25th International Conference on Ground Control in Mining

PILLAR REINFORCEMENT OR RIB SUPPORT?

André C. Zingano, Associate Professor

Jair C. Koppe, Professor
João Felipe C.L. Costa, Associate Professor
Department of Mining Engineering
Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul
Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Abstract groundwater problems. Ground control problems, such as roof falls,

The coal pillars in room-and-pillar mining method are
subjected to vertical stress due to overburden rock mass and
horizontal stress relieve due to entries excavation around them.
Some coal mining companies are applying rock bolts and steel
straps to improve the pillar strength, consequently to reducing the
pillar size and increasing coal recovery. This kind of approach
deserves some discussion, whether it is pillar reinforcement or just
rib support. The efficiency of pillar reinforcement (or rib support)
is directly related to the initial load capacity of coal pillar, the type
of excavation, and the width to high ratio of the pillar. The
objective of this paper is to understand the mechanism of pillar
reinforcement (or rib support) using rock bolts and steel straps on
pillar ribs. Numerical simulation taking into account the relations
listed above. The results showed that the increase of coal pillar
strength is very short, and there is no influence on improvement of
load capacity of pillar. However, the rib support avoids block
falling, rib failure, and displacement, reducing the pillar failure
propagation into the pillar center.
Keywords: coal, pillar reinforcement, room and pillar.
pillar failure and floor heave are very common and tend to increase
when mining companies face production and geological problems.
The overburden thickness varies from 20 to 400 meters,
which is the maximum depth that mining companies are actually
mining. More than 400 m deep is not economically mineable.
Because coal recovery is very small, depending on the size of the
pillar and the depth of coal seam.
Therefore, some mining companies are applying pillar
reinforcement to increase the pillar strength and reduce pillar
dimensions. However, some of these pillars failed after one or two
years, but others did not.
Another type of pillar failure is due to the age of pillar. The
pillars with ten years old or more start to fail. Recently, there was a
section of pillars that was mined ten years ago, collapsed
completely. The probable cause was that the pillar size were
reduced by rib spalling over the years, until they became sufficient
small and failed.
After the pillars were found collapsed, the mining company
installed the required pillar reinforcement on the ribs of the pillars
around the collapse area and the main entries. Also all the drifts
around the collapse area were backfilled with the rock wastes from

Introduction the mining operations. The rib reinforcement was made with fully
grouted rock bolts and metal straps (Figure 1). This reinforcement

Brazilian underground coal mining applies room-and-pillar consisted of three or four rows of fully grouted rock bolts spaced at

mining method, with the pillars designed by the Salamon-Munro 1.5 meters on average.

formula (Salamon and Munro, 1967). Coal pillars should be The pillars were subjected to the vertical and horizontal

designed as a permanent structure to avoid subsidence and stresses distribution due to excavation of the drifts, and the
magnitude of stresses redistribution depends mainly on the
 25th International Conference on Ground Control in Mining
overburden thickness. Stress relieve in the pillar ribs causes rib 3000

displacements, which if sufficient, will also cause the rib to fail.

2500

Convergence (mm/100)
2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Time (days)

40

35

30

Velocity (mm/100/day)
25

20

15

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Time (days)

Figure 2 – Changes of pressure in the pillar and the rate of

convergence of the entry.

It was observed, after inspections of the mine site where the

Figure 1 – pillars reinforced with rock bolts and metal straps.
Also, the roof support has influence on pillar stability,
because there is horizontal stress induced in immediate roof and
vertical displacements that will increase the pressure on the ribs of
the pillar. This pressure increasing may be sufficient to cause rib
failure and, consequently, pillar failure.
The borehole pressure cells for monitoring pressure changes
were installed in the reinforced pillars and extensometers were
installed near the pillar ribs to monitor the effect of pillar
reinforcement. Figure 2 shows the changes in pillar pressure and
entry convergence rate close to collapse area. It can be seen that
pillar reinforcement and backfilling of drifts worked well in
slowing down the advance of pillar collapse. Therefore, the pillars
were truly reinforced and, consequently, their strength was
increased.
pillar collapse and pillar reinforcement occurred that the pillar
nearest to the collapse zone sustained large deformations, as shown
by the rock bolts and straps behavior. Figure 3 shows the
deformation of the pillar, comparing the position of the rock bolt
and the strap.
The main issue of this research is: there is pillar
reinforcement or only rib support to reduce pillar deformation.
The objective of this paper is to analyze the mechanism of
the behavior of the application of pillar reinforcement at the pillar
ribs using rock bolts and straps. The analysis will take into account
the properties of the rock masses that are the immediate roof and
main roof, and pillar and entry dimensions, and thickness of the
coal seam.
The study starts with a description of geology and structure
of the coal seam that will influence the stability and failure
mechanisms of the pillars and the reinforcement. It then studies
analyzes the mechanism for this case study with numerical
modeling to understand and simulate the mechanism of pillar
reinforcement.
 25th International Conference on Ground Control in Mining
ensure a stable pillar design and consequently a safe panel.
Otherwise, rib pillar reinforcement has to be done to prevent pillar
sloughing and spalling. Theoretically, the reinforcement of pillar
ribs provides pillar confinement; i.e. it increases the pillar strength
(Wykoff, 1950; Weakly, 1982; Agapito, et.al., 1985; Weakley,
1984). However, Zelanko (1992) and Dolinar and Tadolini (1991)
reported that pillar rib reinforcement does not significantly increase
the strength of pillar, but that it just avoid pillar spalling. There are
few publications about pillar reinforcement; most of these works
studied the pillar reinforcement on a laboratory scale (Zelanko,
1992; Dolinar and Tadolini 1991; Ringwald and Brawner, 1989).

Figure 3 – Deformation of the pillar due to reinforcement (no

scale).

Geological setting

Two different coal seams within the Rio Bonito Formation

are mined in Santa Catarina State. The first is the Barro Branco
Seam which is about 1.5- to 2.3-m-thick, and the second is the
Bonito Seam which is about 2.5- to 5.5-m-thick.
The Barro Branco coal seam is located at the top of the
upper part of the Rio Bonito Formation, with minor variations in
seam inclination (or dip). However, it has many faults and
fractures. The magnitude of fault movement varies from a few
centimeters to more than 5 meters.
Figure 4 shows the geological detail and the thickness of
various rock layers in the immediate roof and floor of the coal
seam. The immediate floor comprises of siltstone, underlied by the
laminated and massive sandstone layers. The immediate roof is Figure 4 – Geological detail in the roof and floor around the coal

laminated sandstone about 4 m thick overlain by a 10 m thick layer seam (thicknesses in meters).

of massive sandstone. The thickness of the coal seam is 3.8 meters.

Zingano (2002) studied the effect of support to prevent
block sliding from pillars due to the 50° dip fractures in the coal
The pillar reinforcement
seam. He noted that pillar stress increase very little, about 0.5MPa,
when the fully grouted bolts with pre-tension of 5tons were used as
Coal pillars are essential elements in underground coal
rib supports.
mining, e.g. room and pillar and Longwall mining. Coal seams
could be considered as jointed media, where the joint spacing can
be less than 5cm (1.97 in). Local pillar instabilities due to such Modeling of pillar reinforcement
joints could lead to serious fatalities and reduce the effective pillar
area in long term. Two-dimensional numerical model was applied to simulate

Sometimes it is necessary to have a very large pillar to the pillar reinforcement. The reinforcement of the pillar is
 25th International Conference on Ground Control in Mining
simulated by applying the cable structural element as a fully
grouted rock bolt, and beam structural elements of FLAC at the Material properties
pillar ribs and in the roof. The excavation of drifts is simulated by The material properties are shown in Table 1. The roof and
removing the elements that represent the drifts, causing the roof floor rocks follow the Mohr-Coulomb elastic-plastic behavior. The
and pillar to deform. coal and claystone rocks follow the strain softening material
The difficulties in building this model are associated with behavior. The Young’s modulus (E) of the roof is higher than the
correct definition of mining sequence and geomechanical properties coal seam, but the E of the floor is nearly the same. Therefore, this
of each stratum and the interface between the immediate roof and case involves a roof which is stiffer than coal while the floor is
the top of pillar. The model simulation employed FLAC-2D, about the same as coal. Table 2 shows the properties for coal seam
version 4 (ITASCA, 2002). for strain softening behavior.
The numerical model is a two-dimensional plane strain
Model Geometry and sequence model. Since the objective of this study is to understand the
The numerical model simulates the pillar reinforcement deformation behavior in the plane of the model, out-of-plane strains
with a model that has three entries and two pillars. The first pillar is are not considered. This criterion assumes a linear relationship
reinforced, and the second one does not have reinforcement. The between the maximum and minimum stresses.
geometry of the model is shown in Figure 5, with the thickness of Table 1- Rock properties used for the model
each seam specified. Rock Young’s Poisson’s Friction Cohesion
Modulus Ratio Angle (Pa)
The objective is to simulate the behavior of a coal pillar (Pa) (degrees)
subjected to field stress (horizontal and vertical stresses) and the Massive Sandstone 2.47E10 0.25 37.4 5.42E6
Laminated 9.75E9 0.25 33.2 4.38E6
evolution of failure due to excavation, and stress redistribution.
Sandstone
The steps of the numerical simulation are: Siltstone 6.13E9 0.25 30.3 3.90E6
1. load initial stress; Coal 5.10E9 0.25 26.9 1.80E6
Claystone 2.24E9 0.25 17.2 1.38E6
2. excavation of the entries;
3. apply pillar reinforcement.
Table 2 – Strain softening properties for coal and claystone.
Coal 0.00 0.003 1
Friction Table 26.9 15 15
Cohesion Table 1.8E6 1E5 1E5
Claystone 0.00 0.003 1
Friction Table 16.9 10 10
Cohesion Table 1E6 1E5 1E5

The same type of rock bolts is used for roof support and
pillar reinforcement. The difference is the length of bolts, 1.5m for
the roof and 2.5m for pillar reinforcement.
Table 3 presents the properties for the cable elements and
Figure 5 – Geometry used in the numerical model (distances in
resin that FLAC require for simulation the rock bolts. All the rock
meters).
bolts are fully grouted with no pre-tension.
The straps in the model are simulated by using the beam structural
The numerical model is subject to different pressures
model, considering the width of the strap is 0.2 meters and Young’s
applied to the top of the model to simulate four different
Modulus is 7.58E10 Pascals.
overburden thicknesses, i.e., 80m, 100m 150m, 200m, and 300m.
Initial stresses
In each coal seam depth, the model is cycled until it reaches
The virgin vertical and horizontal stresses and the ratio
the equilibrium of forces or the elements get bad geometry. The
between them are necessary to simulate the rock behavior
objective is to simulate the behavior of the coal pillar and the effect
surrounding mine openings in the numerical model. Various factors
of the reinforcement when the coal pillar failed.
can change the horizontal to vertical stress ratio, such as tectonic
 25th International Conference on Ground Control in Mining
influence, anisotropy of the rock mass, and topography variations 0.12
(Cornet, 1993). The rock mass in this study is a sedimentary with reinforcement
formation affected by tectonic pressures. This situation makes the without reinforcement
0.1

horizontal displacement (m*10)

rock mass strongly anisotropic and heterogeneous. The relationship
between vertical and horizontal stress based on the Poisson’s ratio 0.08

can not be applied in this case study.

0.06

Table 3 – Properties of cable structural elements.

0.04
Properties Value
Bolt area (m2) 2.8E-4
0.02
Bolt Modulus (Pa) 2.06E11
Bolt tensile strength (N) 1.4E5
0
Grout bond stiffness (Pa) 2.19E11
70 90 110 130
depth (m) 150 170
Grout bond stress (N/m) 3.13E6
Grout friction angle 25.5 Figure 6 – Horizontal displacement
Perimeter (m) 0.02992

The depth of 150m is the maximum depth that the rib bolts
In-situ measurements of the stress field magnitude in this
region of Brazil are not available. It was assumed that the initial will support (or is active) against the displacement of the ribs. This

stress ratio is 1.0, due to erosion of the overburden and tectonic
pressure.
The vertical and horizontal pressures are applied at the
boundary (or limits) of the model. The vertical stress calculated
can be observed on the axial force of the rock bolts installed at the
ribs. The same behavior shown in the displacement of the rib at
100m depth is observed in the axial force of the rock bolt (Figure
7). The axial force of the rock bolt for 100m is less than the axial

based on an overburden thickness of 60 meters and the horizontal force for 80m.

stress is twice the vertical stress.

1.45

Numerical modeling
1.4
The numerical model shows the behavior of the pillars in
response to the stress distribution and application of the
axial force (N)

1.35
reinforcement at the pillar ribs. To analyze the effect of the pillar
reinforcement process, comparisons were made between the pillars
1.3
that were reinforced and those without reinforcement, in terms of
rib displacement, stress distribution in the pillar, vertical stress
1.25
profile along the pillars, and the axial force of the rock bolt. To
monitoring the displacement, the nodes of the elements that
1.2
represent the pillar rib were monitored by the history command on 0 50 100 150 200
depth (m)
250 300 350

FLAC.
Figure 7 – Axial force of the rock bolt installed in the rib pillar.
Figure 6 shows the horizontal displacement (xdisp) of the
pillar ribs for the pillar with and without reinforcement by depth of
80m, 100m, and 150m. The same pillar is subjected to different
depths. The difference of the displacements of the pillars with and
without reinforcement increases with the coal seam depth, e.g.,
with the vertical stress.
25th International Conference on Ground Control in Mining

(a) (e)
Figure 8 – Vertical stress distribution in a coal pillar at four
different depths. (a) 80m (b) 100m (c) 150m (d) 200m (e) 300m.
The pillar #1 is reinforced with rock bolt and straps, and the pillar
#2 is not reinforced.

Figure 8 shows the vertical stress distribution in both

pillars, where there is a small difference between the pillars with
and without reinforcement for depths up to 150m.
For depths 150m, 200m and 300m the rock bolts are already
yielded (Figure 7), losing their structural function for
(b)
reinforcement. However, the rock bolt, and the straps reduce the
displacement of the pillar ribs, and consequently the rib spalling.
Since there is no rib spalling, the center of the pillar remains
confined. So the stress in the pillar can increase (Figure 8d and 8e),
compared to the pillars with no reinforcement, the pillars are totally
yielded (Figure 9d and 9e).
Figure 9 shows the plasticity condition for the pillars. Also
there is difference only for the 80m depth. For the others depths
there are no difference between pillars with and without
reinforcement.
The vertical stress profile (Figure 10) for both pillars (with
(c)
and no reinforcement) show that the pillar with rock bolts in the
ribs can support more stress at the rib when the pillar does not yield
completely.

Conclusions

This study showed the mechanism of the application of rock

bolts at the pillar ribs.
In fact, there is a small increase of pillar and rib strengths..
But, for this reason, it is too small to reduce the size of pillar or the
(d) safety factor for a specific depth.
Therefore, the rock bolts applied to the pillar ribs are a very
 25th International Conference on Ground Control in Mining
good support against rib spalling and deformation of pillar.
The support for rib spalling is an advantage to long term
stability of pillar, because it maintains the confinement of the pillar
center.

(d)

(a)

(e)
Figure 9 – Plasticity conditions in the coal pillars. (a) 80m (b)
100m (c) 150m (d) 200m (e) 300m. The pillar #1 is reinforced with
rock bolt and straps, and the pillar #2 is not reinforced.

(b)

(c)
Figure 10 – Vertical stress profile for depth 150m.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Luiz Englert Foundation,

Mineral Research and Mining Planning Lab., and Federal
University of Rio Grande do Sul for supporting this research.
 25th International Conference on Ground Control in Mining

References

1. Salamon, M.D.G. e Munro, A.H.A., 1967, A study of the

strength of coal pillar. J. S. African Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, vol. 68, pág. 55-67, Johannesburg, África do Sul
2. Cornet, F.H., 1993, Stress in rock and rock masses, In:
Comprehensive Rock Engineering, J.A. Hudson Ed.-In-Chief,
Pergamon Press, Vol.5, Chapter 12, pp.297-327, London.
3. ITASCA Consulting Group, FLAC-2D version 4.0, Users
Manual, 2002.
4. Ringwald, J.P. and Brawner, C.O., 1989, Reinforcement
concrete model pillars with grouted rock bolts, Mining
Sciences and Technology, Elsevier Sciences Pub., vol.8, pp 31-
47.
5. Dolinar, S.C. and Tadolini, D.R., 1991, Entry stabilization
utilizing rib bolting procedure, US Bureau of Mines, Dept. of
the Interior, RI-9366, 13pages
6. Zelanko, J.C., 1992, Laboratory studies of the effect of
artificial support on coal strength, Proceedings of Rock
Support in Mining and Underground Construction, Kaiser &
McCreath eds., Balkema Publ., pp. 551-556
7. Wykoff, B.T. 1950, Wrapping pillars with old hoist rope,
Mining Engineering – AIME Transactions, August 1950,
vol.187, pp.898-902.
8. Weakly L.A., 1982, Room-and-pillar ground control utilizing
the grouted reinforcement bar system, SME – Ground Control
in Room-and-Pillar Mining, Ed.Chief Yoginder Chugh, pp.3
A3-1 – 3 A3-11.
9. Weakley, L.A., 1984, The effect of various underground
excavation methods on oil shale mine pillars, Mining Year
Book, 87th National Western Mining Conference, Colorado
Mining Association, pp.108-112, USA.
10. Agapito, J.F.T., Mitchell, S.J. and Weakley, L.A., 1985, Effect
of pillar reinforcement on long-term stability of an oil shale
mine, SME-AIME Annual Meeting Preprint num 85-72, Feb.
24-28, New York, USA.
11. Zingano, A.Z., 2002, Modelamento Geomecânico para o
Dimensionamento de Pilares de Carvão (Geomechanical
Modelling for Coal Pillar Design), PhD Dissertation, Programa
de Pós Graduação em Engenharia de Minas, Metalúrgica e de
Materiais, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil,
210 pages.