Effects of Increasing Truck Loads on Highway Bridges

Prepared for
Bureau of Structures

Prepared by
CTC & Associates LLC
WisDOT Research & Library Unit

May 4, 2010

Transportation Literature Searches are prepared for WisDOT staff and investigators to identify completed research
and other authoritative information in an area of interest. The citations below are representative, rather than
exhaustive, of available English-language studies on the topic. Primary online resources for the literature searches
are OCLC’s WorldCat and TLCat, U.S. DOT’s TRIS Online, the National Transportation Library (NTL), TRB’s
Research in Progress (RiP) database, and other academic, engineering and scientific databases as appropriate.

To request a literature search, contact the WisDOT Library at library@dot.wi.gov or (608) 264-8142, or WisDOT
Research at research@dot.wi.gov or (608) 267-6977.

Topic/Problem Statement: Research quantifying the changing effects on bridges from higher allowable weight
limits.

Keywords: overweight vehicles, higher truck loads.

Summary
We found 14 citations for documents published in 1999 or later, and two Research in Progress entries. One citation
was published in 2008, one in 2007, four in 2006, one in 2004, two in 2003, one in 2001, three in 2000 and one in
1999. Seven of these citations refer to academic articles or conference proceedings. Five originate in state studies
(one each from Louisiana, Indiana, Minnesota, Texas and Florida), one is an NCHRP report, and one was published
by FHWA.

Citations
Links to online copies of cited literature are provided when available. Contact the WisDOT Library to obtain hard
copies of citations.

Title: Monitoring System to Determine the Impact of Sugarcane Truckloads on Non-Interstate Bridges
Author(s): Aziz Saber, Freddy Roberts, Ziang Zhou, Walid Alaywan
Date: December 2008
Source/URL: Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development;
http://www.ltrc.lsu.edu/pdf/2009/fr_418.pdf
OCLC Number: 317491084
Description: 231 pp.
Contents: The study included in this report assessed the strength, serviceability, and economic impact caused by
overweight trucks hauling sugar cane on Louisiana bridges. Researchers identified the highway routes and bridges
being used to haul this commodity and statistically chose samples to use in the analysis. Approximately 84 bridges
were involved in this study. Four different scenarios of load configuration were examined: 1) GVW = 100,000 lb,
with a maximum tandem load of 48,000 lb; 2) GVW = 100,000 lb, with a maximum tridem load of 60,000 lb; 3)
Uniformly distributed tandem and tridem loads; and 4) GVW = 120,000 lb, with maximum tandem of 48,000 lb, and
maximum tridem of 60,000 lb. It is to be noted that a GVW of 120,000 lb for sugarcane haulers was the highest
level currently considered in this investigation. The methodology used to evaluate the fatigue cost of bridges was
based on the following procedures: 1) determine the shear, moment, and deflection induced on each bridge type and
span, and 2) develop a fatigue cost for each truck crossing with a) a maximum GVW of 120,000 lb, and b) a GVW
of 100,000 lb with a uniformly distributed load. Through the use of a field calibrated finite element model, Structure
03234240405451 was analyzed and load rated for loading vehicles HS-20, 3S2 and 3S3 (sugar cane loading cases 1
through 4). The structure had adequate strength to resist both bending and shear forces for all six loading vehicles. It
should be noted that all of the rating factors were acceptable for all 17 spans as long as the construction and the
structural condition of each span were the same. Results indicate that among the four cases of loading
configurations, Case 4, which was a GVW=120,000 lb with maximum tandem and tridem loads, generated the worst
strength and serviceability conditions in bridges. Therefore, Case 4 is the loading configuration that controls the
strength analysis and evaluation of fatigue cost for bridge girders. Based on the controlling load configuration, Case
4 with a GVW=120,000 lb, the estimated fatigue cost is $11.75 per trip per bridge. In Case 3, which was a
GVW=100,000 lb uniformly distributed load; the estimated cost is $0.90 per trip per bridge. The results from the
bridge deck analyses indicate that the bridge deck is under a stable stress state, whether the stresses are in the tension
zone or the compression zone. Moreover, the decks of bridges with spans longer than 30 ft may experience cracks in
the longitudinal direction under 3S3 trucks. Such cracks will require additional inspections along with early and
frequent maintenance. Based on the results of the studies presented in this report, it is recommended that truck
configuration 3S3 be used to haul sugar cane with a GVW of 100,000 lb uniformly distributed. This will result in the
lowest fatigue cost on the network. It is recommended that truck configuration 3S3 not be used to haul sugar cane
with GVW of 120,000 lb. This will result in high fatigue cost on the network and could cause failure in bridge
girders and bridge decks.

Title: Sensitivity Analysis to Assess the Impact of Truck Weight Reform on Bridge Network Costs
Author(s): Julius Chang, Michael J. Garvin
Date: 2007
Source/URL: Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting 2007, Paper #07-0222
Description: 16 pp.
Contents: A major objective of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is the harmonization of truck
weight standards among the three nations (United States, Canada, and Mexico) that are partners to the agreement.
Prior assessments on the impact such a change would have on bridge-related costs in the US have relied on a single,
conservative parameter (threshold overstress criterion) that is inconsistent with actual practice, a fact that limits the
usefulness of the resultant cost estimates. This paper utilizes data from the National Bridge Inventory (NBI) in a
sensitivity analysis that demonstrates a wide range of costs depending upon the threshold level employed. The
notion of an optimal threshold level that minimizes bridge costs is defined conceptually. The overstress criterion is
hence a critical parameter in studies of this type, a finding that should be a key consideration in future policy
decisions regarding truck weight reform.

Title: Fatigue of Older Bridges in Northern Indiana Due to Overweight and Oversized Loads, Volume 1:
Bridge and Weigh-in-Motion Measurements
Author(s): James A. Reisert, Mark D. Bowman
Date: July 2006
Source/URL: Indiana Department of Transportation;
http://rebar.ecn.purdue.edu/JTRP_Completed_Project_Documents/SPR_2385/FinalReport/SPR_2385_final/SPR_05
16_1.pdf
OCLC Number: 450673622
Description: 141 pp.
Contents: This report is the first of a two-volume final report presenting the findings of the research work that was
undertaken to evaluate the fatigue behavior of steel highway bridges on the extra heavy weight truck corridor in
Northwest Indiana. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the type and magnitude of the loads that travel along
the corridor and then assess the effect of those loads on the fatigue strength of the steel bridge structures on the
corridor. This volume presents the results of the experimental field study conducted to evaluate the load and load
effects on one steel bridge structure on the corridor. A weigh-in-motion (WIM) system was installed near the bridge
structure to evaluate the loads that would cross over the bridge being monitored. Strain values were monitored on
two spans of the ten-span continuous bridge being evaluated. Comparisons were then made between strain
measurements in particular girders and strain values predicted using the measured truck axle weights. The WIM data
indicated that 15% of the Class 9 trucks and 26% of the Class 13 trucks travel heavier than their respective legal
limits. Extreme weights of more then 200,000 lbs were observed. In spite of the heavy truck loads being carried, it
was found that less than 1 percent of the trucks induce a strain range that exceeds the variable amplitude fatigue
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limit of the fatigue critical details in the structure being monitored. Lastly, it was found that three-dimensional
analytical models provide the best agreement between predicted and measured strain values in the bridge.

Volume 2: Analysis Methods and Fatigue Evaluation is available at

http://rebar.ecn.purdue.edu/JTRP_Completed_Project_Documents/SPR_2385/FinalReport/SPR_2385_final/SPR_05
16_2.pdf.

The following three papers present the results of a Louisiana DOTD study on the impact of proposed higher truck
loads. The third paper, which was presented at the 2006 TRB Annual Meeting, has a greater emphasis on the
economic impact of adjusting weight limits.

Title: Impact of Higher Truck Loads on Remaining Safe Life of Louisiana Bridge Decks
Author(s): Aziz Saber, Freddy Roberts, Ziang Zhou, Walid Alaywan
Date: 2006
Source/URL: Applications of Advanced Technology in Transportation: Proceedings of the Ninth
International Conference.
OCLC Number: 175088152
Description: 6 pp.
Contents: Evaluation of the load capacity of existing bridge decks is a major concern for the Louisiana
Department of Transportation and Development. Available funds must be expended in a rational strategy,
which would allow for inspection, maintenance or rehabilitation. This paper presents the results of the
study on the proposed higher truck loads and their economic impact to the state and to the industry. The
impact of adapting such regulations on the existing Louisiana bridge decks is determined based on a
deterministic load capacity evaluation as well as a reliability assessment. The target reliability level is
derived from bridge deck structures designed to satisfy AASHTO standard design specifications and to
satisfy safe and adequate performance levels. Fatigue analyses are performed using finite element modeling
with detailed load capacity evaluations and reliability analyses on a representative sample of bridge decks
to provide specific examples of expected changes in rating and safety levels.

Title: Impact of Higher Truck Loads on Remaining Safe Life of Louisiana Concrete Bridge Girders
Author(s): Aziz Saber, Freddy Roberts, Ziang Zhou, Walid Alaywan
Date: 2006
Source/URL: HPC: Build Fast, Build to Last. The 2006 Concrete Bridge Conference.
Description: 6 pp.
Contents: This paper describes how the evaluation of the load capacity of existing bridges is a major
concern for the Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development. It describes how available funds
must be expended in a rational strategy, which would allow for bridge inspection, maintenance or
rehabilitation. This paper evaluates the proposed higher truck loads and their economic impact to the state
and to the industry. The review of the consequences of adapting such regulations on the existing Louisiana
bridges is performed using a deterministic load capacity evaluation as well as a reliability assessment. The
state bridges are evaluated to satisfy regulations and the new loading requirements. The target reliability
level is derived from bridge structures designed to satisfy AASHTO standard design specifications and to
satisfy safe and adequate performance levels. Detailed load capacity evaluations and reliability analyses are
performed on a representative sample of bridges to provide specific examples of expected changes in
rating, and safety levels. A fatigue cost is estimated to be assessed for each crossing of a bridge and permit
fees for the proposed truck weight regulation is determined.

Title: Economic Impact of Higher Truck Loads on Remaining Safe Life of Louisiana Bridges
Author(s): Aziz Saber, Freddy Roberts
Date: 2006
Source/URL: Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting 2006, Paper #06-2146
Contents: Due to the limited amount of funds available for bridge inspection, maintenance and
rehabilitation, the evaluation of load capacity for existing bridges is crucial to the Louisiana Department of
Transportation and Development. This paper includes the development of a methodology to assess the
economic impact of overweight vehicles with permits, hauling Louisiana harvest products on state bridges.
The proposed higher truck loads are applied on the existing bridges and their effects are determined using
deterministic load capacity evaluations as well as reliability assessments. The target reliability level is
derived from bridge structures designed to satisfy AASHTO Standard Design Specifications and also
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 satisfy safe and adequate performance levels. The amount of harvest produced is used to select a
representative sample of bridges to provide specific examples of expected changes in load ratings and
safety levels. The bridges include simple and continuous span behavior. Strength and serviceability criteria
are investigated under current legal loads and the expected changes, due to the proposed new weights, are
determined. The results are used to assess the cost of crossing a bridge and the permit fees for the proposed
truck weight regulation.

Title: Behavior of Steel Bridges Under Superload Permit Vehicles

Author(s): M. P. Culmo, J. T. DeWolf, M. R. DelGrego
Date: 2004
Source/URL: Transportation Research Record No. 1892, 2004: 107-114.
OCLC Number: 59822341
Description: 8 pp.
Contents: The need for more power in the United States has spurred a major power plant building program. These
plants are usually located where natural gas pipelines cross the power grid, which is generally in more remote areas.
To build these plants, construction companies are increasingly using the highway system to move large pieces of
plant equipment to the project site. Traditional permit vehicles on highways have had limited gross vehicle weights
ranging from 100,000 to 250,000 lb. Special heavy-load vehicles have been developed to spread the loads both
longitudinally and transversely and to allow engineers to move loads in excess of 1,000,000 lb successfully without
the need for temporary support of existing structures. The different types of vehicles that are available and their
effect on steel bridges are considered. Simplified methods of analysis including live load distribution, dynamic load
allowance (impact), and trailer layout options are investigated. Strain gauge data are presented from an actual
1,000,000-lb permit vehicle that crossed a three-span composite steel bridge in Connecticut. Results of the gauging
are compared with the estimates of live load stress from the structural analysis.

Title: Effects of Increasing Truck Weight on Steel and Prestressed Bridges

Author(s): A. K. Altay, D. S. Arabbo, E. B. Corwin, R. J. Dexter, Catherine E. French
Date: March 2003
Source/URL: Minnesota Department of Transportation; http://www.lrrb.org/PDF/200316.pdf
OCLC Number: 54674729
Description: 129 pp.
Contents: Any increase in legal truck weight would shorten the time for repair or replacement of many bridges.
Five steel girder bridges and three prestressed concrete I-girder bridges were instrumented, load tested, and
modeled. The results were used to assess the effects of a 10 or 20% increase in truck weight on bridges on a few key
routes through the state. Essentially all prestressed girders, modern steel girders, and most bridge decks could
tolerate a 20% increase in truck weight with no reduction in life. Unfortunately, most Minnesota steel girder bridges
were designed before fatigue-design specifications were improved in the 1970s and 1980s. Typically, an increase in
truck weight of 20% would lead to a reduction in the remaining life in these older steel bridges of up to 42% (a 10%
increase would lead to a 25% reduction in fatigue life). Bridge decks are affected by axle weights rather than overall
truck weights. Transverse cracks in bridge decks are primarily caused by shrinkage soon after construction and are
not affected by increasing axle weight. However, decks with thickness less than 9 inches or with girder spacing
greater than 10 ft may be susceptible to longitudinal flexural cracking which could decrease life.

Title: Effect of Truck Weight on Bridge Network Costs

Author(s): G. Fu, J. Feng, W. Dekelbab, F. Moses, H. Cohen, D. Mertz, P. Thompson
Date: 2003
Source/URL: NCHRP Report 495, Transportation Research Board;
http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_495.pdf
OCLC Number: 53473618
Description: 197 pp.
Contents: This report contains the findings of a study to develop a methodology for estimating the impact of
changes in truck weight limits on bridge network costs. The report describes the research effort and the
recommended methodology and illustrates application of the methodology. A software module for automation of the
recommended methodology also is included. The material in this report will be of immediate interest to bridge
engineers and planners.

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Title: Effects of Truck Size and Weights on Highway Infrastructure and Operations: A Synthesis Report
Author(s): D. M. Luskin, C. M. Walton
Date: March 2001
Source/URL: University of Texas, Austin; http://www.utexas.edu/research/ctr/pdf_reports/2122_1.pdf
OCLC Number: 57694441
Description: 82 pp.
Contents: The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) calls for harmonization of truck standards among
the trade partners. Combined with the desire of U.S. industry to reduce freight costs, this aspect of NAFTA has
stimulated interest in how liberalization of truck size and weight limits in the U.S. would affect highway
infrastructure and safety. This report distills the findings from the extensive literature on this topic, to which a major
recent addition was the Comprehensive Truck Size and Weight Study prepared by the U.S. Department of
Transportation. Allowing extra weight for a given type of truck can cause substantial pavement damage because of
the increase in the weights of the axles. However, the truck size and weight liberalizations that have received most
attention in the literature would encourage a switch from the dominant type of heavy truck, the 5-axle tractor
semitrailer, to trucks that have higher payloads and additional axles. Such reforms do not necessarily create
substantial pavement costs: estimates of their effect on pavement costs are generally modest and sometimes
negative. More likely, they will create substantial costs for upgrading bridges to accommodate the increases in gross
vehicle weights. The effects on safety are especially hard to predict. Improvements in driver performance and
vehicle design can offset the safety drawbacks of larger, heavier trucks. In addition, since higher payloads reduce the
number of trips required to transport a given volume of freight, allowing heavier trucks could even reduce the
number of accidents. Estimation of the overall effect on safety is not possible with available data on crash rates for
heavy trucks.

Title: Effect of Changing Truck Weight Regulations on U.S. Bridge Network

Author(s): M. Ghosn, F. Moses
Date: November 2000
Source/URL: Journal of Bridge Engineering, Vol. 5 (4), 2000: 304-310.
OCLC Number: 45691023
Description: 7 pp.
Contents: Historically, truck weight regulations have maintained controls on axle and gross weights with legal load
formulas based on limiting allowable stresses in certain types of bridges. These limitations do not usually lead to
consistent or defensible reliability levels and also ignore the impact of the weight regulation on the existing highway
bridge network. This paper is the 2nd part of a 2-paper series. The companion paper illustrated how new truck
weight regulations can be developed to provide an acceptable reliability level. The target reliability level was
derived from bridge structures designed to satisfy AASHTO standard design specifications that showed safe and
adequate performance levels under current truck loading conditions. In the 2nd paper, a deterministic load capacity
evaluation as well as a reliability assessment are performed to review the consequences of adapting such regulations
on the existing U.S. bridge network. A sensitivity analysis shows how changes in the safety criteria used to develop
the truck weight regulations would affect the existing bridge network. Detailed load capacity evaluations and
reliability analyses also are performed on a representative sample of bridges to provide specific examples of
expected changes in rating and safety levels if the proposed truck weight regulation is to be adopted.

Title: Influence of Heavy Trucks on Highway Bridges

Author(s): T. L. Wang, C. Liu
Date: October 2000
Source/URL: Florida Department of Transportation; http://www.dot.state.fl.us/research-
center/Completed_Proj/Summary_STR/FDOT_BC379_rpt.pdf
OCLC Number: 46438769
Description: 183 pp.
Contents: In the present study, truck traffic data collected by the Florida Department of Transportation statistics
office are grouped according to truck type and loading condition (loaded or empty). Mean values of truck axle
weight and spacing are used to represent their average effects on bridge structures. The mathematical models of
typical trucks with significant counts are established and the input data are derived from the synthesized results.
These typical trucks include types 5, 8, 9, and 10. Road surface roughness is generated as multi-correlated random
processes. According to the research by Honda et al., the coefficient of correlation is approximately taken as a
constant. Static effects of the heavy trucks are compared with those of the standard design truck HS20-44. The
tandem axle weights of the heavy trucks are found to be higher than that of HS20-44 and exceed the limit by the
AASHTO Guide. Dynamic impact factors of moment at midspan and shear at end are analyzed for I-girder steel and
prestressed concrete bridges ranging from 9.14 m (30 ft) to 42.67 m (140 ft). Effects of correlation of road surface
5
roughness on dynamic impact factors are investigated. Fatigue accumulation damage incurred by the normal traffic
at sites with significant counts is performed.

Title: Comprehensive Truck Size and Weight Study: Volumes I, II, III, and IV
Date: August 2000
Source/URL: FHWA; http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/reports/tswstudy/TSWfinal.htm
OCLC Number: 46425618
Contents: This report presents results of a comprehensive examination of issues surrounding current Federal truck
size and weight (TS&W) limits and potential impacts of changes to those limits. The report is provided in four
volumes. Volume I, Summary Report, synthesizes the findings presented in Volume II and Volume III. Volume II,
Background and Issues, summarizes the information developed during the course of the study in the following areas:
(1) TS&W regulations; (2) motor carrier operations and industry structure; (3) truck-rail competition; (4) shipper
concerns; (5) highway safety and traffic operations; (6) highway infrastructure; and (7) enforcement. Volume III,
Scenario Analysis, presents a broad assessment of the impacts that could be expected as a result of changes in
TS&W limits. Volume IV, Guide to Documentation, presents a listing of the technical reports where methodological
details related to analytical aspects of the study may be found.

Title: Bridge Fatigue Load Modeling for Truck Weight Limit Changes
Author(s): H. Cohen, G. Fu, H. Al-Dakkak, F. Moses
Date: 1999
Source/URL: 1999 New Orleans Structures Congress
OCLC Number: 305296956
Description: 4 pp.
Contents: Heavy trucks operating on highways are subject to weight limit regulations, which have significant
implications to loads on highway facilities, such as bridges and pavements. This paper presents an attempt of
modeling truck fatigue loads affected by weight limit increase. A model of shifting truck operating weights is
proposed here. This model is applied to an example of assessment for steel bridge fatigue damage.

Research in Progress
Title: Effects of Overweight Vehicles on NYSDOT’S Infrastructure
Principal Investigator(s): Michel Ghosn, City College of City University of New York, (212) 650-8002,
ghosn@ce.ccny.cuny.edu; Neville Parker, (212) 650-8054, parker@utrc2.org; Kolluru Subramaniam, CCNY, (212)
650-6569, ksubram@ce.ccny.cuny.edu.
Start Date: October 1, 2009
Expected Completion Date: September 30, 2011
RIP URL: http://rip.trb.org/browse/dproject.asp?n=23799
Sponsor Organization: New York State Department of Transportation
Contents: The U.S. highway system is continuously experiencing heavier and more frequent commercial truck
traffic. Simultaneous to the increase in heavy vehicle miles traveled, the issuance of permits for overweight trucks
has grown by more than 13% since 1997 (AASHTO/FHWA, 2007). The census bureau estimates that in New York
State, the Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT) by trucks weighing over 26,000 lbs increased by 15.7% from 1997 to
2002. These trucks’ VMT was estimated to be on the order of 1,767 million miles in 2002. The permit trucks’ VMT
was estimated to be 110 million miles while the VMT of trucks that violated the weight limits was estimated as 5.4
million miles. Thus, according to the census bureau, overweight trucks would be responsible for about 6% of the
total miles traveled on New York highways. However, because of the limitations of the weight enforcement process,
it has been suggested that the actual percentage of the total mileage of overweight vehicles is much larger than the
survey numbers suggest and could be in the range of 15% (Strauss and Semmens, 2006). The high volume of
overweight permit and illegal trucks is disproportionately increasing the damage to the U.S. and New York State
highway infrastructure system and reducing the service lives of bridges and pavements. (Strauss and Semmens,
2006; Roberts et al., 2005). Overweight trucks also cause a significant and disproportionate amount of damage to
pavements. Although legal truck traffic accounts for a large percentage of damage to highway pavement, the
percentage of damage caused by overweight permit and illegal trucks is much greater than the expected damage
from legal trucks. (Strauss and Semmens, 2006; Roberts et al., 2005). It is important that the New York State
Department of Transportation (NYSDOT) be able to estimate the impact and cost implications of the damage caused
by overweight vehicles in order to maintain the safety of the system and develop effective infrastructure
management and rehabilitation strategies. In particular, developing a mechanism to evaluate the damage and cost
impact of overweight trucks will help NYSDOT personnel manage their permit issuance practices, establish permit
6
policies and procedures, and devise weight enforcement strategies. The objective of this project is to develop models
for assessing the cost of damage caused by overweight vehicles to New York State’s highway pavements and
bridges. The models shall be applicable for assessing the cost of NYSDOT permit vehicles for both divisible and
non-divisible loads including superloads as well as illegal trucks. The models shall be implemented in computer
programs that can be used by NYSDOT personnel to help in the analysis of the effects of different overweight
vehicles on pavements and bridges. The research team shall meet the objectives by first reviewing recently
developed methods for assessing the costs of damage to pavements and bridges. Recent studies that describe how
these methods have been implemented shall be reviewed. In the next step, the researchers shall identify the best
approaches that would be applicable to New York State infrastructure based on the information available on truck
overweights, as well as bridge and pavement types and configurations. Subsequently, the researchers shall use the
best approaches to quantify the damage and associated costs due to different categories of heavy trucks including: 1)
Trucks satisfying the legal weight limits; 2) Permitted overweight divisible load vehicles; 3) Special hauling
vehicles; 4) Special Hauling Superload vehicles; and 5) Non-permit trucks violating the legal limits or trucks
violating their permit limits.

Title: Monitoring Load Distribution and Fatigue Cost Estimates of Heavy Truck Loads on Louisiana State
Bridges
Principal Investigator(s): Aziz Saber
Start Date: April 1, 2009
Expected Completion Date: April 1, 2011
RIP URL: http://rip.trb.org/browse/dproject.asp?n=21659
Sponsor Organization: Louisiana Transportation Research Center
Contents: The objective of this research is to develop an integrated system for monitoring live load and verify the
carrying capacity of highway bridges where heavy truck loads may have caused significant damage to bridges.