MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

FIJI SEVENTH FORM CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION 2011

CHEMISTRY PAPER 1

QUESTIONS

AND

DETAILED SOLUTIONS

WITH

ADDITIONAL NOTES
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SECTION A

Answer: A

Answer: A

X will lose two electrons to form an X2+ cation. Y will gain two electrons to form a stable octet,
Y2- Therefore, using the cross-over method, the formula will be XY.

X2+ Y2-

X Y

X2Y2 simplified to XY.

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Answer: B

 In A, no hydrogen bond is present.

 In C, the molecules break up; H-I covalent bond breaks up.
 In D, the molecule breaks up; C-H bonds break.

Answer: A

Whenever there is a double bond, one of the bonds is sigma and one is pi.

Answer: B
 4

This means that for every 2 moles of hydrogen reacting with one mole of oxygen, 2 moles of
water will be produced. Therefore volume will also be in the same ratio. Gay-Lusaac’s Law is
applied here.

Mole ratio is: H2 : O2 : H2O

2 : 1 : 2

50cm3 : 25cm3 : 50cm3

Answer: D

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
P1 = 101 kPa 𝑇1 𝑇2

V1 = 3L
101 x 3 201 x 𝑉2
T1 = 27 oC = 300 K =
300 275
100 x 3 x 275 = 300 x 201 x V2
300 x 201 300 x 201
P2 = 2.1 kPa
100 x 3 x 275
V2 = ? = V2 (in litres)
300 x 201
T2 = 2 oC = 275 K
 5

Answer: C

Mole ratio:
n = m/M
1 mole C : 393 kJ
m=nxM
x : 275 kJ
= 0.6997 mol x 12 g mol-1

Mass of carbon = 8.40 g

275 kJ
x=
393 kJ

x = 0.6997 = moles of carbon

Answer: D
∆T = Tfinal - Tinitial
∆H = mc ∆T
12 oC = Tfinal – 20 oC
2270.4 J = 400 g x 0.473 J/ g oC x ∆T
Tfinal = 12 oC + 20 oC
∆T = 12 oC
Tfinal = 32 oC
 6

Answer: C

 Hydrolysis is a reaction involving the breaking of a bond in a molecule using water.

 Statements A and B are not the best answer with respect to hydrolysis. They are about
solubility and acidity of silicon tetrachloride.
 Statement D shows acid hydrolysis with aid of heat, hence it is not readily achieved
hydrolysis.

Answer: B

Order of stability in ascending order is:

PbCl4 < SnCl4 < SiCl4 < CCl4

Group IV chlorides are simple covalent molecules with a typical tetrahedral shape. These are
volatile liquids at room temperature since weak intermolecular forces (permanent dipole-dipole,
van der waals’ force) exists between molecules (although at room temperature, lead(IV) chloride
will tend to decompose to give lead(II) chloride and chlorine gas).

The thermal stability decreases down the group as the X-Cl bonds (intramolecular force) become
longer and weaker due to increase in atomic radius. CCl4, SiCl4, GeCl4 do not decompose on
heating. Tin(IV) and Lead(IV) chlorides decomposes readily to Tin(II) and Lead(II) chlorides.
 7

Answer: D

Phosphorous chlorides and oxides react with water to form acids. Therefore, they will have blue
litmus change to red or red litmus will remain red.

Answer: C

3-methylpentane is a not an asymmetric alkane. In fact it is a symmetric alkane.

CH3

H3C CH2 C CH2 CH3

Answer: C

Aromatic compounds are compounds that contain benzene ring as a part of their structure.
C is the following compound:
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Answer: B

Geometrical isomers: show cis and trans isomerism.

Structural isomers: Structural isomers are molecules which have the same molecular formula but
have different structural formulas.

Optical Isomers- Optical isomers are molecules that differ three-dimensionally by the placement
of substituents around one or more atoms in a molecule.

Stereoisomers- Stereoisomers are isomeric molecules that have the same molecular formula and
sequence of bonded atoms (constitution), but differ in the three-dimensional orientations of their
atoms in space.
 9

Answer: A

An ether has to have a minimum of two carbon atoms.

Ethers are a class of organic compounds that contain an ether group — an oxygen atom
connected to two alkyl or aryl groups. General formula is: R–O–R'.

Answer: D

Amines have a nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons, hence they are basic (Lewis base) and
able to donate the lone pair to an acid (Lewis acid).

Answer: B

CH3–CH=CH2 is an alkene. When alkenes react with water, alcohols are produced. In this case, a
secondary alcohol will be formed because of Markovnikov’s rule. According to this rule,
hydrogen gets added to the carbon with the most number of hydrogen. Here it is the carbon on
the right, which has 2 hydrogen atoms. The other carbon atom then attaches to the OH group.
 10

Answer: A
Substitution reaction is a chemical reaction in which one functional group in a chemical
compound is replaced by another functional group. Alkenes and alkynes do not undergo
substitution reaction because of the presence of double/triple bonds which allows addition to
occur. However, alkanes undergo substitution reaction because they do not have any
double/triple bonds to add new atoms/groups of atoms.

Answer: B
Strong acids dissociates completely, while a weak base dissociates partially. Therefore, an acidic
solution at end point results.

Answer: C

Kc = ; where x and y are the moles of the reactants and products, respectively.
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Answer: C

pH = -log [ H+] pH = -log [ H+] Therefore, the ratio is;

5 = - log [H+] 8 = -log [H+] 1 x 10−5

1 x 10 −8
[H+] = 1 x 10-5 [H+] = 1 x 10 -8
= 1000

Answer: C

O2F2 = 0

2 (O) + 2(F) = 0

2(O) + 2(-1) = 0

2 O = +2
2 2

O = +1
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Answer: A

If the two half-cells given above form an electrochemical cell, then sulphur will reduce because
the standard reduction potential of the first couple is more positive. Sodium will thus oxidise and
will be the anode or negative electrode.

Answer: D

Note that the above notation is not for an electrochemical cell.

Since the Eocell is negative, this means that the cell reaction is non-spontaneous. The spontaneous
cell reaction will be: Sn(s) | Sn2+ (aq) || Cd2+ (aq)| Cd(s). Therefore, the reducing agent is Sn, since it
is oxidized.
 13

See another descriptive example of an electrochemical cell notation:

Source: http://wps.prenhall.com
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SECTION B

Sodium has the electronic structure 1s22s22p63s1. The 3s1 electrons of sodium are delocalized as a
―sea of electrons‖. The metal is held together by the strong forces of attraction between the
positive nuclei and the ―sea of delocalised electrons‖. Magnesium has the electronic structure
1s22s22p63s2. It has the outer electronic structure 3s2. Both of these 3s2 electrons become
delocalised, so the "sea" has twice the electron density as it does in sodium. The remaining
"ions" also have twice the charge and so there will be more attraction between "ions" and "sea"
in magnesium as compared to sodium.
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Answer

Z seems to attain a stable configuration after two electrons are removed. Relatively lot of energy
is required to remove the third electron (7732 kJ mol-1) as compared to the second electron (1450
kJ mol-1). Therefore losing the first two electrons is relatively easier for Z and hence it must have
2 valence electrons.

Since Group II elements have 2 valence electrons, Z is a Group 2 element.

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X refers to the Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l), for which the possible values for the
fourth shell (n =4) can be 0, 1, 2 or 3.

However, the identity of element Z can be acertained by the quantum numbers given above.
Since it mentions that it is a non-transition metal, then it could be either a Group 1 or Group II
metal, with Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l) = 0 (i.e. 4s subshell).

Summary of quantum numbers:

Source: http://ftp.stmarys-ca.edu/jsigman/Chem130/assignments/atomic-structure/quantum-numbers.htm

For each Principal Quantum Number (n), the Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l) can
range from 0 to n-1.

Therefore for n = 4, l = 0, 1, 2, 3 (4s, 4p, 4d, 4f).

4 refers to the shell, 0 refers to the s subshell, 1 refers to the p subshell and 2 refers to the d
subshell, and 3 refers to the f subshell.

For each Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l), the Magnetic Quantum Number (ml) can
range from -l to +l.

In a summary, when n = 4:
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Since Z is a metal, it will form ionic bonding with chlorine,which is a non-metal. (Based on the
information given in the question, Z could be either potassium ([Ar]4s1) or calcium ([Ar]4s2)).

Ionic compounds are usually solid at room temperature. They are made up of positive and
negative ions in a three dimensional crystal lattice. The crystals are hard because of ions are held
together strongly. They are very brittle in nature because slight distortion in the crystal bring like
charges together, setting up strong repulsive forces within the structure. Ionic compounds have
high melting points due to strong electrostatic forces between negative and positive ions (ionic
bonds) in the lattice. Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in solid state. They conduct
electricity either in molten state or when dissolved in solution. In solution, ionic compounds
dissociate into positive and negative ions in polar solvents, which are responsible for conducting
electricity.
 18

Steps:

1. Find moles of isopropanol (Mass = 142.0 g and molar mass = 60 g mol-1)

2. Find moles of water (Mass = 58.0 g and molar mass = 18 g mol-1)

3. Mole fraction of isopropanol = moles of isopropanol / (moles of isopropanol + moles of water)

Use the ideal gas eqaution, PV= nRT, to find the temperature. Convert the temperature to degrees
Celsius at the end (This is in practical experiments, temperature is measured in degrees Celsius).
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Period 4 transition metals are

Transition elements can exhibit more than one oxidation state when they form compounds. The
similarity in ionization energies and the relatively small increase in successive ionization
energies lead to the formation of metal ions with the same charge for many of the transition
 20

metals. Due to a small increase in successive ionization energies, most of the transition metals
have multiple oxidation states separated by a single electron.

Common oxidation states of Cr are +2, +3 and +6.

Examples of ions with Cr in +2 oxidation state: CrO (black)

Examples of ions with Cr in +3 oxidation state: Cr2O3 (green)

Examples of ions with Cr in +6 oxidation state: Cr2O72- (orange), CrO42- (yellow), CrO3 (red-
orange)

Some examples common oxidation states of transition elements are given below:

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molar_ionization_energies_of_the_elements
 21

The structures of NH3 and NH4+ are given below:

A complex ion is an ion which has a central metal or metal ion coordinated by molecules or
negative ions, known as ligands. In [Cu(NH3)4]2+, ammonia (NH3) can form a coordinate bond
by donating its lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom to the empty valence-shell orbitals of
the Cu2+ ion. Four NH3 molecules can thus coordinate to a Cu2+ ion and form a [Cu(NH3)4]2+ ion
as shown below.

Cu(NH3)4]2+ ion
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All transition elements have two electrons in their 4s subshell, with Cr and Cu the only
exceptions as explained below:

The box electron configurations of Cr and Cu are:

The atomic number of Cr is 24. Its electronic configuration is NOT 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d4:

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Partially filled d
subshell – less stable

But it is 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d5:

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Half filled d subshell –
more stable

The atomic number of Cu is 29. Its electronic configuration is NOT 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d9:

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Partially filled d
subshell – less stable

But it is 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d10:

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Fully filled d subshell
– more stable
 23

For example, the following molecules have polar bonds, asymmetrical shape, net dipole moment,
and are polar molecules as a result.

The following molecules have polar bonds, symmetrical shape, zero net dipole moment, and are
non-polar molecules as a result.

H Cl

H C H Cl C Cl O C O

H Cl
 24

This example is based on the Hess’s law. Hess’s law state that energy (enthalpy) changes in
chemical reactions are the same, regardless whether the reactions occur in one or several steps.

The four equations need to be added in such a way so that the equation following equation is
obtained:

2Ga(s) + 3H2(g) → Ga2H6(g)

Steps:

(i) Leave the first equation as it is, because Ga(s) is the reactant and 2 moles are involved.

(ii) The second equation needs to be reversed so that we have Ga2H6(g) as the product (the sign of
ΔH˚ is also reversed and it becomes positive)

(iii) The third equation needs be multiplied by 3 so that we have 3H2(g) as the reactant (ΔH˚ is
multiplied by 3):

(iv) The fourth equation needs to be reversed and multiplied by 3 so that 3H2O(g) is cancelled
with 3H2O(g) in equation 3 and 3H2O(l) is cancelled with 3H2O(l) in equation 3 (ΔH˚ is multiplied
by 3, the sign of ΔH˚ is also reversed and it becomes negative).

The working is shown below:

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The follwing figure shows how the numbering of carbons are done to obtain the name of the
compound. It is obvious that the main fucntional group is alkene. The longest chain will have 6
carbons. The fucntional group and the subtituents should have the minumum numbering
possible. Therefore the numbering is carried out as follows, which shows that doubel bond is on
the 3rd carbon, while the two methyl subtituents are on the 2nd and 3rd carbons.
 26

CH2 is the empirical formula of alkenes. From the list, it is obvious that C3H7CHCH2 has a
condensed molecular formula of C5H10, which is the formula of pentene. Therefore,
C3H7CHCH2 will have CH2 as the empirical formula.

Aqueous bromine is Br2(aq) and is reddish brown in colour. If an alkene or alkyne is reacted with
Br2(aq), the double and triple bonds break, respectively, and bromine gets added, to give
colourless solutions of bromoalkanes or alkyl bromides.

From the list, it is obvious that C3H7CHCH2 has a condensed molecular formula of C5H10, which
is the formula of pentene. Therefore, C3H7CHCH2 or pentene can decolorize Br2(aq) by reacting
with it to give 1,2-dibromopentane.

Br Br
H3C CH2 CH2 CH CH2 + Br Br H3C CH2 CH2 C C H

H H
pentene or 1-pentene bromine water 1,2-dibromopentane

Esters undergo basic hydrolysis to give alcohol and a salt (soap). Only compound 4
(C2H5COO C2H5) has two oxygen atoms and can be the only one as an ester.
 27

O O
H3C CH2 C + NaOH H3C CH2 C + CH3CH2OH
O CH2 CH3 ONa
ethyl propanoate sodium hydroxide ethanol
sodium propanoate

Acid chlorides (acyl chlorides) react with ammonia, 1° amines and 2° amines to form amides.
Compound 5 is pentanoyl chloride (an acid chloride), which will react with ammonia to form
pentanamide. NH3 is a nucleophile in this reaction. Therefore, this will be a nucleophilic addition
/ elimination reaction, where pentanamide and ammonium chloride will form.

O O H
+ -
NH3 + H3C CH2 CH2 CH2 C H3C CH2 CH2 CH2 C
+ H N H Cl
Cl NH2 H
ammonia pentanoyl chloride propanamide ammonium chloride

Answers:

Or 4

Note: Esters do react wth amines to give amides, but the reaction I slower thatn the one using acid
chloride.
 28

This a halogenation reaction of benzene, where Br substitutes a H in the benzene ring in presence
of FeBr3 catalyst. It is an example of an electrophilic substitution reaction.

This reaction is known as the dehydration of an alcohol to give an alkene. It is a type of

elimination reaction and sulphuric acid acts as a catalyst in this reaction. Water (H2O) is
eliminated from the alcohol to give an alkene. However, due to the nature of the alcohol (2o or
secondary), two different alkenes can result as products, as shown below.

H H H H H H H H H H H H
H
5 4 3 2 1 conc. H2SO4
C C H
H C C C H C C C C C H + H C C C C C H
H H OH CH3 H H H CH3 H H H CH3 H

2-methylpentan-3-ol 2-methylpent-2-ene 4-methylpent-2-ene

The OH group is on C3. Note that there are hydrogens (H) on C2 and C4.
If the H and OH are lost as H2O from C2 and C3, respectively, then 2-methylpent-2-ene will be
the product. However, if the H and OH are lost as H2O from C4 and C3, respectively, then 4-
methylpent-2-ene will be the product. A mixture of both products will form.

Also note that 2-methylpent-2-ene and 4-methylpent-2-ene are structural isomers of each other.

3-methylpent-2-ene will react with hydrogen bromide to from 3-bromo-3-methylpentane.

 29

It is a hydrohalogenation or addition reaction. The hydrohalogenation or addition reaction is

shown below:

H H H H H H Br H H
H C C C C C H + HBr H C C C C C H
H CH3 H H H H CH3 H H

3-methylpent-2-ene hydrogen bromide

3-bromo-3methylpentane

(i) (ii)

CH3
H H
CH2
Br C C Br
H3C CH2 C CH2 CH3

Cl H H
 30

In compound (i), the Cl atom is attached to a carbon that has three carbons attached. Therefore it
is a tertiary alkyl halide. In compound (ii), Br is attached to a carbon atom which is attached to
one carbon and two hydrogens. Therefore, it is a primary alkyl halide.

Alcohols react with acyl chlorides (acid chlorides) to form esters. The ester here is ethyl
ethanoate. The ethyl part comes from the alcohol, hence the alcohol required for this reaction is
ethanol.

Acid chlorides can undergo acid hydrolysis to form carboxylic acids. The reagent required here
would be acidified water.
 31

Steps:

1. Calculate the oxidation states of iodine (I) and nitrogen (N) in the reactants and products to
determine which species are being oxidised and reduced.

2. Split the equation into reduction and oxidation half equations.

3. Balance all the atoms, except for O and H, in the half-equations.

 32

4. Add H2O to balance O atoms in the half-equations.

5. Add H+ to balance H atoms in the half-equations.

6. Add electrons to balance charges in the half-equations.

7. Obtain the same number of electrons in both half-equations. Multiply equations by a factor if
needed.

8. Add the two half-equations.

9. Cancel out the electrons, H+ and H2O to simplify the final equation.

(i)

(ii)

(iii)
 33

Sodium hydroxide will dissociate in water as follows:

NaOH(s) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Steps:

1. Find pOH.

2. Calculate [OH-] using the formula pOH = -log [OH-] or [OH-] = 10-pOH

3. Calculate moles of OH- by multiplying [OH-] by volume of solution (546 cm3 = 0.546 dm3).

4. Calculate the mass of NaOH by multiplying moles of OH- and molar mass of NaOH (44 g
mol-1) (Note that the mole ratio between NaOH and OH- is 1:1).
 34

It is evident that Sn4+/Sn2+ system getting oxidised. Therefore AuCl4-/Au system will be
reducing.

Using the formula, E˚cell = E˚red - E˚oxd,

find E˚red:

Where:

E˚cell = Standard cell potential

E˚red = Standard reduction potential of the reducing half-cell (cathode or right hand side)
E˚oxd = Standard reduction potential of the oxidising half-cell (anode or left hand side)
 35

SECTION C

The atomic number of neon is 10. Adding 6 to 10 gives 16. 16 is the atomic number of sulphur.

The atomic number of argon is 18. Adding 2 to 18 gives 20. 20 is the atomic number of calcium.
 36

Steps for drawing Lewis structure for NO3-:

1. Start with calculating the total number of valence electrons in NO3- ion:

1 x N = 1 x 5 e- = 5 e-
3 x O = 3 x 6 e- = 18 e-
-1 charge = 1 e-
Total = 24 valence electrons or 12 electron pairs

2. Place the N atom in the center and O atoms equally spaced around it.

o
o N
o
3. Place a pair of electrons between all the atoms to at least form a bond.

o
o N
o
4. Since 6 electrons have been used up, 18 electrons are left. Place these as lone pairs around
atoms which need an octect. In other words, all the atoms still need more electrons to obtain an
octect. Place the 18 electrons around the three O atoms.
 37

o
o N
o
5. After all the 24 valence electrons have been used up, it is evident that the nitrogen atom is still
without an octect. Therefore one of the oxygen atoms has to further donate a pair of electrons to
form a bond with nitrogen (a double bond between nitrogen and oxygen will result).

o
o N
o
6. All the 24 valence electrons have been used up, and all the atoms have an octect. Place square
brackets ([ ]) around the structure and indicate the -1 charge on the ion.
Therefore we have arrived to the Lewis structure of NO3-. This answer is acceptable at this level.
-
o
o N
o

Note: The above Lewis structure is not the only one possible for NO3-. The double bond with
nitrogen can be by formed by any of the three oxygen atoms. However, because the concept of
formal charges and resonance structures are beyond the scope of study, it will not be covered
here. This is just for your information only.

Shape of NO3- ion:

Since there are 3 sets of bonded electron pairs (2 single and 1 double bonded electron pairs) only,
they will equally repel each other and space around the NO3- atom at a maximum of 120˚ to
attain a trigonal planar shape.
 38

The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases states five postulates that describe the behavior of
molecules in a gas. An ideal gas exactly obeys the following five postulates of the Kinetic
Theory of Gases.

1. The molecules in a gas occupy negligible volume.

2. Gas molecules are in constant random motion.

3. The kinetic energy of all the gas molecules is proportional to the absolute temperature of the
gas.

4. All collisions between gas molecules and between molecules and walls of the container are
perfectly elastic (i.e. no energy is gained or lost during collisions).

5. Attractive or repulsive forces between gas molecules or between molecules and walls of the
container are negligible.

A real gas does not obey the ideal gas law or the five postulates of the Kinetic Theory of Gases.
However at high temperature and low pressure, it resembles an ideal gas.
 39

Group IV elements are C, Si, Ge, Sn and Pb. They form CO, CO2, SiO2, GeO, GeO2, SnO, SnO2,
PbO and PbO2 as monoxides and dioxides.

Group IV elements have the general valence electron configuration, ns2np2. For example,
carbon’s valence electron configuration is 2s22p2. This means that Group IV elements can have a
stable +4 oxidation state. In fact, carbon, silicon, germanium, tin and lead all are capable of
forming compounds with oxidation states of +2 by using only the np2 electrons only. This arises
due to the tightly held ns2 electrons by the nucleus, resulting in the phenomenon called inert pair
effect. Down the group, the +2 oxidation state (the lower oxidation sate) becomes more stable
due to enhanced inert pair effect from increasing nuclear charge.

The inert pair effect is more pronounced in Sn and Pb, who form more stable +2 oxidation states.
For example, Pb has four valence electrons (5s25p2). However, the 5s2 electrons are tightly held
by the nucleus in Pb and are not easily removed. This is called the inert pair effect. As such
Pb(II) is more stable than Pb(IV).

Standard temperature = 0 ˚C or 273 K

Standard Pressure = 1 atm or 101.3 kPa (Use either one in the calculation)

If using P = 1 atm, then:

 40

If using P = 101.3 kPa, then:

(i) Name of complex: Hexaaquoiron(III) ion

Water is a molecular compound, with covalent bonds between O and H atoms. Water (H2O) can
form a coordinate bond by donating its lone pair of electrons on the oxygen atom to the empty
valence-shell orbitals of the Fe3+ ion. Six H2O molecules can thus coordinate to a Fe3+ ion and
form an octahedral complex ion, [Fe(H2O)6]3+ ion, as shown below.

[Fe(H2O)6]2+
 41

Four chloride ligands (Cl-) contribute to a total charge of -4. Copper is in +2 oxidation state.
Therefore, overall, the complex will have -4+2 = -2 charge.

Lithium is the least electronegative element in Period II, while fluorine is the most
electronegative element in Period II. Therefore a compound between Li and F will have the
greatest ionic character.

The percentage ionic character in LiF can be determined:

% ionic character = (Electronegativity difference / larger electronegativity value) x 100 %

= (Electronegativity value of fluorine - Electronegativity value of lithium) x 100%

Electronegativity value of fluorine
 42

Lithium is the least electronegative (or the most electropositive) element in Period II.

For example, carbon can form stable long chain compounds (e.g. polymers) and ring compounds,
such as benzene, cyclohexane, etc.

Limiting reagent is the reactant which is completely used up in the reaction or the reactant which
limits the amount to products being formed in reaction.

To find that, the moles of each reactant can be calculated and compared using the mole ratio.

Steps:

1. Calculate the available moles of each reactant for the reaction.

2. Compare the mole ratio of NH3 and O2:

 43

Since the mole ratio is 4 : 5, it means that 4 moles of NH3 will combine with 5 moles of O2 to
give the products. Based on the amounts of reactants given, 0.1176 moles of NH3 will combine
with how many (x) moles of O2 to form the products?

This calculation shows that :

Or

In other words, 0.1250 moles of O2 will be completely used up with 0.1 moles of NH3 in the
reaction. 0.0176 moles (0.1176 mol - 0.1 mol) of NH3 is in excess and will remain unreacted in
the reaction.
 44

Steps:
1. Identify all bonds that have broken. One and two H-H bonds have broken.
2. Add all energies for bond breaking.
3. Identify all bonds that have formed. Six N-H bonds have formed.
4. Add all energies for bond forming.
5. Subtract the heat of reaction from the total bond breaking energy to get the total bond
formation energy as shown below:

Also note that energy is released when bonds are formed (Exothermic). See energies for bond
breaking and bond forming the example above.
 45

Aminoethane is basic. Ethanol is a polar compound and will be soluble in water, which is also
polar. Hydrogen bonds will form between ethanol and water molecules. Cyclohexane is a non-
polar molecule, hence will not be soluble in water.
 46

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation can be used to solve this question.

For an acidic buffer solution, containing a weak acid (HA) and its conjugate base, the buffer
equilibrium is as follows:

HA(aq) + H2O(l) A-(aq) + H3O+(aq)

Weak acid Conjugate base

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation derived from the acid dissociation constant (Ka) of the
above acid will be:

pH = pKa + log [A-]

[HA]
47
 48

A detailed description of the species present in the buffer solution when an HCl is added to
ammonium chloride and ammonia buffer is given below:

Detailed solution:

Any aqueous solution will contain:

- The substances dissolved (either in molecular form or as ions)
- Liquid water, H2O(l)
- Hydronium and hydroxide ions, H3O+(aq) and OH-(aq)

Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) is a strong electrolyte and will dissociate completely in water as
follows (0.1 mol is taken as an example to compare the amounts of different species present):

NH4Cl(s) → NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

0.1 mol 0.1 mol 0.1 mol

The ammonium ion is the conjugate acid of a weak base and thus will be hydrolysed. A few
ammonium ions, NH4+(aq), will further react with water to form ammonia and hydronium ions as
follows:

NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) → NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)

0.1 mol - x x x

This reaction creates an excess of hydronium ions making the solution acidic.

Dissociation of water:
The concentration of water in dilute solutions can be calculated as follows:
If 1 L of water = 1000 g of water, then
Moles of water = mass of water / molar mass of water = 1000 g / 18 g mol-1 = 55.55 mol.
Concentration of water = moles of water / volume of water = 55.55 mol / 1 L = 55.55 mol L-1.

Water ionises to a very small extent into hydronium and hydroxide ions:

2H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)

In neutral solutions (pH = 7), the concentrations of H3O+(aq) and OH-(aq) would be:

[H3O+] = [OH-] = 1 x 10-7 mol L-1

However, the ammonium chloride solution is acidic due to the increased H3O+ concentration as
shown in the equation above: NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) → NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)

This implies that [H3O+] > [OH-] or [H3O+] > 1 x 10-7 mol L-1 and [OH-] < 1 x 10-7 mol L-1.

Therefore, the species present in the solution of NH4Cl will be H2O, NH4+, Cl-, NH3, H3O+ and
OH-. Listing the concentrations of each species from the analysis done above, in decreasing
order, we have:
 49

[H2O] = 55.55 mol L-1

[Cl-] = 0.1 mol L-1

[NH4+] < 0.1 mol L-1 (Note that [NH4+] < [Cl-] because NH4+ undergoes further dissociation)

[NH4+] > [NH3] > 1 x 10-7 mol L-1

[H3O+] = [NH3] > 1 x 10-7 mol L-1

[OH-] < 1 x 10-7 mol L-1

When placed in order, the list of species with decreasing concentrations will be:

[H2O] > [Cl-] > [NH4+] > [NH3] = [H3O+] > [OH-]

When represented on the bar graph, the relative concentrations of all species would look like the
following:

CaCl2 will only dissociate in Ca2+(aq) and Cl-(aq).

 50

Calculate E˚cell.

If E˚cell is positive, then the reaction will be spontaneous.

 51

A secondary alcohol is oxidised by a strong oxidising agent to a ketone.

 52

Dehydration of alcohol to an alkene requires concentrated sulphuric acid.

Conversion of an alkene to an alkane (hydrogenation) requires H2 and a metal catalyst.

Reaction I is hydrogenation of an alkene to give an alkane.

Reaction II is halogenation of an alkene or addition reaction of an alkene to give an alkyl halide.
 53

Water will be a product in this reaction, hence it is a condensation reaction.

NH3 is a nucleophile in this reaction and will attack the carbon bonded to chlorine in the alkyl
halide. Cl- will be the leaving group and it will be substituted with NH2 group.

THE END