevenin Equivalent – Any linear circuit may be

 Norton Equivalent – Any linear circuit my be

Transmission Lines and

Dr. Greg Mowry

II. Transmission Lines

 General Aspects of TLs

 2-Port Analysis (a brief interlude)

 Maxwell’s Equations & the Telegraph equations

 Solutions to the TL wave equations

Transmission Lines (TLs)

 A TL is a major component of an electrical

 The function of a TL is to transport power

 In an AC power system, a TL will operate

 The characteristics of a TL manifest

 The USA is ~ 2700 mi. wide & 1600 mi. from