Active Filters Explained

B. Eng.
Modular Degree Analogue and Instrumentation UG3
ACTIVE FILTERS
1 Introduction
Filters are widely used in Electronics and Communications. Passive filters make use of
passive devices only (capacitors, inductors and resistors) and are difficult to design. Active
filters use active devices (usually op amps) in addition to the passive components but without
inductors. Design is comparatively straight forward.
P a s s b a n d P a s s b a n d
Tra n s m is s io n
S t o p b a n d Tra n s m is s io n
S t o p b a n d
f r e q u e n c y f r e q u e n c y
Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2
Ideal transmission characteristics for low-pass and high-pass filters are shown in Figs 1.1
& 1.2. The ideal characteristics for the band-pass filter are shown below in Fig. 1.3.
P a s s b a n d
Tra n s m is s io n
L o w e r U p p e r
S t o p b a n d S t o p b a n d
f r e q u e n c y
Fig. 1.3
Real filters do not have such “brick-wall” like characteristics. A real low-pass filter
characteristic is shown below in Fig. 1.4. We note the following important differences
between Fig. 1.1 and Fig. 1.4: transmission in the pass-band is not constant, there is a
transition band between the pass-band and the stop-band, the transmission in the stop
band is not zero but below some minimum value. The rippling in the pass-band is a
characteristic of the Chebyshev filters. It does not occur in all filters. Similarly, the rippling
in the stop-band occurs in some filters only.
Simple first order (or single-pole) active filters are shown in Fig. 1.5 (low-pass) and Fig. 1.6
(high-pass) below. The circuits consist of a passive first order filter consisting of R and C,
followed by a non-inverting amplifier with gain of (1 + R2/R1).
Nick Holden BCU Ref.: lect2010\analogUG3

AI UG3 Active Filters Version 6.5 12/10/2010
T d B
0
A m a x
P a s s b a n d S t o p b a n d
A m in
T ra n -
s it io n -
b a n d
0
p s
Fig. 1.4
Fig. 1.5 Fig. 1.6
Note that it is easy to remember which is which. The capacitor C in Fig. 1.6 does not pass
a signal at DC, so Fig. 1.6 must be the high pass filter. In both circuits the components R
and C fix the 3dB cut-off of the filter. The roll-off rate in these filters is only 20dB/decade
(or 6dB/octave). If a faster roll-off rate is required then more complex filters must be used.
The transfer function for the low-pass filter is given by:
V out  jω  
 ω o 
T( jω ) =   = A VO ⋅  
   ω + jω 
V in  o 
where ωo = 1 / CR and AVO = (1 + R2/R1) is the non-inverter opamp gain.
We note that when ω = 0 or if ω << ω o then the gain or transmission is (1 + R 2/R1). When
ω = ωo the transmission is (1 + R2/R1)/(1 + j) which has magnitude (1 + R2/R1)/√2. So the 3
dB cut-off value of the angular frequency, ω, is ωo = 1 / CR.
The high-pass filter transfer function is similar except that jω and ωo are interchanged as
shown below. For ω very small the denominator is large and │T│ is very small. For ω >>
ωo │T│ approaches (1 + R2/R1).
 jω 

T( jω ) =   = A VO ⋅  
V in
  
 j ω + ωo 

Nick Holden BCU Ref.: lect2010\analogUG3 2

Second order or two pole active filters are shown in Figs 1.7 and 1.8. They are often called
Sallen-Key filters after their inventors.

Both these have two capacitors. The roll-off rate is now 40dB/decade (12dB/octave) and
the 3dB cut-off angular frequency, ωo, is determined by the CR product. R1 and R2 may not
normally be chosen at random to fix the filter gain (1 + R2/R1) as this becomes an
important parameter in higher order filter design.
Fig. 1.7 Fig. 1.8
Again, Fig. 1.7 is the low-pass and Fig. 1.8 the high-pass using the simple reasoning used
before. The transfer function for the low-pass filter is:
2
T( jω ) = V o u t jω  = A ωo VO
ω o + jω ( 3 − A ) ω o +
 
V in 2
VO
where ωo = 1 / CR and AVO = (1 + R2/R1).

We note that when ω = 0 or if ω << ωo then the gain or transmission reduces to AVO = (1 +
R2/R1). When ω >> ωo the transmission reduces to zero. The high-pass filter transfer
function is similar except that jω and ωo are interchanged:
2
T( jω ) = V out  jω  = A (j ω )
VO
V in ω o + jω ( 3 − A
2
VO
) ωo +
The second order band pass filter is a mixture of the above two:
V o u t A ( jω ) ω o
T( jω ) =  jω  =
  VO
ω o + jω ( 3 − A ) ω o
 
V in 2
VO +
This is often written as:
2
T( jω ) =
V out  
 jω  =
K (jω ) ⋅
 
V in  ωo 
ωo
2
+ jω   + ( jω ) 2
Q
Very often a roll-off rate much bigger than that produced by a second order filter (for ω >>
ωo it is 40dB/decade for the low-pass) is required. Then higher order filters will have to be
used. Generally, for low-pass and high-pass filter the roll-off rate is given by 20*N
dB/decade well out in the stop band, where N is the filter order. These can be obtained by
cascading first and second order filters. For example, a fifth order filter can be produced by
cascading two second order filters and one first order filter. This is discussed under in
more detail under Butterworth and Chebyshev filters.

2 Filter Transmission and Specification
If the transfer function T(jω) = Vout(jω)/Vin(jω) is known, then the output can be calculated
from the input. In addition the function and/or attenuation can also be obtained:
V o (j ω) = T (j ω) ⋅ V in (j ω)
The gain function G(ω)is defined by:
G (ω) = 20 ⋅log 10 T (j ω)
Similarly, the attenuation function A(ω) is given by:
A ω
 

 = −20 ⋅log ( )
10 T j ω
To design a filter to a set of specifications we will have a set of transmission
characteristics. Fig. 1.4 shows realistic characteristics for a low-pass filter. Note that as no
filter has the ideal transmission of 0dB throughout the pass-band, so an upper bound Amax
(dB) is placed on the deviation. Amax will vary depending on the application from a fraction
of a dB to 3dB. Similarly, the transmission in the stop-band cannot be zero but it is
required that the attenuation be at least Amin (dB). Values for Amin range from 20dB to about
100dB. The transition band extends from the pass-band edge, ω p, to the stop-band edge,
ωs. So, normally, the following will have to be specified:
(i) the pass-band edge, ωp;
(ii) the maximum allowed deviation from 0dB in the pass-band, Amax;
(iii) the stop-band edge, ωs; and
(iv) the minimum stop-band attenuation, Amin.
The more closely the specifications approach the idea (“brick-wall”) response the higher
the order and the more complex the design.
3 Butterworth Filters
The above name is that of a mathematician who worked out the functions on which this
class of filters is based. In the Butterworth low-pass filter the transmission reduces with
frequency; see Fig. 3.1. The magnitude function for an Nth-order low-pass Butterworth
filter with pass-band edge ωp is given by:
T ( jω ) =
1
1+ε ⋅
2
(ω ω p) 2N
At ω = ωp this reduces to:
(
T jω p ) =
1
2
1+ ε
and the parameter ε determines Amax according to:
20 ⋅ log 1+ ε
2
A max
=
10
Conversely, given Amax, the value of ε may be found from:
ε = 10A max
10
−1


At the stop-band edge, ωs, the attenuation is given by:
A ( ωs ) =

− 20 ⋅ log 1 / 1 + ε ⋅ ωs ωp
10

2
( ) 2N 


= 10 ⋅ log 1 + ε ⋅ ωs ωp 
10 

2 2N
 ( )
We use this equation to find the filter order N which is the lowest INTEGER for which A(ω s)
≥ Amin.
1
1
1+ 2
0
p
Fig. 3.1
Fig. 3.2 shows the Butterworth response for first, second, fourth and eighth order filters for
ε = 1. We note that for large N the response approaches the “brick-wall” response.
T
1 . 0
0 . 8
0 . 6
N = 1
0 . 4
2
0 . 2
4
8
0 0 . 4 0 . 8 1 . 2 1 . 6 2 . 0 / p
Fig. 3.2
The poles of an Nth-order Butterworth filter may be determined from the construction in
Fig. 3.3.

The poles lie on a circle of radius ωp(1/ε)1/N and are separated by π /N but the first pole is
at angle π /2N from the jω axis. The natural modes will all have frequency ωo = ωp(1/ε)1/N.
Note that the poles occur in complex conjugate pairs except in the case of an odd-order
filter where one of the poles will be real (corresponding to the first order filter).
j
p
1
s - p la n e
p
2
/N /
2N
p /N _ 1 /N
3
p ( )
1
0
p
4
Fig. 3.3
The transfer function will be of the type:
K ωo N
T (s) =  
  
s − p s − p .......... s − p
 1 2  N 
where K is the dc gain of the filter. We will see that this can be implemented in terms of
first and second order filters.
EXAMPLE: Design a Butterworth low-pass filter that meets the following specifications: f p
= 10kHz, Amax = 1dB, fs = 15kHz, Amin = 25dB and dc gain K = 10.
SOLUTION: Substituting Amax = 1dB into the equation on page 4 for ε , we get:
ε = 101 10 −1 = 1.2589 − 1 = 0.5088

The equation for A(ω s) on page 5 is then used to calculate the value of N. A(ω s) = 25 dB,
so we have:
25 = 10 ⋅ log 1 + ε ⋅
10 

2
(ω s ω p) 2N


But as 102.5 = 316.23 we have ε 2(ω s/ω p)2N = 315.23. Substituting for ε , ω s and ω p we
have: (1.5)2N = 1217.68. So taking logs to base 10 we get: 2N*0.1761= 3.0855. From
which N = 8.76. So we will have to use N = 9.
The Poles all have the same frequency given by:

ωo = ωp(1/ε)1/N = 2π *10*103*(1/0.5088)1/9 = 6.773*104 rads/s.
Bearing in mind that π /18 = 10° and π /9 = 20° and that the poles are as shown in Fig. 3.3
we have for the first pole:
P1 = ω o(-cos80°+ jsin80°)= ω o(-0.1736 + j0.9848)

And p9 will be the conjugate of p1, i.e.
P9 = ω o(-0.1736 - j0.9848)
In the transfer function denominator, these two poles will be of the type:
(s – p1)(s – p9) = (s + α - jβ )(s + α + jβ ) = (s + α )2 + β 2
Note that α and β are BOTH positive, so that
(s–p1)(s–p9)= s2+2α s+(α 2+β 2) = s2+2*0.1736*sω o+(0.17362+0.98482)ω o
2
or, as (0.17362+0.98482) = 1:
(s – p1)(s – p9)= s2 + 0.3472sω o + ω o

2
The other conjugate pole-pairs may be shown to give:

(s – p2)(s – p8)= s2 + sω o + ω o2
(s – p3)(s – p7)= s2 + 1.5321sω o + ω o
2
(s – p4)(s – p6)= s2 + 1.8794sω o + ω o

2
and the real pole gives: (s – p5) = (s + ω o).
So the complete transfer function will be:

T(s) = 10ω o9/[(s + ω o)(s2+0.3472sω o+ω o2)(s2+sω o+ω o2)*
*(s2+1.5321sω o+ω o2)(s2+1.8794sω o+ω o2)]
4 Design Implementation Using Sallen-Key Filters
Implementation is straight forward. The first term in the transfer function (T.F.)
denominator represents the first order filter with T.F. as on p.2, i.e.:
T( jω ) =

= AVO ⋅ 
ω o


  
   ω + jω 
V in  o 
For this one filter the gain AVO = (1 + R2/R1) may be chosen to suit the overall dc gain of the
entire filter. So leaving the choice of R2 and R1 for the moment, we choose suitable values
for R and C from ω o = 1 / RC = 6.773*104 rads/s. Choosing a simple value for the
capacitor C = 1nF we get for R:
1 1
R = = = 14 .765 kΩ
C ωo 1*10 −9 * 6.773 *10 4
This value is suitable but C = 10nF and R = 1.4765kΩ would also be O.K.
The above values will also be used for ALL the second order sections. It is important to
note that in the second order section the opamp gain AVO = (1 + R2/R1) is used to obtain
the multipliers of sω o. Comparing the first second order term in the T.F.
(s2+0.3472sω o+ω o2) with the T.F. of the filter:

2
V
T(s ) = o u t s = 2 A V Oω o ⋅
V in ωo + ( 3 − A ) sω o
VO + s2
we find that for the first second order section we must have:
0.3472 = 3 − AVO = 3 − 1 +

R 2 R1 = 2 − R 2
Hence: R2/R1 = 2 – 0.3472 = 1.6528. So we could use, for example, R1 = 10kΩ and R2 =
16.53kΩ . We should note that the dc gain of this section will be AVO = (1 + R2/R1) = 2.653.
In exactly the same way, the values of the feedback resistors R2 and R1 can be calculated
for the other THREE second-order sections. For the second one (i.e. U3) we have: R2/R1 =
2 – 1 = 1. So we could use, for example, R1 = 10kΩ and R2 = 10kΩ . We should note that
the dc gain of this section will be AVO = (1 + R2/R1) = 2.
The third one (U4) will be: R2/R1 = 2 – 1.5321 = 0.4679. So we could use, for example, R1
= 10kΩ and R2 = 4.68kΩ . We should note that the dc gain of this section will be A VO = (1 +
R2/R1) = 1.468.
And finally for U5 R2/R1 = 2 – 1.8794 = 0.1206. So we could use, for example, R1 = 10kΩ
and R2 = 1.2kΩ . We should note that the dc gain of this section will be AVO = (1 + R2/R1) =
1.12.
So the gains of all four second order sections will be:

1.12 * 1.468 * 2 * 2.653 = 8.724
So for a dc gain of 10 the first order section will have to have a gain of 10/8.724 = 1.146 =
(1 + R2/R1). Hence R2/R1 = 1.146 – 1 = 0.146. So we could again use: R1 = 10kΩ and R2 =
1.46kΩ .
That completes the design for the ninth order Butterworth. It is shown below in Fig. 4.1.

U 1
U 2
U 3
U 4
U 5
Fig. 4.1.
Fig. 4.2
The frequency response of the filter is shown above in Fig. 4.2. We note that 19.998dB
corresponds to 9.9977 and that the specification of the filter is tighter than required. The
value for fp is very slightly larger and fs smaller than specified. This is a consequence of
making N = 9, rather than the theoretically required value of 8.76.

5 Chebyshev Filters
Again named after a mathematician, these filters have the property that the transmission
ripples in the pass-band – see Fig. 5.1. The roll-off rate is much faster in the transition
band than for a Butterworth filter of the same order.
The magnitude of the transfer function for an Nth order low-pass Chebyshev filter with
pass-band edge ω p is given by:
1
T ( j ω) = for ω
1 + ε2 ⋅ cos 2 (N cos −1 (ω/ ωp ))
and
1
T ( j ω) = for
1 + ε2 ⋅ cosh 2 (N cosh −1
(ω/ ωp ))
At ω = ωp this reduces to:
1
T ( jωP ) =
1+ ε
2
The parameter ε determines Amax, the pass-band ripple, according to:
A max
= 10 ⋅ log
10
( 1+ ε ) 2
Conversely, given Amax, the value of ε may be found from:

ε = 10A max
10
−1
At the stop-band edge, ωs, the attenuation is given by:
ω
A
 s




= 10 ⋅ log 10 1 +ε2 ⋅ cosh 2 [ N cosh −1 ωs ωp

( )

This equation can be used with a calculator to determine the value of N to give a specified
Amin by finding the lowest integer value of N for which A(ωs) ≥ Amin.
The transmission characteristics for a fourth and fifth order Chebyshev low-pass filter are
shown below in Fig. 5.1.

T T
1 1
1 1
1+ 2
1+ 2
N = 4 N = 5
0 0
p p
Fig. 5.1
The poles of the Chebyshev filter are given by:
 2k −1 π  1 1
p = − ωp ⋅ sin  ⋅  ⋅ sinh  sinh −1  +
k
 N 2 N ε
2k −1 π
j ωp ⋅ cos  N ⋅ 2  ⋅ cosh  N sinh −1 ε 
1 1
+ for k =1, 2, 3, ......, N.
   
The transfer function for the Chebyshev low-pass filter may be written as:
K ωpN
T (s ) =

ε 2N −1s −p1s −p 2 .......... s

−p N 
where K is again the dc gain of the filter.
The design procedure is as for the Butterworth:

(i) Find the value of ε required;
(ii) Determine the value of N;
(iii) Find the poles using the equation above;
(iv) Determine the transfer function;
(v) Implement design using Sallen-Key filters.
The Chebyshev provides a faster roll-off for a particular order than the Butterworth. The
drawback is the ripple in the pass-band, which cannot be tolerated for some applications.
EXAMPLE: Design a Chebyshev low-pass filter that meets the specifications for the
Butterworth example, i.e.: fp = 10kHz, Amax = 1dB, fs = 15kHz, Amin = 25dB and dc gain K =
10.
SOLUTION: Substituting Amax = 1dB into the equation on p10 for ε , we get:
ε = 101 10 −1 = 1.2589 − 1 = 0.5088

The equation for A(ω s) on p10 is then used to calculate the value of N. A(ω s) = 25 dB, so
we have:
ω
A
 s




= 10 ⋅ log 10 1 +ε2 ⋅ cosh 2 [ N cosh −1 ωs ωp

(

But as 10 = 316.23 we have ε cosh [N cosh-1 (ω s/ω p)] = 315.23. Substituting for ε , ω s
2.5 2 2
and ω p, we find that for N=4.41. So we use N = 5, which gives A(ω s) = 29.9 dB. (N.B. a
Butterworth of order 9 was required for the same specification!)
The poles may be obtained from the formula as:
P1, P5 = ω p(-0.0895 ± j0.9901)

P2, P4 = ω p(-0.2342 ± j0.6119)
P3 = ω p(-0.2895)
Using the same procedure as for the Butterworth filter, we get the following transfer
function:
T(s) = 10ω p5/[8.1408(s + 0.2895ω p)*

*(s +0.4684sω p+0.4293ω p2)(s2+0.1789sω p+0.9883ω p2)]
2
where ω p = 2π *104 rads/s.

Implementation in terms of Sallen-Key filters is left as an exercise. It should however be

noted that neither the first order nor the second order denominator terms are in the
standard forms.
The first step is to reorganize them into the standard forms. For the first order one we will
have: (s + ω o).
Similarly, for the second order terms: [s2 + (3-Avo)sω o + ω o2]. ω o and Avo will have to be
calculated individually for each stage.
One of the consequences of this is that, unlike for the Butterworth, the 3dB cut-off ω o [=
1/CR] is likely to be different for all the individual sections of the Chebyshev.
Fig. 5.2
N.B. Transmission at 10kHz is –1.007dB and at 15kHz it is –29.9dB. Again, as with the
Butterworth, the result corresponds to tighter specs than required. Note that the roll off rate
of the Chebyshev fifth order is faster than that of the Butterworth ninth order!!

6 Building Butterworth Filters from Butterworth Polynomials
6.1 Low Pass (with ω0 = 1)
If a filter of a particular order is required the polynomials given below are the quickest way
of building them. They are given in terms of factors and in normalised form with ω p = 1.
The table of polynomials is normalised to ωp = 1. This means that in the table, the
quadratic terms (e.g. for N=2) should really read not (s 2 + 1.4142s + 1) but (s2 +
1.4142sωp + ωp2). In addition, for the Butterworth filter with ε = 1, ωp = ωo. So the Transfer
function for a first order low-pass filter is:

V o u t   ω o 
T1( s ) =  s = AV O⋅  
V in
  s
 + ω o 
where ωo = 1/CR. Sensible values of R should be used (it represents the input resistance
of the filter at high frequencies) and C calculated from ωo.
Similarly, the transfer function for a second order low-pass filter will be:
2
( s ) = V o u t s  = A V Oω o
T2 ⋅
V in
 
s +
2 ( 3 − A ) ω osVO + ω o2
where the (3 – AVO) is the number given in the table below. So for the second order
Butterworth low-pass filter (3 – AVO) = 1.4142 and for the first second order section of the
seventh order Butterworth filter (3 – AVO) = 0.44505. We should note that in the case of the
second order sections AVO or (1 + R2 / R1) is fixed because (3 – AVO) is fixed. Whereas in
the case of the first order sections AVO may be chosen at will. We should however bear in
mind that the 3dB cut-off for the first order section fh will be given by:
(1 + R2 / R1).fh = fT
where fT is the gain-bandwidth product for the opamp used. In the case of low-pass filters
fh should be much bigger than fo, the 3dB cut-off frequency of the filter.
Finally, it should be noted that the parameter ε = 1 in the Butterworth table below and ωo =
ωp unlike on pages 4 – 7. So, in the case of the Butterworth filters (with ε = 1) the tables
provide us only with the values of (3 – AVO), where AVO=(1 + R2/R1).
Butterworth Polynomials (with ω0 = 1)
1 (s + 1)
2 (s2 + 1.4142s + 1)
3 (s + 1)(s2 + s + 1)
4 (s2 + 0.7654s + 1)(s2 + 1.848s + 1)
5 (s + 1)(s2 + 0.618s + 1)(s2 + 1.618s + 1)
6 (s2 + 0.5176s + 1) (s2 + 1.4142s + 1) (s2 + 1.9319s + 1)
7 (s + 1) (s2 + 0.44505s + 1) (s2 + 1.2470s + 1) (s2 + 1.8019s + 1)
8 (s2 + 0.3902s + 1) (s2 + 1.1111s + 1) (s2 + 1.6629s + 1) (s2 + 1.9616s + 1)
9 (s + 1) (s2 + 0.3473s + 1) (s2 + s + 1) (s2 + 1.532s + 1) (s2 + 1.8794s + 1)
10 (s + 0.3129s + 1) (s + 0.908s + 1) (s + 1.4142s + 1) (s + 1.782s + 1) (s2 + 1.9754s + 1)
2 2 2 2

7 Building Chebyshev filters from Chebyshev Polynomials
7.1 Low Pass with specific values of ε
The procedure with Chebyshev filters is similar to that with the Butterworth. The table of
polynomials is again normalised to ω0 = 1. This means that in the table for the 0.1dB ripple
filter, the quadratic terms (e.g. for N=2) should really read not (s 2 + 2.3724s + 3.314) but
(s2 + 2.3724sωp + 3.314ωp2). There is an additional complication in that the constant in the
first order and the second order factors is not unity.
So the Transfer Function for a first order low-pass filter is now of the form:

V out  s   ωp  
 ωo 
T1( s ) =   = K1 ⋅   = A VO ⋅  
V in
  s

+ a1ωp  s
 + ωo 
where ωo = a1ωp = 1/CR and AVO = K1 / a1. Sensible values of R should be used (it
represents the input resistance of the filter at high frequencies) and C calculated from ωo.
The situation is similar for the second order factors:

2
K ωp A ωo
2
( s ) =
2 VO
T2 =
s + a1ω p s + a2 ω p s + ( 3 − A vo ) ω o s + ω o
2 2 2 2
where a2.ωp 2 = ωo2 or ωp = ωo / √a2 so that

3 - AVO = a1 / √a2.
EXAMPLE:
Suppose we want a five-pole 1dB ripple low-pass Chebyshev filter. The table gives the
normalised transfer function as: (s + 0.289)(s2 + 0.179s + 0.988)(s2 + 0.468s + 0.429).
Taking the first order section first: (s + 0.289 ωp). Here a1 = 0.289 and ωo = a1ωp. Suppose
the pass-band edge fp is to be 10kHz, then ωp = 2 x π x 10 x 103. Then we have:
ωo = a1ωp = 0.289 x 2 x π x 10 x 103 = 1.816 x 104 = 1 / CR
Taking C = 0.1μF, the R = 1 / [0.1 x 10-6 x 1.816 x 104] = 550.7Ω. [If this were deemed too
small, then R could be increased by 10 and C decreased by 10].
Like with the Butterworth,the gain (1 + R2 / R1) can be chosen at will, e.g. to give a
particular overall gain. We should again bear in mind that the 3dB cut-off for the first order
section fh will be given by:
(1 + R2 / R1) fh = fT
where fT is the gain-bandwidth product for the opamp used. In the case of low-pass filters
fh should be much bigger than fo, the 3dB cut-off frequency of the filter. Here the overall
gain is to be 10 and we leave the choice of R2 and R1 to the end.
Taking the first second order section with (s2 + 0.179 ωp s + 0.988 ωp2), we know that a1 =
0.179 and a2 = 0.988 and ωp = 2 x π x 10 x 103. So we have:
ωo = √(a2) ωp = 0.994 x 2 x π x 10 x 103 = 6.245 x 104 radians/s
As ωo = 1/CR and if we choose C = 0.1μF then R = 1 / [C . ω o] = 160.13Ω. This value of R

is rather low, so we increase R by 10 to 1.6kΩ and decrease C by 10 to 0.01μF = 10nF.
Also,
3 - AVO = a1 / √a2 = 0.179 / √0.988 = 0.179 / 0.994 = 0.18008
Hence:
AVO = ( 1 + R2 / R1) = 3 – 0.18008 = 2.82
and R2 / R1 = 1.82. So we could use, for example, R1 = 10kΩ and R2 = 18.2kΩ and that
would complete the design of this particular section of the fifth order 1dB low-pass
Chebyshev.
Finally, taking the second second order section with (s2 + 0.468ωp s + 0.429ωp2), we know
that a1 = 0.468 and a2 = 0.429 and ωp = 2 x π x 10 x 103. So we have:
ωo = √a2 . ωp = 0.655 x 2 x π x 10 x 103 = 4.115 x 104 radians/s
As ωo = 1/CR and if we choose C = 0.1μF then R = 1 / [C . ωo] = 243Ω. This value of R is

rather low, so we increase R by 10 to 2.43kΩ and decrease C by 10 to 0.01μF = 10nF.
Also,
3 - AVO = a1 / √a2 = 0.468 / √0.429 = 0.468 / 0.655 = 0.7145
Hence:
AVO = ( 1 + R2 / R1) = 3 – 0.7145 = 2.2855
and R2 / R1 = 1.2855. So we could use, for example, R1 = 10kΩ and R2 = 12.855kΩ.
The design is now almost complete. If the gains of the first, second and third sections are
K1, K2 and K3 then the overall gain K is given by:
K = K1 K2 K3 = 10
But the gain of the first second order section K2 is 2.82 and that of the second second
order section K3 is 2.2855. So, the gain of the first order section K1 for an overall gain of 10
must be:
10 / [2.82 x 2.2855] = 1.552 = ( 1 + R2 / R1).
Hence: R2 / R1 = 0.552 and if R1 is again 10kΩ then for the first order section R2 = 5.52kΩ.
And that completes the design of the Chebyshev filter.
The first eight Chebyshev polynomials are given below for some values of ripple:
Chebyshev 0.1dB ripple (ε = 0.1526)
1 (s + 6.552)
2 (s2 + 2.3724s + 3.314)
2
3 (s + 0.9694)(s + 0.9694s + 1.6898)
4 (s2 + 0.5283s + 1.33)(s2 + 1.2755s + 0.6229)
5 (s + 0.5389)(s2 + 0.3331s + 1.1949)(s2 + 0.872s + 0.6359)
6 (s2 + 0.2294s + 1.1294) (s2 + 0.6267s + 0.6964) (s2 + 0.8561s + 0.2634)
7 (s + 0.3768) (s2 + 0.1677s + 1.0924) (s2 + 0.4698s + 0.7532) (s2 + 0.6789s + 0.3302)
8 (s2+0.128s+1.0695) (s2+0.3644s+0.7989) (s2+0.5454s+0.4162) (s2+0.6433s+0.1456)
1 (s + 2.863)
2 (s2 + 1.425s + 1.516)
3 (s + 0.626)(s2 + 0.626s + 1.142)
4 (s2 + 0.351s + 1.064)(s2 + 0.845s + 0.356)
5 (s + 0.362)(s2 + 0.224s + 1.036)(s2 + 0.586s + 0.477)
6 (s2 + 0.1554s + 1.024) (s2 + 0.4142s + 0.5475) (s2 + 0.5796s + 0.157)
7 (s + 0.2562) (s2 + 0.1014s + 1.015) (s2 + 0.3194s + 0.6657) (s2 + 0.4616s + 0.2539)
8 (s2+0.0872s+1.012) (s2+0.2484s+0.7413) (s2+0.3718s+0.3872) (s2+0.4386s+0.08805)
1 (s + 1.965)
2 (s2 + 1.098s + 1.103)
3 (s + 0.494)(s2 + 0.494s + 0.994)
4 (s2 + 0.279s + 0.987)(s2 + 0.674s + 0.279)
5 (s + 0.289)(s2 + 0.179s + 0.988)(s2 + 0.468s + 0.429)
6 (s2 + 0.1244s + 0.9907) (s2 + 0.3398s + 0.5577) (s2 + 0.4642s + 0.1247)
7 (s + 0.2054) (s2 + 0.0914s + 0.9927) (s2 + 0.2562s + 0.6535) (s2 + 0.3702s + 0.2304)
8 (s2+0.07s+0.9942) (s2+0.1994s+0.7236) (s2+0.2994s+0.3408) (s2+0.3518s+0.0702)
1 (s + 1.30756)
2 (s2 + 0.8038s + 0.8231)
3 (s + 0.3689)(s2 + 0.3689s + 0.8861)
4 (s2 + 0.2098s + 0.9287)(s2 + 0.5064s + 0.2216)
5 (s + 0.218)(s2 + 0.1349s + 0.9522)(s2 + 0.3532s + 0.3932)
6 (s2 + 0.0939s + 0.966) (s2 + 0.2567s + 0.5329) (s2 + 0.3506s + 0.0999)
7 (s + 0.1553) (s2 + 0.0691s + 0.9746) (s2 + 0.1937s + 0.6354) (s2 + 0.28s + 0.2124)
8 (s2+0.053s+0.9804) (s2+0.1509s+0.7098) (s2+0.2258s+0.3271) (s2+0.2664s+0.0565)

1 (s + 1.0024)
2 (s2 + 0.6449s + 0.7095)
3 (s + 0.2986)(s2 + 0.2986s + 0.8392)
4 (s2 + 0.1703s + 0.9031)(s2 + 0.4112s + 0.196)
5 (s + 0.1775)(s2 + 0.1097s + 0.936)(s2 + 0.2873s + 0.377)
6 (s2 + 0.0765s + 0.9548) (s2 + 0.2089s + 0.5218) (s2 + 0.2853s + 0.0888)
7 (s + 0.1265) (s2 + 0.0563s + 0.9665) (s2 + 0.1577s + 0.6273) (s2 + 0.2279s + 0.2043)
8 (s2+0.0432s+0.9742) (s2+0.1229s+0.7036) (s2+0.1839s+0.3209) (s2+0.217s+0.0503)
8.1 High pass Butterworth filters with ω0 = 1
Construction is exactly as for the low-pass filters except that high-pass filter sections are
used, i.e. Fig. 1.6 instead of Fig. 1.5 and Fig. 1.8 instead of Fig. 1.7. In other words,
the frequency determining resistors are interchanged with the capacitors.

8.2 Building high-pass Chebyshev filters with specific values of ε from Chebyshev
Polynomials
Procedure is similar but more complicated than in the case of Butterworth Filters. The
frequency determining R and C are again interchanged as for the Butterworth filter but
the constants that determine ωo = 1/CR also need to be changed.
For Chebyshev filters the following transformation is required:

s/ωp → 1/(S/Ωp),
where S is the Laplace variable for the high-pass filter and Ωp is the pass band edge
frequency times 2π for the high-pass filter.
It is easy to show that this procedure converts the first order low-pass transfer function
(T.F.) to a high-pass filter T.F. Let Aωp / (s + αωp) be the T.F. of the filter, where α is the
constant, the dc gain, given by s=0, is A/α and ωo = αωp. Dividing by ωp we get A / (α +
s/ωp). Making the above substitution leads to:
A A S / Ωp AS ( A / α)S
= = =
1 αS / Ωp + 1 αS + Ωp 1
α+ S + Ωp
S / Ωp α
At the end of the transformation we have a high-pass filter T.F. with a high frequency gain
A/α. The original constant α has become 1/α so that Ωo = (1/α)Ωp, so the transformation
has the following effect:
A ωp ( A / α)S
⇒
s + α ωp 1
S + Ωp
α
A similar but rather more complex procedure leads to a similar result for second order
sections, which shows that a low-pass T.F. Aω2p / [s2 + βsωp + αω2p], i.e., one with a high
frequency gain of A/α and ω2o = αω2p transforms to:
A ωp2 ( A / α) S 2
⇒
s 2 + β s ωp + α ωp2 β 1
S 2 + S Ωp + Ωp2
α α
so that the high frequency gain is again A/α but ω2o is now (1/α)Ω2p.
Note that the transformation in the first order term is equivalent to INVERTING the
constant α. In the second order terms α is again INVERTED and it also DIVIDES the s
term multiplier β.
EXAMPLE: Design a third order high-pass 0.1dB Chebyshev filter with the pass band
edge frequency fp = 1kHz and dc gain K = 20.
SOLUTION: The T.F. denominator for the low-pass filter follows from p. 16 and is
(s+0.9694ωp).(s2+0.9694sωp+ 1.6898ω2p).
Making the substitution s/ωp = 1/(S/ωp) is equivalent to putting s = 1/(S / ω 2p) = ω2p/S.
Substituting, we have:
[ω2p/S + 0.9694ωp].[ ω4p/S2 + 0.9694(ω2p/S)ωp + 1.6898ω2p ]

We now multiply the first bracket by S and divide by ω p and for the second bracket we
multiply by S2 and divide by ω2p. This leads to:
[ωp + 0.9694S].[ ω2p + 0.9694ωpS + 1.6898S2 ]
We finally divide the first term by 0.9698 and the second by 1.6898. This leads to the high
pass filter T.F. denominator:
[S + (1/0.9694)ωp].[ S2 + (0.9694/1.6898)ωpS + (1/1.6898)ω2p ]
We again note that the transformation is equivalent in the first order sections to
INVERTING the constant. In the second order sections the constant which multiplies ω 2p is
INVERTED and the same constant is used to divide the multiplier of the sωp term.
So, for the second order section we have: ω o = √(1/1.6898)ωp = 0.7693 . 2π .1000 =
4.8335kr/s. For C = 0.1μF we have R =1/(ωo.C) = 2.069kΩ.
Also, (0.9694/1.6898)ωp = (3 – AVO)ωo, or (3 – AVO) = (0.9694/1.6898).(ωp/ωo) = 0.74574,

so that AVO = 2.2543 and if R1 = 10kΩ then R2 = 12.54kΩ.
For the first order section we have: ωo=(1/0.9694)ωp=2π.1000/0.9694 = 6.4815kr/s. For C

= 0.1μF we have R = 1/(ωo.C) = 1.543kΩ.
An overall gain of 20 is required and the gain of the second order section is 2.2543 so the
gain for the first order section will have to be 20/2.2543 = 8.872 = 1 + R 2/R1 so that if
R1=10kΩ then R2 = 78.72kΩ. This completes the design. The circuit is shown below in Fig.
8.1.
Fig. 8.1

Fig. 8.2
The transmission of the filter is shown in Fig. 8.2. We note that the high-pass filter actually
turns out to be a band-pass filter because of the finite bandwidth of the op amps. As the
first order stage has the bigger gain it will be mainly responsible for determining the
bandwidth. For a cut-off frequency of fh, a gain-bandwidth product of fT and a gain of 1 +
R2/R1 we have:
(1 + R2/R1).fh = fT.
Here 1 + R2/R1 = 8.872 so that for fT = 1MHz, which is typical for the 741 op amp, we have
fh = 113kHz, which is precisely the value measured above. [As the gain of the second
order section is 2.2543, i.e. a quarter that of the first order section, the op amp cut-off
frequency for the second order section will be approximately four times higher, i.e. around
450kHz.Hence, this op amp should be relatively unimportant in determining the overall
upper 3dB cut-off frequency.]

9 The Two Integrator–loop Biquad
9.1 Theory
There are a number of second-order filters based on the opamp integrator transfer function
Vout/Vin = (-ωo/s). They have the great advantage that all three types of filter output are
available from the circuit.
Consider the T.F. for a high-pass filter:
V hp K s2
=
 
V in  ωo 
s + s  Q  + ω o2
2
 
Cross multiplying and dividing both sides by s2 we have:
 2 
1  ωo 
 ω
 o

V hp + ⋅

V hp  +
  2
Vhp = K V in
Q  s  s


The second and third terms are obtainable by passing V hp through integrators with time
constants CR = 1/ωo.
Fig. 9.1
The problem of forming Vhp remains. If we rearrange the second equation by having Vhp on
the left and using the T.F. for the opamp integrator (-ωo/s), we have:
1  ωo   
 ωo 
 
 ωo 
V hp = K V in + ⋅ −  V hp − −  −  V hp
Q  s  

s 



s 

This suggests, that Vhp may be obtained by the summing process below:
Fig. 9.2
So, combining Figs. 9.1 and 9.2, we get the diagram shown below in Fig. 9.3.
Fig. 9.3
Note that in the above circuit Vhp is the output of the summer, which gives the high-pass
T.F. Vhp / Vin. The signal at the output of the first integrator is (-ωo/s)Vhp which gives the T.F.
below:

− ω
 o s  V hp ωo V hp − K ωo s
= − ⋅ = =
 
V in s V in  ωo 
s2 + s 
 Q 
+ ωo2
 
and the output of the second integrator is:
( ωo s) 2 V hp ωo2 K s2 K ωo2
= ⋅ =
V in s 2 
ωo
  
 ωo 
s 2 + s  2 s2 +
 
 + ωo s  +ω
 Q 
  Q 
 
9.2 Circuit Implementation of the KHN Biquad

Fig. 9.4
Working from Fig. 9.4, we use the principle of superposition to obtain Vhp at the output of
U1 in terms of Vin, Vbp and Vlp. Note the substitution of (-ωo/s)Vhp for Vbp and (ωo/s)2Vhp for
Vlp.

We get:

V hp = 1 +

R f   R 3
 ⋅ 
R1   R 2 + R 3
V in +
R2
⋅
 ωo 

 −
R 2 + R3  s 

 ⋅ V hp ( )
 ωo 2
−
 s
R
⋅ V hp ⋅ f
R1
Multiplying out:
 
 R f  R 3

 R f

 R 2  ωo
V hp = 1 + ⋅ ⋅ V in + 1 + ⋅ ⋅−

 R1  R 2 + R 3 
 R1  R 2 + R 3  s
Comparing the last term in the equation above with the last equation on p. 21 we must
have Rf/R1 = 1 or Rf = R1. Any arbitrary but sensible value will do here.
Comparing the second term on the right:
1  ω o  2R 2  
 ωo 
−  ⋅ V hp = ⋅  −  ⋅ V hp
Q  s  R 2 + R 3  s 
Therefore:
1 2 R2 +
= or 2Q = R 2 R 3 = 1 + R 3
Q R 2 + R3 R2 R2
Hence:
R3
= 2Q −1
R2
Either R2 or R3 is arbitrary. The other one must be chosen to give the correct Q.
Finally, equating the first terms:

2 R3
Vin = K Vin
R 2 + R3
or:
2 2 2 ( 2Q − 1) 4Q − 2 1
K = = = = = 2−
R 1 1 + 2Q − 1 2Q Q
1+ 2 + 1
R3 2Q − 1
This is fixed and determined by the required Q.
Two integrator-loop biquads are very versatile and easy to design. Their performance is,
however, quite badly affected by the finite bandwidth of the opamps used. There are
special techniques for the compensation of these effects.
Low-pass, high-pass and band-pass functions are already available. Other types may be
obtained by adding these three with appropriate weightings using an inverting adder. A
band-stop filter, for example, may be obtained by adding a low-pass and a high-pass filter
function with equal weighting.

ACTIVE FILTER TUTORIAL EXAMPLES
1. Design a Butterworth low-pass filter with fP = 1kHz, fS = 3kHz, Amax = 1.5dB, Amin =
20dB and dc gain K = 5.
[Ans.: ε = 0.6423, N=2.5 (use N = 3), p1,p3 = ω O[-0.5 ± j0.866], p2 = -ω O. For freq.
Selecting components C = 0.1µ F, R = 1.373kΩ . For second order stage R2/R1 = 1,
e.g. R1 = 10kΩ , R2 = 10kΩ . For first order section R2/R1 = 1.5, e.g. R1 = 10kΩ , R2
= 15kΩ .]
2. Design a Chebyshev low-pass filter with fP = 1kHz, fS = 2kHz, Amax = 1.5dB, Amin =
35dB and dc gain K = 10.
[Ans.: ε = 0.6423, N=3.92 (use N = 4), p1,p4 = ω p[-0.11913 ± j0.9676], p2,p3 =

ω p[-0.2876 ± j0.4008].
(s-p1)(s-p4) = s2 + 0.2383sω P + 0.95044ω P2 and (s-p2)(s-p3) = s2 + 0.5752sω P +
0.24335ω P2.
For first second order section (p1,p4) for freq. Selecting components C = 0.1µ F, R =
1.633kΩ and R2/R1 = 1.7556, e.g. R1 = 10kΩ , R2 = 17.556kΩ .
For second second order section (p2,p3) for freq. Selecting components C = 0.1µ F,
R = 3.226kΩ and R2/R1 = 0.834, e.g. R1 = 10kΩ , R2 = 8.34kΩ .
For the gain control section R2/R1 = 0.979, e.g. R1 = 10kΩ , R2 = 9.79kΩ .]
3. Design a fifth order Butterworth low-pass filter from the Table of Butterworth
polynomials (ε = 1) with fP = 3kHz and dc gain K = 25. How would the design be
different for a high-pass filter?
[Ans.: For freq. Selecting components C = 0.01µ F, R = 5.30kΩ . For the first
second order section R2/R1 = 1.382, e.g. R1 = 10kΩ , R2 = 13.82kΩ . For the second
second order section R2/R1 = 0.382, e.g. R1 = 10kΩ , R2 = 3.82kΩ . For first order
section R2/R1 = 6.594, e.g. R1 = 1kΩ , R2 = 6.594kΩ .]
4. Design a 2dB ripple sixth order Chebyshev low-pass filter from the Table of
Chebyshev polynomials with fP = 5kHz and dc gain K = 30.
[Ans.: For first second order section for freq. Selecting components C = 0.01µ F, R
= 3.239kΩ and R2/R1 = 1.9045, e.g. R1 = 10kΩ , R2 = 19.045kΩ .
For second second order section for freq. Selecting components C = 0.01µ F, R =
For third second order section for freq. Selecting components C = 0.01µ F, R =
For the gain control section R2/R1 = 1.0627, e.g. R1 = 10kΩ , R2 = 10.627kΩ .]

5. Given the transfer functions for the high-pass filter and the integrator, derive the
schematic diagram (Fig. 8.4 in your notes) for the KHN biquad, showing how the
high-pass, band-pass and low-pass transfer functions may be obtained from the
input.
6. Derive an expression for Vhp in terms of Vbp and Vlp for the circuit of Fig. 8.4.
Replace Vbp by (-ω o/s).Vhp and Vlp by (ω o/s)2.Vhp and hence obtain suitable values
for the resistors and capacitors in Fig. 8.4 if a KHN biquad band-pass filter with
center frequency fO = 1kHz and Q = 10 is required.
[Ans.: For the freq. selecting components C = 0.1µ F, R = 1.592kΩ . Rf = R1 =

10kΩ , R2 = 10kΩ and R3 = 190kΩ is a possible solution.]
7. Design a third order 1dB high-pass Chebyshev filter with the pass band edge at
100Hz and a gain of 100.
[Ans.:For 2nd order: C = 0.1µ F, R = 15.87kΩ , R1 = 10kΩ , R2 = 15.05kΩ ; 1st order:

C = 0.1µ F, R = 7.862kΩ , R1 = 10kΩ , R2 = 389.2kΩ ; is a possible solution.]
8. Design a fourth order 2dB high-pass Chebyshev filter with the pass band edge at
100Hz.
[Ans.:For one 2nd order: C = 1µ F, R = 1.534kΩ , R1 = 10kΩ , R2 = 17.82kΩ ; second

2nd order: C = 0.1µ F, R = 7.492kΩ , R1 = 10kΩ , R2 = 9.24kΩ ; is a possible
solution.]

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B. Eng.

Modular Degree Analogue and Instrumentation UG3

Nick Holden BCU Ref.: lect2010\analogUG3

Fig. 1.5 Fig. 1.6

The transfer function for the low-pass filter is given by:

Nick Holden BCU Ref.: lect2010\analogUG3 2

Nick Holden BCU Ref.: lect2010\analogUG3 3

Fig. 1.7 Fig. 1.8

where ωo = 1 / CR and AVO = (1 + R2/R1).

Nick Holden BCU Ref.: lect2010\analogUG3 5

At ω = ωp this reduces to:

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The transfer function will be of the type:

ε = 101 10 −1 = 1.2589 − 1 = 0.5088

The Poles all have the same frequency given by:

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(s – p1)(s – p9)= s2 + 0.3472sω o + ω o

The other conjugate pole-pairs may be shown to give:

(s – p4)(s – p6)= s2 + 1.8794sω o + ω o

and the real pole gives: (s – p5) = (s + ω o).

So the complete transfer function will be:

4 Design Implementation Using Sallen-Key Filters

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So the gains of all four second order sections will be:

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The parameter ε determines Amax, the pass-band ripple, according to:

Conversely, given Amax, the value of ε may be found from:

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The poles of the Chebyshev filter are given by:

The design procedure is as for the Butterworth:

ε = 101 10 −1 = 1.2589 − 1 = 0.5088

The poles may be obtained from the formula as:

P1, P5 = ω p(-0.0895 ± j0.9901)

T(s) = 10ω p5/[8.1408(s + 0.2895ω p)*

where ω p = 2π *104 rads/s.

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Implementation in terms of Sallen-Key filters is left as an exercise. It should however be

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6 Building Butterworth Filters from Butterworth Polynomials

6.1 Low Pass (with ω0 = 1)

Butterworth Polynomials (with ω0 = 1)

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7 Building Chebyshev filters from Chebyshev Polynomials

7.1 Low Pass with specific values of ε

The situation is similar for the second order factors:

where a2.ωp 2 = ωo2 or ωp = ωo / √a2 so that

As ωo = 1/CR and if we choose C = 0.1μF then R = 1 / [C . ω o] = 160.13Ω. This value of R

ωo = √a2 . ωp = 0.655 x 2 x π x 10 x 103 = 4.115 x 104 radians/s

As ωo = 1/CR and if we choose C = 0.1μF then R = 1 / [C . ωo] = 243Ω. This value of R is

and R2 / R1 = 1.2855. So we could use, for example, R1 = 10kΩ and R2 = 12.855kΩ.

And that completes the design of the Chebyshev filter.

Chebyshev 0.1dB ripple (ε = 0.1526)

Chebyshev 0.5dB ripple (ε = 0.3493)

Chebyshev 1.0dB ripple (ε = 0.5089)

Chebyshev 2.0dB ripple (ε = 0.7648)

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8.1 High pass Butterworth filters with ω0 = 1

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For Chebyshev filters the following transformation is required: